CONDUCTION

The aim of this chapter:

- To understand the Fourier's law of conduction (both physically
and mathematically)
- Introduce various thermal properties like thermal conductivity
and thermal diffusivity

Introduction
 Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude.
 The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is
proportional to the temperature gradient.
 Heat conduction in a medium is three dimensional and
time dependent
 Thermal Conductivity
dT
Fourier’s law of Conduction q   kA
dx
1 1  1 1 
Conductivity: k  q  dx  k  q (dx  1) 
A dT   A  1 dT  1

 Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the rate of heat

transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area
per unit temperature difference.

 The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of how fast

heat will flow in that material.

 Good heat conductor = k large,

 Poor heat conductor or insulator = k small.
 Thermal Conductivity
Range of Thermal Conductivity for Various States of
Matter at Normal Temperature and Pressure
Thermal
conductivity of
any material is
dependent on two
things:

i. Motion of free
electrons

ii. Molecular
vibrations
(oscillation)
 Thermal Conductivity
Why the thermal conductivity of gases is smaller than that of
solids?

The intermolecular spacing is much larger and the motion of the

molecules is more random for the gas state than for the solid state,
hence, thermal energy transport is less effective.

Therefore, the thermal conductivity of gases is smaller than that of

solids.
 Thermal Conductivity
Why the thermal conductivity of non-metals is smaller than that of
metals?

Thermal conductivity of any material is dependent on two things:

i. Motion of free electrons
ii. Molecular vibrations (oscillation)

Electrons are 100 times more effective in transferring energy than

oscillation.

In case of non metals, there are no free electrons.

 Thermal Conductivity
Why the thermal conductivity of metals decrease with an increase
in temperature?

The thermal conductivity is mainly a function of the motion of free

electrons. As the temperature increases, the molecular vibrations
increase which decrease the mean free path of molecules. So, they
obstruct the flow of free electrons, thus reducing the conductivity.

In case of non metals, there are no free electrons. So, only the
molecular vibrations are responsible for conduction of heat and
hence for non metals the conductivity increases with increase in
temperature.
 Thermal Conductivity vs. Temperature

Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature

http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1187/
Conservation of Energy
Energy Inlet / Energy Outlet – Surface Phenomena
Ex. Heat transfer by Conduction

Energy Generation – Volumetric Phenomena

Ex. Chemical, Electrical, Nuclear, etc..

Energy Storage – Volumetric Phenomena

Ex. Sensible Heat, Latent Heat
Ex. Internal Energy, Potential, Nuclear, etc..
 Requirement for Conservation Laws

 Appropriate control volume must be defined

 Appropriate time basis must be chosen

 Relevant energy processes must be identified

 Conservation equation
Continuity Equation in Cartesian Coordinates
 General Heat Conduction Equation
• Rectangular Coordinates Homogeneous medium
qy+Δy qz+Δz No bulk motion
T
qx  k x A
Δy E g , E st
x
qx qx+Δx
T
Δz Δx qx  k x yz
x
qz q x
qy q x  x  qx  x
x
 General Heat Conduction Equation
E in  q x  q y  qz

E out  q x  x  q y  y  qz  z

q  Energy Generatedper unit Volume

E g  q  xyz
There may occur changes in the amount of the internal thermal
energy stored by the material in the control volume.

T
E st  C p
 xyz
t
 General Heat Conduction Equation
q x  
 q y  qz  q  xyz   q x  x  q y  y  qz  z   C p
T
t
xyz

q x T
q x  x  qx  x qx  k x yz
x x

 q x  q x
q x  q x  x  qx   qx  x    x
 x  x

  T    T 
q x  q x  x   kx yz x   kx  xyz
x  x  x  x 

Note: Area Ax is constant

 General Heat Conduction Equation
  T    T    T  T
 kx    k y    k z   q  C p
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
The general form of the heat conduction equation in
Cartesian coordinates.
Note: Thermal conductivity is a constant

 2T  2T  2T q C p T
 2  2  
x 2
y z k k t

k
   Thermal Diffusivity
C p
 General Heat Conduction Equation
Note: Thermal conductivity is a constant

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
 2  2   Fourier-Biot Equation
x 2
y z k  t

 2T  2T  2T q Steady State Equation

 2  2  0
x 2
y z k Poisson Equation

 2T  2T  2T 1 T Transient, no heat generation

 2  2 0
x 2
y z  t Diffusion Equation

 2T  2T  2T Steady State, no heat generation

 2  2 0
x 2
y z Laplace Equation
Steady-state, one-dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation with No Heat Generation

  T 
 kx 0
x  x 
The hot gases of a furnace are separated from the ambient air,
which is at 250 C, by a brick wall 0.15 m thick.
The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/m K.
Under steady state conditions an outer surface temperature of
brick is 1000 C.
Convection heat transfer to the air adjoining the outer surface is
characterized by a convection coefficient of h = 20 W/m2K.

(A) What is the brick inner surface temperature?

(B) Heat Flux transfer from gases to air.
(C) Temperature of gases if convection heat transfer to the gas
adjoining the inner surface is characterized by a convection
coefficient of h = 10 W/m2K.

Neglect any heat transfer by radiation.

 h = 10 W/m2K

K
Tgases

 , Gases  qCond
qConv  , Brick  qConv
 , Air
 , Air  hair T2  T   1500 W/m 2
qConv

T2  T1 T1  T2
1500  -k k T1  287.5 C
L L

 
1500  hgas Tg  T1  437.5 C
 General Heat Conduction Equation
• Cylindrical Coordinates qz+Δz
qθ+rΔθ

qr+Δr

Δz qr
qθ
qz

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr r  2  k    kz   q  C p
r r  r  r     z  z  t
 Cylindrical Coordinates
T T
qr   k r Ar qz   k z Az
r z

T T
qr   k r rz qz   k z rr
r z

qr qz
qr  r  qr  r qz  z  qz  z
r z

  T    T 
qr  qr  r   r
k r z  r q z  q z  z   z
k r r  z
r  r  z  z 

  T    T 
  kr r  rz   kz  rrz
r  r  z  z 
 Cylindrical Coordinates
T
q   k A E g  q  rrz
r
T T
q   k rz E st  C p
 rrz
r t
q q
q  r  q  r  q  
r 

  T    T  rz
q  q  r   k rz    k 
  r      r

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr r  2  k    kz   q  C p
r r  r  r     z  z  t
 General Heat Conduction Equation
• Spherical Coordinates

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 k r    k    k sin θ   
q  C
r  r 2 sin2 θ     r 2 sinθ  
 
r 2 r    t
r p
 Spherical Coordinates
T T
qr   k r Ar q   k A
r r
T T
qr   k r r  r sinθ q   k r  r sinθ
r r
qr q
qr  r  qr  r q    q  
r 

  T    T 
qr  qr  r   kr r  r sinθ  r q  q     k r  r sinθ 
r  r    r 

  2 T    T 
  kr r  sin θr   k sinθ  r
r  r     
 Spherical Coordinates
T
q   k A E g  q  r 2 sinθr
r sin θ 
T T 2
q   k r  r E st  C p
 r sinθr
r sinθ  t
q
q  r sinθ  q  


  T 
q  q  r   k r  r      k T  r
  r sinθ      sin θ



1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 k r    k    k sin θ   
q  C
r  r 2 sin2 θ     r 2 sinθ  
 
r 2 r    t
r p
The temperature distribution across a wall of 1 m thick is given as
T(x) = a+bx+cx2 where T is in ˚C and x is in meters, a = 800 oC,
b = -350 oC/m, and c = -60 oC/m2 .
A uniform heat generation = 1000 W/m3, is present in the wall of
area 10 m2 having the properties Density = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40
W/m.K, and Cp = 4 kJ/kg.K.
• Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall ( x = 0) and
leaving the wall ( x = 1m)
• Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall
• Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0.25 and
0.5 m 2
A=10 m q=1000W/m2
k=40W/mK
T(x)=a+bx+cx 2  =1600kg/m3
.
Eg cp=4kJ/K
& qout
q .
in Est

L=1 m
x
 T
qin  qx ( 0 )   k A  kA  b  2cx 
x x0
x 0

qin   bkA  350  40 10  140 kW

T
qout  qx  L   kA  kA  b  2cx 
x xL
x L

qout  kA  b  2cL     40  10   350  2  60    1  188kW

2. The rate of change of energy storage in the wall may be

determined by applying an overall energy balance to the wall.

Ein  Eg  Eout  Est Eg  qAL

Est  Ein  Eg  Eout  qin  qAL  qout

Est  140,000  1000 10 1  188,000

Est  38kW
3. The time rate of change of change of the temperature at any point
 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
T k  2T q    
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t
 
t  C p x 2  Cp

 2T   T  
     b  2cx   2c  2  60   120 C m 2
x 2 x  x  x

T 40 1000
   120    5.94 104  C s
t 1600  4000 1600  4000

Comments:
• From the above result it is evident that the temperature at every
point within the wall is decreasing with time.
• Fourier's law can always be used to compute the conduction heat
rate from knowledge of the temperature distribution, even for
unsteady conditions with internal heat generation
The hot gases of a furnace are separated from the ambient air,
which is at 250 C, by a brick wall 0.15 m thick.
The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/m K.
Convection heat transfer to the air adjoining the outer surface is
characterized by a convection coefficient of h = 20 W/m2K.
Convection heat transfer to the gas adjoining the inner surface is
characterized by a convection coefficient of h = 10 W/m2K.
Temperature of Gases is 437.5 0C
Determine;
(A) Heat Flux transfer from gases to air under steady state
conditions.

Neglect any heat transfer by radiation.

Tg= 437.5 ˚C
h = 10 W/m2K

 , Gases  qCond
qConv  , Brick  qConv
 , Air

  
q x  h1 A T ,1  Ts ,1  Ts ,1  Ts ,2  kA
L

 h2 A Ts ,2  T ,2 

qx 
 T ,1  Ts ,1   Ts ,1  Ts ,2   Ts ,2  T ,2 
 
1 L 1
h1 A kA h2 A
 Thermal Resistance Network For Heat Transfer
Through a Plane Wall
Too,1 V V
I I
R R
Ts,1 Ts,2 Th  Tc T
q  kA 
Too,2 L L kA

T
q  hATS 1  TS 2  
Too,1 h1 x=0 x=L Too,2 h2 1 hA
V1  V4
I
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid R1  R2  R3
q
x
Too,1 Ts,1 Ts,2 Too,2 T1  T 2
q
L 1 1 L 1
1
h2 A
 
h1 A kA h1 A kA h2 A
 T1  T 2
q
1 L 1
 
h1 A kA h2 A

q T1  T 2
q  
A 1 L 1
 
h1 k h2

437.5  25
q   1500 W
1 0.15 1
 
10 1.2 20
 A B

A B

T1  1000 C k E  k H  0.1 W/mK

T2  30 C kF  kG  1 W/mK

LE  LH  10 mm q  ? RTotal  ?
LF  LG  50 mm TAA  ?
TBB  ?
 C

q  3.88 W/m 2 RTotal  0.25 2
W m

TAA  612 C C
RE  RH  0.1 2
W m
TBB  418 C
C
RFG  0.05 2
W m
 C A B

C A B

T1  1000 C k E  k H  0.1 W/mK

T2  30 C kF  k H  1 W/mK

LE  LH  10 mm TCC  ?
LF  LG  50 mm T1  TAA
TCC 
2
A leading manufacturer of household appliances is proposing a oven
design that involves use of a composite window separating the oven
cavity from the room air. The window is to consist of two high
temperature plastics (A and B) of thicknesses LA= 2LB and thermal
conductivities kA=0.15 W/m.K and kB= 0.08 W/m.K.

During the process, the oven wall temperature Tw is 4000C, while the room
air temperature is 250C. The inside convection heat transfer coefficients as
well as the outside convection coefficient are each 25 W/m2.K.

What is the minimum window thickness, L=LA+LB, needed to ensure a

temperature that is 500C or less at the outer surface of the window? This
temperature must not be exceeded for safety reasons.
Neglect any heat transfer by radiation.
 Composite LA LB
Oven cavity window
L A =2L B

o
w

2 Ts,i Ts,o 50
hr=25W/m K

o A B
a
Air
2
hi =25W/m K

kA=0.08W/mK
o kB=0.15W/mK
oo

Air ho=25W/m K
2
 Ta  T
q
1 La Lb 1
  
hi A ka A kb A ho A
La  0.0403 m
Ta  Ts ,o
 ho Ta  T 
q

A 1 La Lb
 
hi ka kb

L  La  La 2  0.06045 m  60.45 mm
A leading manufacturer of household appliances is proposing a oven
design that involves use of a composite window separating the oven
cavity from the room air. The window is to consist of two high
temperature plastics (A and B) of thicknesses LA= 2LB and thermal
conductivities kA=0.15 W/m.K and kB= 0.08 W/m.K.

During the process, the oven wall temperature is 4000C, while the room
air temperature is 250C. The inside convection and radiation heat transfer
coefficients as well as the outside convection coefficient are each 25
W/m2.K. The emissivity of outside wall is 0.6.

What is the minimum window thickness, L=LA+LB, needed to ensure a

temperature that is 500C or less at the outer surface of the window? This
temperature must not be exceeded for safety reasons.
 1-D Temperature Distribution in a Wall
Steady-state, one-dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation with No Heat Generation
  T  T
 kx 0 qx  k x A
x  x  x

T  x   C1 x  C2 
T  x   Ts , 2  Ts ,1  x
L
 Ts ,1

T  0   Ts,1 and T  L   TS ,2

at x = 0 Ts,1  C2
q x   kA
dT kA
dx

L

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
Ts,2  Ts,1
at x = L  C1
L
 Contact Thermal Resistance
 In heat conduction analysis through composite walls, we have
assumed "perfect contact" at the interface of two layers, and
thus no temperature drop at the interface.
 In reality, however, even flat surfaces that appear smooth to the
eye turn out to be rather rough when examined under a
microscope, with numerous peaks and valleys.
 That is, a surface is microscopically rough no matter how smooth
it appears to be.

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 1 Layer 2

Interface T1
T2
T1=T2
Interface

Ideal Thermal Contact Actual Thermal Contact

 Contact Thermal Resistance
 When two such surfaces are pressed against each other, the
peaks will form good material contact but the valleys will form
voids filled with air.

 As a result, an interface will contain numerous air gaps of

varying sizes that act as insulation because of the low thermal
conductivity of air.

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 1 Layer 2

Interface T1
T2
T1=T2
Interface

Ideal Thermal Contact Actual Thermal Contact

Conduction Through Cylinder
 r = r2;
Ts = Ts2

r = r1;
Ts = Ts1

q=?

T
qr   k r Ar
r

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr r  2  k    kz   q  C p
r r  r  r     z  z  t
 Temperature distribution in Hollow Cylinder
Steady-state, radial direction Heat Conduction
Equation with No Heat Generation for Cylinder
1   T 
 kr r 0
r r  r 

T( r )  C1 ln r  C2

Applying the boundary conditions to the general solution,

i.e. T(r1 ) = Ts,1 and T(r2 ) = Ts,2

Ts,1  C1 ln r1  C2 Ts,2  C1 ln r2  C2
 Temperature distribution in Hollow Cylinder
Solving for C1and C2 and substituting into the general solution

Ts ,1  Ts ,2  r 
T( r )  ln    Ts ,2
ln  r1   r2 

 2r

dT dT
qr   kA   k ( 2 rL )
dr dr

qr 

2  L k Ts ,1  Ts ,2  
ln 
r2 

  1
r
ln  
r2 Rt ,cond
 r1  2 Lk
Temperature distribution in Hollow Cylinder
 Conduction Through Cylinder
A 5 mm diameter electrical wire with plastic cover passes across a
2-m-long and 10°C room. Heat is generated in the wire as a result
of resistance heating, The wire is made of copper and cover with
plastic. The thickness of plastic cover is 1 mm. The surface
temperature of the Copper is measured to be 150°C in steady
operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the
wire are measured to be 60 V and 15 A, respectively.
Determine;
(1) Rate of heat transfer
(2) Surface temperature of electrical wire
(3) Heat Transfer by radiation
(4) Convection coefficient of air

Conductivity of plastic cover is 0.5 W/mK and Emissivity is 0.6.

 1 mm
 T  15C
q=? TS  ?
TCu  150C
15 A
5 mm
60 V
2m

q=?
q gen  VI  60  15  900 W  qTransfer

qr 

2  L k Ts ,1  Ts ,2  Qrad  9.15 W

ln 
r2 

 1r

TS ,out  76.8 C h  424.3 W m 2 K

 Conduction Through Cylinder
A 5 mm diameter electrical wire passes across a 2-m-long and
10°C room. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance
heating, The wire is made of copper and cover with plastic. The
thickness of plastic cover is 1 mm. The surface temperature of the
Copper is measured to be 150°C in steady operation. Also, the
voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured
to be 60 V and 15 A, respectively.
Determine;
(1) Rate of heat transfer
(2) Surface temperature of electrical wire’s plastic cover
(3) Heat Transfer by radiation
(4) Convection coefficient of air

Conductivity of plastic cover is 0.5 W/mK and Emissivity is 0.6.

 1 mm
 T  15C
q=? TS  ?
TCu  150C
15 A
60 V 5 mm
2m

q=?
q gen  VI  60  15  900 W  qTransfer

qr 

2  L k Ts ,1  Ts ,2 

ln 
r2 

 1r
A 50 mm inner diameter pipe transfers the steam of 150°C. Pipe
passes across a 10-m-long and 10°C room. The thickness of pipe is
10mm.
Conductivity of pipe is 5 W/mK
Convection coefficient of air in a room is 10 W/m2K and steam in a
pipe is 600 W/m2K
Determine;
(1) Surface temperatures of Pipe.
(2) Heat loss rate
To decrease heat loss rate from pipe, insulation with conductivity
0.5 is applied on pipe.
Determine;
(3) Heat loss rate if Insulation thickness is 5 mm
(4) Heat loss rate if Insulation thickness is 15 mm
(5) Heat loss rate if Insulation thickness is 30 mm
(6) Draw the graph of heat transfer rate vs. outer radius
 TSteam  Tair
q
1 lnr2 r1  1 q  2940.9 W
 
hi 2r1 L 2k P L ho 2r2 L

q  hi 2r1 LTSteam  TS ,i  TS ,i  146.9 C

q  ho 2r2 LTair  TS ,o  TS ,o  143.7 C

r3  40 mm q  3036.6 W
TS ,o  Tair
q
lnr3 r2  1 r3  50 mm q  3096.7 W

2k I L ho 2r3 L
r3  65 mm q  3026.2 W
Heat Transfer Rate vs. Outer Radius

k
r2 h
r1

.
Q
.
Qmax
.
Qbare

0 r1 r2
rcr =k/h
 The Critical Radius of Insulation
 We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always
decreases heat transfer.

 This is expected, since the heat transfer area A is constant, and

adding insulation will always increase the thermal resistance of
the wall without affecting the convection resistance.

 However, adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical

shell, is a different matter.

 The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance

but it also decreases the convection resistance of the surface
because of the increase in the outer surface area for convection.

 Therefore, the heat transfer from the pipe may increase or

decrease, depending on which effect dominates.
 The Critical Radius of Insulation
q 
 T1  T 

ln  2 
r
r
 r1   1
2 Lk h  2  r2 L 

dqr
 0  r2  rcr
dr2
k
rcr ,cylinder 
h
The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the
addition of insulation for r2< rcr, reaches a maximum when r2= rcr, and
starts to decrease for r2> rcr. Thus, insulating the pipe may actually
increase the rate of heat transfer from the pipe instead of decreasing
it when r2< rcr .
 The Critical Radius of Insulation

 The radius of electric wires may be smaller than the critical

radius.

 Therefore, the plastic electrical insulation may actually enhance

the heat transfer from electric wires and thus keep their steady
operating temperatures at lower and thus safer levels.

Similarly for a sphere, it can be shown that the critical radius of

insulation for a spherical shell is

2k
rcr ,sphere 
h
 Summary of 1-D Steady State Conduction

Plane Wall Cylindrical Wall Spherical Wall

d 2T 1 d  dT  1 d  2 dT 
Heat Equation 0  kr 0 2 dr 
kr 0
dx 2
r dr  dr  r  dr 

Temperature T r  T  1 1
x ln    Ts,2 Ts,1    
Ts,1  T  1 1   r1 r 
Distribution ln  1   r2 
r
L   
 r2   r2 r1 
k T k T
Heat Flux (q” )
T 1 1
r ln  2 
k r r2   
L
 r1   r1 r2 
2  L k T 4 k T
T 1 1
ln  2 
kA r
Heat Rate (q)   
L  r1 
 r1 r2 
Thermal ln  2 
r 1 1
Resistance L  r1    
 r1 r2 
kA 2 L k
(Rt, cond) 4 k
CONDUCTION with Heat Generation
 1-D Temperature Distribution in a Wall
Steady-state, one-dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation with Heat Generation
d 2T q
 0
T
2 qx  k x A
dx k x
q 2
T  x  C1 x  C2
2k
-L +L -L x +L
. .
q q
T(x) To
Ts,1
Ts q"
Ts T(x) q"cond conv
Too,1 h1 Too,2 h2
Too ,h Too ,h

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

Asymmetrical Boundary Condition Symmetrical Boundary Condition

at x = -L T   L   Ts,1
Ts,2  Ts,1 q 2 Ts,1  Ts,2
C1  C2  L 
2L 2k 2
at x = L T  L   Ts,2

q 2
T  x  C1 x  C2
2k

q L2  x 2  Ts ,2  Ts ,1 x Ts ,1  Ts ,2
T  x   1  2   
2k  L  2 L 2

For Symmetrical Boundary Condition - Ts,1=Ts,2=Ts

q L2  x2 
T  x   1  2   Ts
2k  L 
The maximum temperature exists at the midplane
qL2 T  x   T0  x
2
T  0   T0   Ts  
2k Ts  T0  L
1-D Temperature Distribution in a Cylinder
Steady-state, one-dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation with Heat Generation
1 d  dT  q
 r   0
r dr  dr  k

dT q 2
r  r  C1
dr 2k

q 2
T r   r  C1 ln  r   C2
4k
 dT
at r = 0 0
dr r 0 q 2
C1  0 C2  Ts  r0
4k
at r = ro T(ro) = Ts

qr02  r2 
T  r   Ts   1  2 
4k  r0 

T  r   Ts
2
r 
 1  
T0  Ts  r0 

 
q  r02 L  h  2 r0 L Ts  T  Ts  T 
qr
2h
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B.
The wall of material A has uniform heat generation = 1.5 x 106
W/m3 ; kA = 75 W/m.K, and thickness LA= 50 mm.
The wall material B has no heat generation with kB =150 W/m.K
and thickness LB = 20 mm.
The inner surface of material A is well insulated, while the outer
surface of material B is cooled by water stream = 300C and h=1000
W/m2.K.

o Sketch the temperature distribution that exists in the composite

under steady state conditions.
o Determine the temperature at all the surfaces of walls.
 b
T0 a

d c
T1
T2
e

A B
Too
0 LA LA+ LB x
 q  h T2  T 
" q LA  q"

q LA 1.5  106  0.05 

T2  T  T2  30   105C
h 1000

q L2A
To  T1 
2 kA

"

T1  T  Rcond ,B  R"
conv q"
 "
Rcond ,B 
LB
kB
and "
Rconv 
1
h
 0.02 1 
T1  30     1.5 10  0.05 T1  30  85  115C
6
 150 1000 
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
A long copper bar of rectangular cross-section, whose width (w) is
much greater than its thickness (L), is maintained in contact with
a heat sink at its lower surface, and the temperature throughout
the bar is approximately equal to that of the sink, (To).

Suddenly an electric current is passed through the bar and an air

stream of temperature (Ta) is passed over the top surface, while
the bottom surface continues to be maintained at (To).

Obtain the differential equation and the boundary and initial

conditions that could be solved to determine the temperature as a
function of position and time in the bar.
 Boundary and Initial Conditions

Constant Surface Temperature T 0, t   TS

T
Constant Surface Heat Flux k  qS
x x 0

T
Adiabatic or Insulated Surface k 0
x x0

Convection Surface Condition k

T
x

 h T  T0,t  
x 0
  2T q 1 T
 
x 2 k  

T  0,t   To

T
k  h T  L,t   T 
x x L

T  x,0   To

If To ,T ,q and h are known, above four equations may be solved to

obtain the time-varying temperature distribution T (x, t) following
imposition of the electric current.
THANKS