Recap

• Learning
• Classical conditioning
• The contributions of Pavlov and Watson
• Stages and Extensions of classical
conditioning
• Applications of classical conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 Type of learning in which a voluntary
response becomes stronger or weaker
depending on its positive or negative
consequences.
 The organism plays an active role and
‘operates’ on environment to produce the
desired outcome
 Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Any response leading to an outcome that is
satisfying for the organism is likely to be
repeated; a response leading to an outcome
that is not satisfying is not likely to be
repeated
 Association by Contiguity
 The organism forms an association or
connection between the response and its
consequences. For it to be effective, the
response and the outcome have to be
closely linked__ both in time and space

 The theory drew attention towards the

significance of reward and punishment in
learning new behaviors
Criticism against Thorndike’s
Approach

It was not clear about what exactly

‘satisfying’ meant
 Have you ever thought:
 Why do teachers give silver and gold
stars on children’s workbooks?
Why do horses gallop faster when the rider
whips them?
Why do parents allow children to watch
cartoons when they finish their homework in
time?
 Why do we find surprise gifts in the packs
of detergents? and
Why do employees who earn profit to the
organization get a bonus at the end of year?
Why do children show temper
tantrums in the presence of guests even
when they know the mother is going to
scold?

THE ANSWERS TO ALL THESE

QUESTIONS CAN BE FOUND IN THE
OPERANT CONDITIONING APPROACH
**************************************************
***********************************
 Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1904-1990

 American Psychologist and the founder of

Operant Conditioning
 His theory is somewhat similar to
Thorndike’s, but it was actually Watson
who impressed him
The Typical procedure in Skinner’s
Operant conditioning experiments:
 A special apparatus usually known as
skinner’s box is used
 Laboratory animals learn to press a
lever so that food is delivered to them
 The environment is controlled.
 The animal operates on the environment,
and as a result of its behavior it may be
rewarded or punished. Food is the reward
 The consequence determines if the
response will be repeated or not
********************************************************
Consequences of Behavior
Positive
consequence
Behavior
Negative
consequence

No
consequence
 Consequences of Behavior;
Reinforcement
 Reinforcement:
Increasing the probability that preceding
behavior will be repeated through a stimulus.
Also some consequence deter the re occurrence
of behavior . Reinforcement can be in the form
of:
i. Positive reinforcement
ii. Negative reinforcement
Other consequences may be:
i. Punishment
ii. No reinforcement
 Reinforcer
• The stimulus that increases the
probability of repetition or re occurrence
of a behavior
• It can be material as well a non material
 Positive Reinforcer/ Reward:
A stimulus whose introduction
brings about an increase in the
preceding response
Consequences of behavior and
their impact

Positive
Response
reinforcement

Response
will be
repeated
 Negative Reinforcer:

• A stimulus whose removal reinforces

and leads to a higher likelihood that
the response bringing about this
removal will be repeated: in simpler
terms it means repeating a behavior
in order to get rid of a negative
stimulus
 Negative
Response
reinforcement

Response
will be
repeated
Punishment:
An unpleasant or painful stimulus whose
introduction following a certain behavior
decreases likelihood that the behavior will
occur again
Response Punishment

Response
will not be
repeated
No reinforcement:
This also deters or stops the
from being repeated
 No
Response
reinforcement

Response
will not be
repeated
HOW TO REINFORCE?
***********************************
***********************************
*********************
 Schedules of Reinforcement
• The procedure involving specific frequency
and timing of reinforcing a desired
behavior
Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Partial
Continuous versus Partial Schedules

• Continuous Schedule: • Partial Schedule:

Reinforcing the The behavior is

behavior every time it reinforced but not
is repeated every time
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Fixed
Ratio Interval

Variable Variable
Ratio Interval
 Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
Considering the Frequency or Number
of Responses

Fixed Variable
Ratio Ratio
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Considering
the Frequency or Number of Responses

Fixed Ratio Schedule

The organism is reinforced only
after a specific number of responses
is made e.g salary after 7 days
Variable Ratio Schedule
The organism is reinforced after a
varying number of responses is
made (not a fixed number)e.g
surprise bonus
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
Considering the Period or Amount of
Time

Fixed Variable
Interval Interval
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Considering
the Period or Amount of Time

Fixed- Interval Schedule

The organism is reinforced
after pre fixed time intervals e.g
giving students a candy every two days
Variable- Interval Schedule
The organism is reinforced after around
an average time interval instead of
fixed ones e.g at times giving 2 after 6
days, and one after two days a
Remember!!! immediate and
appropriate reinforcement is
essential for learning
Consistency is the golden rule;
follow the pattern of reinforcement
regularly and never let the organism
feel that his/her/its behavior is not
been observed and the progress not
followed
The most effective schedule of
reinforcement is the variable-
interval schedule
*****************************
*****************************
*****************
 Shaping
Successive approximations of a required/
desired response are reinforced until that
response is fully learnt:

In the beginning each and every success

is reinforced with a reward, no matter how
small the success

Once the desired response is learnt the

reinforcer immediately follows it , every time
it happens
Once learnt the behavior,in many cases,
the organism may not need reinforcement
since many behaviors are self reinforcing
e.g. learning to play a musical instrument

Acquisition: Initially the response rate

following reinforcement may be slow but at
one stage it increases to the maximum-----
acquisition

Extinction:If reinforcement is withheld the

response rate decreases and finally no
response is shown------ extinction
 Shaping Can Best Be Used For:
• Learning alphabets, vocabulary, tables,or a
new language
• Learning to play a musical Instrument
• Appropriate classroom behavior
• Training mentally handicapped children
• ***********************************
***********************************
*************************
 Behavior Modification
• A therapeutic/intervention strategy used for
modifying behavior in such a manner that the
frequency of desired behavior is increased up to
the optimal level, and the frequency of undesired
behavior is brought down to the minimum…..or to
extinction level
• The intervention is based upon the principles of
learning
 Steps in Behavior Modification
i. Identification of goals in terms of target
behavior
ii. Recording the preliminary/background
information concerning the behavior in question
iii. Designing the intervention, issues involved and
deciding its components
iv. Implementation of the planned program as well
as careful monitoring
iv. Recording the events, progress, and
problems during the implementation phase
v. Evaluating the program and making
alterations if required
 Token Economy/ Token System
• The person is rewarded with some form of a token
every time a desired behavior is exhibited
• The token can be play money/token or a chip
representing money; it can be the silver or gold
stars earned by the child; parents can give
different colored paper tokens for good behavior
• After a specific number of token have been
earned, they can be exchanged for something
desirable
 Contingency Contracting
• A written contract is held between the client
and the therapist, specifying all goal-behaviors
as well as consequences; parents and teachers
can also use it
• the contract is followed strictly no matter if the
consequences of behavior are negative, and the
client may in fact dislike them;the purpose is to
promote target behavior
• e.g if an over-eater fails to refrain from
confectionary throughout the week, he will
have to send a donation cheque for drinks in a
marathon ; the cheques are prepared at the
beginning of the program
 Whom is Operant Conditioning
Most Effective with?
• children
• animals
• mentally handicapped
 Applications of Operant
Conditioning in Real Life Situations
Child rearing
Classroom management
Teaching of skills
Animal taming
Advertising
Psychological intervention and Psycho-
therapy: behavior modification,
assertiveness training, token economy
 Child Rearing
• If you make rules, stick to them; if you can
not stick to them then don’t make rules
• Provide immediate reinforcement as
promised
• Consider no reinforcement along with
positive/ negative reinforcement and
punishment
 Classroom Management
• In different situations positive/negative
reinforcement, punishment, and no
reinforcement works.
• The same rules apply as is in child rearing
• Significant results in case of:
Discipline
Memorization…tables
Vocabulary
New skills
SHAPING PROCEDURES ARE OF
SPECIAL HELP
 Organizational Behavior
• Fixed wages after a fixed period or variable
wages depending on performance?
 Psychotherapy/care for special
needs/health psychology
• More effective when combined with
cognitive approach
• Children with special needs
• Quitting smoking or alcohol
• weight reduction programs
• Compliance with medical advice
 How do many youngsters start
taking drugs?
• Free offers
• The subsequent effect
• Peer acceptance
 Weight Reduction Programs
• Contracts
• Allowing one’s self to eat favorite food
once a week
Learning Healthy Lifestyles