Water Hyacinth and Corn Husk Mixture as Biomass Briquette

A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Senior High School Department
And College of Science
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Sta. Mesa, Manila

In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements of the
Inquiries, Investigations, and Immersion

By:
ERIKA JANE R. ASPERA
GIAN MAE C. MANUEL
CLOIE JUBELLE A. MONTALES
ALEXA MARIEL V. TAGUIAM
PROF. REYNOLD V. LUNA

FEBRUARY 2018

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 APPROVAL SHEET

The thesis entitled “WATER HYACINTH AND CORN HUSK MIXTURE AS BIOMASS
BRIQUETTE” prepared and submitted by ERIKA JANE R. ASPERA, GIAN MAE C.
MANUEL, CLOIE JUBELLE A. MONTALES AND ALEXA MARIEL V. TAGUIAM in
partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Senior High School Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics, has been examined and recommended for acceptance and
approval for Oral Examination.

PROF. REYNOLD V. LUNA

Research Adviser

Approved by Panel of Examiners on Oral Examination

MR. MARK ANTHONY C. BURGONIO MR. FLORO JUNIOR C. ROQUE

Member, Oral Defense Panel
Member, Oral Defense Panel

MR. ADRIAN PATRICK LABTIC

Member, Oral Defense Panel

Rating: Date of Oral Defense: March 06, 2018

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Senior High School
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

LINCOLN A. BAUTISTA, PhD

SHS-STEM Coordinator

MINNA L. COMUYOG, DEM

Dean, Senior High School Principal

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The making of product will never come into completion without the aid and support of many

individuals. The researchers would like to express their deepest gratitude to everyone who has

taken part on the study.

First and foremost, to God Almighty who has bestowed wisdom, strength, peace of mind

and good health to the researchers to accomplish this research.

The researchers would like to thank their families for the encouragement, understanding,

and finances that helped a lot in completion of this paper.

The study of water hyacinth and corn husk as a biomass briquette was successfully

conducted with the help of Mr. Alejandro Jose C. Reboa, who guided the researchers in

choosing and evaluating the right material to use in the research and Mr. Reynold V. Luna, who

guided the researchers throughout the study.

To STEM 12-4, especially to those who helped in initiating this research study during the

past semester, the researchers would like to give you their sincere gratitude.

The researchers also acknowledge some of the staff in the Department of Science and

Technology Taguig branch who support on finding another way to conduct the study and to

Mr. Gary C. Lirio for allowing the researchers to utilize the PUP Microbiology laboratory in

the duration of the study.

And to their colleagues and other individuals giving off their support to the entirety of the

research, the researchers would like to send their thanks and appreciation.

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 ABSTRACT

Biomass is one of the renewable and sustainable energy sources that do not lead

greenhouse gas emissions. The processing of plants that are considered of less use to the

environment into biomass is a strategy towards the development of alternative energy sources.

The study was undertaken to investigate the properties of biomass briquettes produced from a

mixture of a water hyacinth and corn husk. Briquettes were manufactured with a manually-

operated briquette press using three water hyacinth: corn husk mixing ratios (by weight), i.e.,

100:0; 85:15; and 70: 30. A direct relationship was observed between the ratio of the amount of

raw materials and the durability of the briquettes. Results obtained showed that briquettes

produced using 70:30 water hyacinth-corn husk ratios respectively exhibited the highest shatter

index making it the most ideal to use as product. Proximate analysis of the fixed carbon,

moisture, ash, and volatile combustible material was performed to determine the effectiveness of

the product. The elemental composition of the determined ideal biomass briquette was 46.48%

carbon, 5.69% hydrogen, 41.96% oxygen, and 1.32% nitrogen using sample calculations.

Calorific value shows that water hyacinth and corn husk briquettes are more combustible

compared to other existing briquettes with water hyacinth content. It was concluded that using

the 70:30 ratio of raw materials, water hyacinth and corn husk mixture can be used as an

effective biomass briquette that is durable, easy to combust, and has the potential to compete

with briquettes present in the market

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ……………………………………….. 1

APPROVAL SHEET ……………………………………….. 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………….. 3

ABSTRACT ……………………………………….. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………….. 5

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………….. 6

1.1 Objectives of the Study

1.2 Significance of the Study
1.3 Scope and Limitations
1.4 Definition of Terms

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURE AND STUDIES ……………………………………….. 12

2.1 Review of Related Literature

2.2 Review of Related Studies

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY …………………………….…………..27

3.1 Materials

3.2 Research Design

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS, ……………………………………….. 35

PRESENTATION, AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND

……………………………………….. 42
RECOMMENDATION
……………………………………….. 44
References
5
 CHAPTER I

Introduction and Its Background

Introduction

It is a fact that the world is ever-changing. As time passes by, modernization and

industrialization have been evolving continuously to meet the needs and necessities of the

people. Industrially, charcoal, solid wastes, and briquettes are usually used as biomass fuels in

the production of alternative renewable source of energy. These energies are used in power

plants, factories, transportation, and other activities that make living easier than before.

Biomass is an energy source that is composed of organic materials. Biomass fuel is a

renewable and sustainable source of energy used to create different forms of power such as

electricity. There are different types of biomass fuels: wood and agricultural products, solid

wastes, landfill gases and biogases, and ethanol or biodiesel fuels. [1,2]

Wood and agricultural products are the most common type of biomass fuel. Wood (logs,

chips, barks, and sawdust), paper mills, saw mills, and fruit pits are usually used to produce

biomass briquettes. Briquettes are compressed blocks of organic materials that are useable

without burning beforehand, unlike charcoal. Biomass briquettes are good substitutes for fossil

fuels since the energy they produce are comparable to traditional fuels such as oils and coals.

This type of biomass is commonly used industrially to generate electricity, and economically for

cooking purposes. Using biomass briquettes reduces carbon emission in the atmosphere and

lessens air pollution. Moreover, biomass briquettes are cheaper and burn longer than fossil fuels.

[2,3,4,5]

With this, the researchers opt to find an alternative biomass fuel by specifically using raw

materials that aren’t that significant in terms of usage.

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 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a free-floating perennial plant that can grow to

a height of three feet. Underneath the water is a thick, heavily branched, dark fibrous root

system. Water hyacinth can often be found floating in rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water.

Water hyacinth fibers could be used as raw materials in manufacturing and producing fabrics.

However, the excessive growth of water hyacinth blocks the flow of waterway affecting both

navigation and drainage, and increases siltation and flooding. Moreover, water hyacinth can

block sunlight and provoke oxygen from the fishes that could lead to fish kills. On the other

hand, the plant leaves and stem release thermal energy when burned. The amount of thermal

energy released depends on the moisture content and other factors. [6,7,8,9,10]

Corn (Zea mays) is a cereal plant of the grass family Poaceae and is one of the most

widely distributed of the world’s food crops. A corn plant is a tall annual grass that is composed

of roots, leaves, stalk, ear of corn, silk, husk, and tassel. Corn is used as human food, livestock

feed, biofuel, and even as a raw material in industry. [11,12]

In this study, the researchers’ goal is to determine the possibility of using water hyacinth

and corn husk as an alternative biomass briquette.

Objectives of the Study

The objective of this study is to determine if water hyacinth and corn husk

mixture is effective as biomass briquette. The researchers’ aim is to determine if the difference in

ratio of raw materials (water hyacinth and corn husk) has is a significant effect in the hardness

and durability of the biomass briquette. Moreover, the researchers’ goal is to determine if the

product is effective using the proximate analysis that includes Fixed Carbon Content, Volatile

7
Combustible Matter, Ash Content, and Moisture Content as well as if the product is easy to

combust.

Assumption

The research study is anchored on the assumption that the data gathered by the

researchers from various literatures and related studies are reliable sources of information. The

tests on Volatile Matter Content, Ash Content, Moisture Content, and Fixed Carbon Content are

true and accurate in determining the possibility of water hyacinth and corn husk as biomass

briquette. Moreover, the derived formulas from the sample calculations of similar studies will

yield valid results.

Hypothesis

This study tries to test the hypotheses as follows:

H0 = The amount of water hyacinth does not affect the hardness and durability of the

product.

H1 = The amount of water hyacinth affects the hardness and durability of the product.

H0 = The amount of corn husk does not affect the hardness and durability of the product.

H1 = The amount of corn husk affects the hardness and durability of the product.

H0 = The product has a low fixed-carbon content and short combustion time.

H1 = The product has a high fixed-carbon content and long combustion time.

H0 = The product has a low volatile combustible matter content; it is hard to ignite and is

not reactive in combustion applications.

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 H1 = The product has a high volatile combustible matter content; it ignites easily and is

highly reactive in combustion applications.

H0 = The product has a high ash content; it burns less readily and provides less useful

heat per unit mass.

H1 = The product has a low ash content; it burns greatly and provides useful heat per unit

mass.

H0 = The product has a high moisture content and reduces the calorific value by a large

amount.

H1 = The product has a low moisture content and reduces the calorific value only by a

very small amount.

H0 = The product has a low calorific value and it is hard to combust.

H1 = The product has a high calorific value and it is easy to combust.

Significance of the Study

The study may help in reducing the invasive number of water hyacinth that blocks the

flow of water in irrigation canals and other bodies of water. Likewise, the diseases due to poor

water cleaning maintenance may decrease. The outcome of product may help lessen the pollution

in the environment by using biomass briquette as substitute to LPG and other fuels. Furthermore,

biomass briquette may bring about lesser amount of CO2 in the atmosphere compared to

traditional fuels that contributes to climate change and global warming.

This research may propose an alternative use of water hyacinth and corn husk industrially

and economically.

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Scope and Limitations of the Study

The focus of this study is to produce an alternative biomass briquette made from water

hyacinth and corn husk. The main ingredients, which are water hyacinth and corn husk, will be

gathered from Sta. Mesa, Manila and Pasig River. The 100:0, 85:15, and 70:30 ratio of water

hyacinth to corn husk will be tested to show the significant difference in the effectiveness of raw

materials present in the biomass briquette. The study does not cover the efficacy of the organic

charcoal to be used in industries and companies. The researchers will not include explanations of

such events like the abundance of water hyacinth and the in Pasig River and all the chemical

properties present in corn husk and water hyacinth except for its type of photosynthesis.

Furthermore, the hardness and durability of the product is solely based on its shatter index. The

test on proximate analysis is carried through at the Department of Science and Technology,

Taguig City. Calculating the calorific value of the biomass briquette is done by utilizing the

elemental composition that is derived on the other hand from the proximate analysis test results.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined to the context in which they will be used in the study for

a more vivid understanding of what they mean:

Ash Content – the measure of the total amount of minerals present within a food, whereas the

mineral content is a measure of the amount of specific inorganic components present within a

food

C3 Photosynthesis – a type of photosynthesis that employs solely the C3 Cycle by which carbon

dioxide go through chemical reactions to form carbohydrates.

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C4 Photosynthesis – a mechanism of photosynthesis that occurs in two adjoining types of cells,

the mesophyll and bundle sheath cells in plant species called C4 plants.

Elemental Composition – refers to the arrangement, type, and ratio of atoms in molecules

of chemical substances.

Fixed Carbon Content – the solid combustible residue that remains after a coal particle is heated

and the volatile matter is expelled.

High Heating Value – also known gross calorific value or gross energy; the amount

of heat released by a specified quantity once it is combusted and the products have returned to

the original temperature.

Moisture Content – ratio of the mass of water in a sample to the mass of solids in the sample,

expressed as a percentage.

Volatile Combustible Matter – any substance/s that has a tendency to vaporize, given the right

conditions.

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 CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

A. Related Literature

1. Biomass

Biomass is one of renewable organic materials used to produce energy wherein

aquatic or terrestrial vegetation, residues from forestry or agriculture, animal waste and

municipal waste are part of. Producing energy and fuel from biomass is a compound

procedure but its principle corresponds directly to photosynthesis-- chemical reaction

where carbon dioxide and water are being transformed into oxygen gas and glucose. By

absorbing solar rays from the sun and by the process of photosynthesis, biomass is being

produced. Professionals are continuing researches about the different types of Biomass to

deepen knowledge on how to exploit more of its (biomass) energy from supplies without

causing disadvantages to the consumer. One of the alternatives is to plant crops such as

switch grass. This crop does not take up valuable land nor require special care such as

fertilizer or pesticides, yet gives a high-energy yield. Due to the shortage of fuel source in

regions subject to power outages, one of the main considerations of biomass as fuel

source is using it to assist energy needs to those regions. Countries that cannot afford to

import sufficient energy tends to rely on biomass because biomass CHP is reliant on

common and available sources that it can be cheaply produced. [13, 14, 15, 16]

2. Biomass Briquette

The biomass materials are compressed into briquettes to make an alternative of

charcoal for energy-producing companies. Since biomass can be made domestically from

12
plants and animal waste, the need for exportation and importation of fossil fuel around

the world becomes low. Also, it will lower the cost of electricity especially to the

countries without oil and coal reserves. The importance of biomass briquettes to the

environment is evident. Coal is a dangerous way to produce energy as it greatly

contributes to global warming and pollution. Briquettes made from biomass are a great

substitute for coal because they are made naturally. The materials for bio briquettes such

as papers, leaves, pine needles, sawdust, and wastes were ground into particles of 6 to 8

millimeters (mm) in diameter to increase surface area for soaking and to enhance packing

efficiency. Briquettes made entirely of shredded paper were prepared by the addition of

just enough water to cover the material and soaked for approximately one week. As the

ratio of biomass to shredded paper increased, the amount of time required to soak the

material for successful molding also increased. For instance, bio briquettes made entirely

of shredded leaves required approximately five weeks soak time before pressing. The

soaked material was tested for readiness by pressing a scoop of the mash by hand. Mash

that held its form in the palm of the hand was considered ready to be pressed into

briquettes. [17, 18, 19]

2.1 Briquette

A briquette is a chunk of combustible material that is primarily used in

igniting and maintaining a fire, either in a boiler, grill or in an open space such as

a fire pit. Larger briquettes are often used in manufacturing environment and

smaller versions are mostly used in fireplaces and for outdoor food grilling

purposes. The most popular briquettes are biomass and charcoal varieties. [20]

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3. Raw Materials

3.1 Corn Husk

Corn Husks are the outside green leaves on a cob of corn, that is usually

peeled off and discarded. Corn (Zea mays) is a gramineous plant, part of the

family of grasses, having a solid inside cane stalk. Corn husk biomass showed

tensile property because of its low lignin content and hemicellulose and cellulose

present in fibers. The crystallinity index of corn husk ranged from 21-26%. The

husk surrounding the ear of corn has been described as operating a partial C3

photosynthetic pathway, in contrast to its leaves which use the C4 photosynthetic

pathway. Hence, the CO2 assimilation rate in husk is less than the leaves,

indicating CO2 diffusion limitations. However, maximal photosynthetic rates were

similar between the husk and leaf when exposed on a chlorophyll basis. The CO2

compensation points of the husk were high compared with the leaf which suggests

that husks use C4-like photosynthetic pathway. [21,22, 23]

3.2 Water Hyacinth

Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial herb of fresh water ecosystems.

It is usually found at the surface of rivers, lakes, canals, and ponds and may root

in the mud of shallow waters. The dark green leave blades are circular to elliptical

in shape attached to a spongy, inflated petiole. Underneath the water is a thick,

heavily branched, dark fibrous root system. It is generally 10-20 cm high but can

reach 1 m high when established in dense mats. When plant leaves and stems are

burned, thermal energy is being released. Results of an experiment showed that

the calorific value of briquetted hyacinth was 14.55 MJ/kg showing the potential

14
 of water hyacinth briquettes as thermal and lightning source. Water hyacinth

impedes flow of water as it clogs dam outflows and irrigation canals. The weeds

become breeding places for mosquitoes and other creatures like snakes, frogs and

snails – hence, diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis, encephalitis, filariasis and

cholera are the aftermath. [24, 25, 26]

4. C3 and C4 Photosynthesis

C4 photosynthesis is a mechanism that occurs in two connecting types of cells:

mesophyll and bundle sheath cells in C4 plants. C4 cycles function in the dark reactions

of photosynthesis while C3 cycle in the bundle sheath followed C4 in mesophyll cells. C3

plants include: small seeded cereal crops such as rice, wheat, barley, rye, and

oat; soybean, peanut, cotton, sugar beets, tobacco, spinach, potato and most trees and

lawn grasses such as rye, fescue, and Kentucky bluegrass. Annual C4 plants include corn,

Sudan grass, and pearl millet. Perennial C4 plants include big bluestem, Indian grass,

bermudagrass, switchgrass, and old-world bluestem. C3 plants are mostly composed of

crop plants, referring to the fact that the first carbon compound produced during

photosynthesis contains three carbon atoms. Under high temperature and light, oxygen

has a high affinity for the photosynthetic enzyme Rubisco. Oxygen can bind to Rubisco

instead of carbon dioxide, and through a process called photorespiration, oxygen reduces

C3 plant photosynthetic efficiency and water use efficiency. Some plants evolved C4

photosynthesis in environments with high temperature and light that tend to have soil

moisture limitations. As a result, in high light and temperature environments, C4 plants

tend to be more productive than C3 plants. However, the C4 anatomical and biochemical

15
 adaptations require additional plant energy and resources than C3 photosynthesis, and so

in cooler environments, C3 plants are typically more photosynthetically efficient and

productive. [27,28,29,30]

B. Related Studies

1. On the Potential of Water Hyacinth as a Biomass Briquette for Heating

Applications

This study of Munjeri, K. et. al (2015) concerns the environmental challenge

posed by water hyacinth on fresh water sources in Zimbabwe and investigates the use of

the harvested weed as a source of energy in the form of briquettes. The water hyacinth

adversely affects the environment and humans in diverse ways. However, the plant leaves

and stem release thermal energy when burned. The amount of thermal energy released

depends on the moisture content and other factors. The water hyacinth organic matter and

other leaf species were briquetted, and their thermal energy content investigated in this

exercise. The thermal energy content of the various samples was measured using a bomb

calorimeter. Results of the experiments showed that the calorific value of briquetted

hyacinth was 14.55 MJ/kg. The calorific value of briquetted samples of other eleven leaf

species ranged from 14 to 20 MJ/kg. Moisture content, volatile matter and ash content

results of the samples are also reported in this paper. The results show that water hyacinth

briquettes can be used as thermal and lighting energy source particularly for communities

staying in the vicinity of the affected water sources. [31]

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 2. Fuel Briquettes from Water Hyacinth-Cow Dung Mixture as Alternative Energy

for Domestic and Agro-Industrial Applications

The processing of agricultural wastes into biomass is a strategy towards the

development of alternative energy sources. The study Oroka, F., & Thelma, A. (2013)

was undertaken to investigate the properties of fuel briquettes produced from a mixture of

a water hyacinth and cow dung. Briquettes were manufactured with a manually-operated

briquette press using four water hyacinths: cow dung mixing ratios (by weight), i.e.,

100:0; 90:10, 80:20; and 70: 30. Results obtained showed that briquettes produced using

70:30 and 80:20 water hyacinth-cow dung ratios respectively exhibited the largest

relaxed density on drying with values of 1157 and 1296 kg/m3 respectively. Equilibrium

moisture content (e.m.c) of the briquettes ranged between 10.5 % and 15.1%, with a

gradual increase in e.m.c with increase in cow dung content. A reciprocal relationship

was observed between compressed/relaxed density and relaxation ratio of the briquettes.

Through proximate analysis, water hyacinth is determined to have volatile matter of

56.5%, fixed carbon of 14.3%, moisture content of 8.5%, 24.6% ash content, and a gross

calorific value of 13.4 MJ/kg. The gross calorific value (GCV} of materials used for the

briquettes were further estimated using the formula:

where A is the percentage ash content and M is the percentage moisture content.

Gross calorific value (GCV) = 20.0 x (1-A- M) (Eq. 1)

It was concluded that stable briquettes could be formed from water hyacinth mixed with

cow dung and can be used as alternative energy source to kerosene and fuel wood. The

17
 calorific value of water hyacinth and cow dung mixture is determined to be 13.9 MJ/kg,

the average calorific value of its individual raw materials. [32]

3. Physical and Combustion Characteristics of Briquettes Made from Water

Hyacinth and Phytoplankton Scum as Binder

Davies R.M. & Davies O.A. (2013), proved through their study that briquettes can

be made from Water Hyacinth and Phytoplankton Scum as binder. Density plays an

important parameter, which characterizes the briquetting process. If the density is higher,

the energy/volume ratio is higher too. Hence, high density products are desirable in terms

of transportation, storage, and handling and are more cost effective than the natural state.

[33]

4. Feasibility Study of Coconut Coir Dust Briquette

This research work Saha, K. K., et. al (2014) was conducted on economic

feasibility of briquette made of coconut coir dust mixed with rice husk at different ratio.

This study sought to assess the physical properties and calorific value of briquette and to

establish the demand and willingness of potential users to substitute rice husk briquette

and firewood. It was observed that briquette made from mixed coconut coir dust and rice

husk at the ratio of 1:2 and 1:1 had desirable properties as compared to rice husk

briquette. The percent of shatter indices, density, percent of resistance to water

penetration, degree of densification and calorific value of briquette of mixing ratio 1:2

were found 99.75, 1.52gm/cc, 87.5, 11.35 and 4043 kcal/kg and of mixing ratio 1:1 were

found 99.82, 1.48gm/cc, 87.5, 10.84 and 3657 kcal/kg, respectively. In case of rice husk

18
 briquette, the above values were 99.21, 1.40gm/cc, 75, 10.66 and 3537 kcal/kg,

respectively. The production costs of mixing ratio 1:2 and 1: 1 were 3.27 Tk/kg and 3.10

Tk/kg, respectively which were lower than that of rice husk briquette. In partial budget,

the substitution propositions among the selected briquettes indicated that coconut coir

dust briquette of mixing ratio 1:1 appeared as the most impressive one.

Shatter indices were used for determining the hardness of briquettes. The

briquette with known weight and length was dropped on RCC floor or concrete floor

from the height of one meter. The weight of disintegrated briquette and its size was noted

down. The percent loss of material was calculated. The shatter resistance of the briquettes

was calculated by using following formula (Ghorpade, 2006). [34]

% Shatter resistance = 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 (Eq. 2)

100 - ( × 100)
𝑊1

where, W1 = Weight of briquette before shattering and W2 = Weight of briquette after

shattering

5. Functional analysis of corn husk photosynthesis

Pengelly, J. et.al. (2011) proved through their study that the maize husk of Zea

mays operates C4 photosynthesis dispersed around the widely spaced veins (analogous to

leaves) in a diffusion- 16 limited manner due to low M surface area exposed to

intercellular air space with the functional role of Rubisco and GDC in distant mesophyll

cells. The husk surrounding the ear, on the other hand, operates in partial C3

photosynthetic pathways in contrast to its leaves, which operates a C4 photosynthesis.

19
 This was measured by combining the gas exchange and carbon isotope discrimination,

the O2 dependence of the CO2 compensation point, and photosynthetic enzyme activity

and localization together with the anatomy. The CO2 compensation points of the husk

were high compared to the leaf, but did not vary with O2concentration. This and the low

carbon isotope discrimination measured concurrently with gas exchange in the husk and

leaf suggested C4 like photosynthesis in the husk. [35]

6. Chemical, Physical, Mechanical, Thermal and Morphological Characterization of

Corn Husk Residue

Chemical composition, physical characteristics, thermal resistance, mechanical

properties, crystallinity index and morphology of corn husk residue collected from

disposal areas of small street markets was described in the study of Mendes, C., et. al.

(2014). The results are discussed and also compared to the characteristics of other

lignocellulosic biomass used to produce biofuels and composites. Results show that

corn husk has low lignin content and similar amounts of hemicellulose and alpha-

cellulose to those of the other fibers considered. In addition, the corn husk biomass

showed better tensile property than piassava and coir and similar maximum safety

temperature to that of caroa and olive husks. The crystallinity index of corn husk was 21-

26% and surface morphology showed the presence of a large number of microfibrils in its

structure. [36]

7. Prediction of Calorific Value of Biomass from Proximate Analysis

Özyuuran, A., & Yaman, S. (2016) stated in their study that biomass is allowed as

20
CO2-neutral fuel since it does not contribute to the net increase in CO2 emissions in

atmosphere, unlike fossil fuels. That is, the amount of CO2 formed upon burning of

biomass is almost equivalent to the CO2 captured from atmosphere during photosynthesis

of green biomass. The volatile matter present in a biomass is related to its calorific value.

In addition, the volatile matter content of biomass reaches up to 90 wt.% in some cases

and in turn fixed carbon contents become too low. The fixed carbon content of biomass

can be easily connected with the calorific value since it has a positive effect on the energy

potential of biomass. Consequently, multiple linear regression (MLR) models that can be

used for modelling of calorific value of biomass have been developed basing on

proximate analysis results of miscellaneous biomass materials and the standard deviation

of the predicted values are generally taken into consideration to evaluate the suitability of

the predicted models. The results of proximate analysis such as volatile matter, fixed

carbon, and ash have been used to predict the higher heating values (HHVs) of the

biomass materials through some linear and non-linear empirical equations. It is

determined in this study that ash content has not only an inert effect on the calorific value

of a fuel, but also shows some detrimental effects on the apparent heat obtained from

burning the biomass. That is, the energy need of ash forming inorganics for thermal

breakdown and face transition is taken from the burning energy of the biomass and leads

to the reduction in the calorific value. The moisture content closely affects the calorific

value of the biomass that it may reach very high levels especially in case of green

biomass and waste materials. It can be concluded from the outcomes of this study that

this method is capable of predicting the HHVs with r2 values changing in the intervals of

0.826-0.827 and 0.812-0.837 for linear and non-linear equations, respectively. However,

21
 in case of biomass species with relatively low calorific value, the deviations between the

experimental and predicted HHVs cannot be ignored and they may be evaluated as a

special group. [37]

8. A correlation for calculating elemental composition from proximate analysis of

biomass materials

Proximate analysis only requires standard laboratory equipment and can be run by

any competent scientist or engineer, unlike ultimate analysis which requires very

expensive equipment and highly trained analysts according to Parikh, J. et. al (2012).

Elemental composition of biomass, which defines the energy content and determines the

clean and efficient use of the biomass material, is known through ultimate analysis.

Through this study, general correlations based on proximate analysis of biomass material

were introduced to determine the elemental composition. The entire spectrum of solid

lignocellulosic materials has been considered in the derivation of the present correlation,

which is given as: C = 0.637FC + 0.455VM, H = 0.052FC + 0.062VM, O = 0.304FC +

0.476VM, where FC – 4.7–38.4% fixed carbon, VM – 57.2–90.6% volatile matter, in

wt% on a dry basis. The major advantage of these correlations is their capability to

compute elemental components of biomass materials from the simple proximate analysis

and thereby provides a useful tool for the modelling of combustion, gasification and

pyrolysis processes. [38]

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9. Prediction of heating values of biomass fuel from elemental composition

Higher heating value (HHV) is the enthalpy of the complete combustion of a fuel

including the condensation enthalpy of formed water. In the study conducted by Friedl,

A. et. al., (2012), a subset of 122 samples, all consisting of plant materials, has been used

to develop regression models for a prediction of HHV from the elemental composition.

Models with best predictive ability have been obtained using the contents of carbon, C;

hydrogen, H; and nitrogen, N, and applying the methods OLS and PLS with the variables

C, C2,H,C×H and N. An ordinary least square regression model and a partial least square

regression model with four PLS components used have been calculated from all 122

samples.

HHV (OLS model)= 1.87C2 −144C−2820H+63.8C ×H+129N+20147 (Eq. 3)

HHV (PLS model)= 5.22C2 −319C−1647H+38.6C ×H+133N+21028 (Eq. 4)

where HHV is the Higher Heating Value (Calorific value), C is Carbon, H is Hydrogen,

and N is Nitrogen

The higher heating value, HHV, is in kJ/kg; C, H, N are mass% of carbon,

hydrogen and nitrogen, respectively, in dry biomass. Because both models for HHV have

almost the same performance it may be appropriate to use the average of both, resulting

in a final model for HHV prediction of plant biomass from elemental data as follows:

[39]

HHV= 3.55C2 −232C−2230H +51.2C×H+131N+20,600 (Eq. 5)

23
 where HHV is the Higher Heating Value (Calorific value), C is Carbon, H is Hydrogen,

and N is Nitrogen

10. Artificial Neural Networks Model for Predicting Ultimate Analysis using Proximate

Analysis of Coal

Composition of proximate analysis is represented by %Ash, %Fixed Carbon,

%Moisture and % Volatile Material. Whereas, Ultimate analysis is represented by the

elemental analysis containing %Carbon, %Hydrogen, %Nitrogen, %Oxygen and

%Sulphur. In the research conducted by J. Krishnaiah et. al., different approaches to

proximate analysis by thermogravimetry analysis on various coals were conducted and

the results were analyzed with ASTM. The elemental composition of ultimate analysis

was based on the given overall composition information of the proximate analysis. The

standard range of %Carbon for biomass is 36.2-53.1%; 4.36%-8.3% for %Hydrogen;

31.37%-50% for %Oxygen; and 0.2%-20% for %Nitrogen. [40]

Table 1. Standard % Element of biomass briquette

Element (%) Standard Range for Biomass (%)

Carbon 36.2 - 53.1

Hydrogen 4.36 - 8.3

Oxygen 31.37 - 50

Nitrogen 0.2 - 20

24
C. Synthesis

The study done by Munjeri, K. et.al (2015) is the same as the current study in the sense that

the basis for using water hyacinth as a raw material is its ability to store heat or its thermal

energy content. This study shows that briquettes made from water hyacinth can be used as

thermal and lighting energy resource. Corn, on the other hand, will also be used as a raw product

as is it proven to be use C4-like photosynthetic pathway. C4 plants have high fixed-carbon

content, thus, C4 plants have longer combustion time. The current study will undergo a

briquetting procedure that is modified as to the study of Oroka, F., & Thelma, A. (2013) in which

instead of using the 100:0, 90:10, 80:20, and 70:30 ratios, the ratios of 100:0, 85:15, and 70:30

will be used. This will be done to know which among the ratios will be the most effective to be

used as the product. For the binding agent, the researchers will utilize the binding properties of

water hyacinth as shown in the study of Davies, R., & Davies, O. (2013). The tests to be

conducted are patterned to the study of Akowuah J. O, et. al., (2012) in the sense that the

moisture contest, ash content, fixed carbon and volatile matter present in the charcoal made from

water hyacinth and corn mixture will be observed. The calorific value of briquetted water

hyacinth mixed and its physical properties: per cent of shatter indices, density, per cent of

resistance to water penetration, degree of densification of briquette are followed from the study

conducted by Saha, K. K., et. Al (2004). The study of Mendes, C., et. al. (2014) discussing the

tensile property of corn husk biomass is analysed and adapted into the current study to heighten

the potential of making charcoal briquette made from water hyacinth.

Biomass is a sustainable source of energy developed from organic materials used in creating

electricity and other forms of energy. In the study of Özyu uran, A., & Yaman, S. (2016), they

aimed to neutralize the emission of CO2 in the atmosphere by using biomass as fuel instead of

25
fossil fuel. In the same manner, the current study aimed to produce biomass briquette to lessen

the effect of too much CO2 emission to the environment and people. In computing the elemental

composition of biomass material, the study of Parikh, J. et. al (2012) shows the advantage of

correlation on proximate analysis of biomass material copulating to the combustion, gasification

and pyrolysis processes of the current study. The study conducted by Friedl, A. et. al., (2012) is

same with the current study in the way of heating dry biomass. OLS and PLS method will then

be adapted to the study to heighten the combustion or the HHV in plant biomass used.

In substitution manner, what’s causing harm to the environment is then utilized into

something beneficial. The production of charcoal is mostly by burning woods intensifying the

emission of CO2 in the atmosphere. The study aimed to produce a biomass briquette made from

the mixture of dried water hyacinth and corn husk that will lessen the effect of CO2 that causes

global warming and climate change. The effects of the abundance of water hyacinth in the bodies

of water causes disruption in the balance of ecosystem and so, the study also aimed to neutralize

the effect of water hyacinth into the environment thus creating a biomass briquette.

26
 CHAPTER 3

Methodology

Materials

The following materials were utilized to create a biomass briquette made from water

hyacinth and corn husk.

Figure 1. Top (left to right): water hyacinth, weighing scale, corn husk. Bottom (left to right):
can, mortar and pestle, blender

Water hyacinth and corn husk are the raw materials of the study. The weighing scale was

used to measure the mass of the briquettes, and the cans were used as moulder and as an

alternative hand press. Mortar and pestle was used to reduce the raw materials into fine pieces

while the blender was used to blend the materials into a uniform texture.

27
Research Design

Characterization
• Gathering of raw
materials • Comparison of
• Briquetting • Volatile matter content test
Data
procedure • Ash content test
• Moisture content test
• Fixed carbon test
• Elemental Composition
Fabrication • Calorific Value Analysis

Figure 2. The Research Design

The fabrication or making of the product starts with the gathering of raw materials. The

briquetting procedure proceeds after which includes the moulding and drying of the briquettes.

Test of proximate analysis (volatile matter content, ash content, moisture content, and fixed

carbon) were done to determine the effectiveness of the product. The gathered data were then

used for determining the elemental composition and calorific value of the briquettes. After

getting the results, data analysis followed to evaluate the product.

28
 A. Fabrication

Raw Materials

Figure 3. Left to right: Gathering of water hyacinth from Pasig River, cutting and cleaning
the gathered water hyacinths, obtaining corn husk from the market

Water Hyacinth was harvested manually from the nearby river and dried under the

sun. Corn husk was gathered from the nearby market. The raw materials were reduced

into minute pieces using cutters and mortar and pestle.

Briquetting Procedure

Figure 4. Top (left to right): Reducing raw materials into minute pieces, sun-drying water
hyacinth, reduced corn husk, blending water hyacinth. Bottom (left to right): Adding corn husk
to the mixture, soupy slurry, blending the mixture for uniform texture, dying the briquettes under
the sun
29
 After gathering, the raw materials will be thoroughly washed to eliminate dirt and other

unwanted substances. Using cutters, the corn husk and water hyacinth will be reduced into

smaller pieces. Grinding using mortar and pestle comes after. After manually mixing the

ingredients, a blender will be used to create uniform sample texture (see Table 2 for sample

specifications). The soupy slurry mixture will be created after the blending process. This will

be then poured into cylindrical molds with a diameter of 6cm and a height of 5.5cm. The

mixture will be manually pressed to eliminate excess water thus making the briquette

compact. After removing from the mold, the briquettes will be sun-dried for 5 days.

B. Characterization

Series of tests were conducted to prove the objectives of the present study. A test on

proximate analysis was done to know the effectiveness of the biomass briquette. The results were

gathered and substituted into proven formulas for determining the elemental composition of the

product. The calorific value was the determined to know the combustion properties of water

hyacinth and corn husk mixture briquettes.

Table 2. Sample Specifications

Amount of water Amount of corn husk Amount of water
Sample
hyacinth (grams) (grams) hyacinth (mL)

1 100 0 200

2 85 15 200

3 70 30 200

30
Physico-chemical properties of water hyacinth and corn husk mixture charcoal

Proximate analysis is a standardized procedure which gives an idea of the bulk

components that make up a fuel, which relate closely to its combustion behavior. ASTM D 1762

(Modified) was conducted at the Department of Science and Technology ITDI to determine the

percentage volatile matter content, percentage ash content, moisture content and percentage

content of fixed carbon of the briquettes.

Percentage volatile matter (PVM)

The PVM was determined by pulverizing 2g of briquettes sample in a crucible and

placing it in an oven until a constant weight was obtained. The briquettes were then kept in a

furnace at a temperature of 550 oC for 10 minutes and weighed after cooling in a desiccator to

obtain. The PVM was then calculated using equation 6: [41]

*PVM = 𝐴−𝐵 (Eq. 6)

× 100
𝐴

where A is the constant weight after placing the pulverized sample in the oven and
B is the weight after cooling in a desiccator

Percentage Ash content (PAC)

The PAC was also determined by heating 2g of the briquette sample in the furnace at a

temperature of 550 oC for 4hrs and weighed after cooling in a desiccator to obtain the weight of

ash (C). The PAC was determined using equation 7: [41]

*𝑃AC = 𝐶 (Eq. 7)
× 100
𝐴

31
Percentage moisture content (PMC) on dry basis

The moisture content was found by weighing 2g of the briquette sample (E) and oven

drying it at 105 oC until mass of the sample was constant. The change in weight (D) after 60

mins was then used to determine the sample’s percentage moisture content using equation 8: [41]

* 𝑃MC(db) = 𝐷 (Eq. 8)
× 100
𝐸

Percentage fixed carbon (PFC)

The PFC was calculated by subtracting the sum of percentage volatile matter (PVM) and

percentage ash content (PAC) and percentage moisture content from 100 as shown in equation 9:

[41]

* Fixed Carbon = 100% - (PAC + PMC + PVM) (Eq. 9)

* where A is the constant weight after placing the pulverized sample in the oven (PVM and
PAC)
B is the weight after cooling in a desiccator (PVM)

C is the obtained weight of ash after briquettes cooled is a desiccator (PAC)

D is the change in weight after 60 mins (PMC)

E Moisture content after drying sample

32
Elemental Composition of the Biomass Briquette

To determine the elemental composition of the biomass briquette, calculations were made

using the data gathered from the proximate analysis test results.

Carbon:

The carbon composition of the biomass briquette was calculated by multiplying the Fixed

Carbon content to a constant and adding it to Volatile Combustible Matter multiplied to a

constant as shown in equation 10:

C= 0.637 FC + 0.455 VCM (Eq. 10)

Hydrogen:

The hydrogen composition of the biomass briquette was calculated by multiplying the

Fixed Carbon content to a constant and adding it to Volatile Combustible Matter multiplied to a

constant as shown in equation 11:

H= 0.052 FC + 0.062 VCM (Eq. 11)

Oxygen:

The oxygen composition of the biomass briquette was calculated by multiplying the

Fixed Carbon content to a constant and adding it to Volatile Combustible Matter multiplied to a

constant as shown in equation 12:

O= 0.304 FC + 0.476 VCM (Eq. 12)

33
Nitrogen:

The nitrogen composition of the biomass briquette was calculated by multiplying the

Volatile Combustible Matter to a constant and subtracting it from 2.10 as shown in equation 13:

N= 2.10 – 0.20 (%VM) (Eq. 13)

Higher Heating Value (HHV)

The following equation was used to determine the enthalpy of the complete combustion

of a fuel including the condensation enthalpy of formed water

HHV= 3.55C2 −232C−2230H +51.2C×H+131N+20,600 (Eq. 5)

where C is the %Carbon, H is the %Hydrogen, and N is the %Nitrogen

34
 CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Table 3. Effect of the ratio of water hyacinth and corn husk to the durability and hardness of the
biomass briquette

Amount of Amount Amount Weight of Weight of Shatter

Sample water of corn of water briquette before briquette after Index

hyacinth (g) husk (g) (mL) shattering (g) shattering (g) (%)

1 100 0 200 125 117 93.60

2 85 15 200 125 120 96.00

3 70 30 200 125 123 98.40

Based from Table 3, the sample ratio with the highest shatter index of 98.40% is the

70:30 water hyacinth to corn husk mixture. Sample 1 with 100:0 water hyacinth to corn husk

mixture has the lowest shatter index among the samples showing that it is the least hard and

durable among the samples. The shatter index is calculated using Equation 2. Sample 3 has the

most suitable ratio and is the most convenient to use since it has the greatest resistance to get

shattered.

35
 19

18.5 18.4

18 17.9

17.5

17 16.9

16.5

16
Ratio 100:0 Ratio 85:15 Ratio 70:30

Fixed Carbon Content

Figure 5. Comparative results of the fixed carbon content between different water hyacinth
and corn husk mixture ratios on a per cent basis

Figure 5 shows that the 70:30 ratio mixture of water hyacinth and corn husk mixture has

a higher fixed carbon content of 18.4% as compared to briquette made solely out of water

hyacinth with a fixed carbon of 16.9% and to the 85:15 ratio with 17.1%. This belongs to the

ideal 4.7%-38.4% fixed carbon content in biomass [38]. The fixed carbon content of biomass can

be easily connected with the calorific value since it has a positive effect on the energy potential

of biomass [37].

36
 78
76.4
76

74.2
74

72

70 69.6

68

66
Ratio 100:0 Ratio 85:15 Ratio 70:30

Volatile Combustible Material

Figure 6. Volatile Combustible Material of different water hyacinth to corn husk mixture ratios

Figure 6 shows that the 70:30 ratio mixture of water hyacinth and corn husk mixture has

a higher volatile combustible material of 76.4% as compared to briquette made solely out of

water hyacinth with a VCM of 69.6% and to the 85:15 ratio with 74.2%. These belong to the

ideal volatile combustible material in a biomass which is 57.2%-90.6% [38]. The volatile

combustible material of also affects the calorific value of the biomass [37].

37
 16

14 13.6

12

10
8.67
8

6 5.16

0
Ratio 100:0 Ratio 85:15 Ratio 70:30

Ash Content

Figure 7. Ash Content of different water hyacinth corn husk mixture ratios

Based on Figure 7, the ash produced after burning 70:30 ratio of water hyacinth and corn

husk mixture is indeed lower with only 5.16% compared to briquettes made from water hyacinth

only with an ash content of 13.6% and 85:15 water hyacinth corn husk ratio. This shows that the

significant difference in the ash content is ideal in the formation of biomass briquette since the

energy for ash forming inorganics is taken from the burning energy of the biomass that is

supposed to be utilized for the calorific value [37].

38
 13.5
13.2

13 12.8

12.5

12

11.5
11.13
11

10.5

10
Ratio 100:0 Ratio 85:15 Ratio 70:30

Moisture Content

Figure 8. Moisture Content of different water hyacinth and corn husk mixture ratios

Figure 8 shows that the moisture content of the 70:30 ratio water hyacinth and corn husk

mixture has the least with 11.3% compared that of briquette made out of solely water hyacinth

with 13.2% moisture content and to the 85:15 ratio with 12.8% moisture content. Moisture

content only adds weight to the biomass and poses a slight reduction in the calorific value [37].

39
Table 4. Elemental Composition of Biomass Briquette

Sample
(Water Hyacinth
%Carbon %Hydrogen %Oxygen %Nitrogen
to Corn Husk
ratio)
100:0 42.43 5.20 38.28 1.18

85:15 44.65 5.49 40.52 1.27

70:30 46.48 5.69 41.96 1.32

Based on the data give at Table 4, briquettes made from the 70:30 ratio mixture of water

hyacinth and corn husk has the greatest elemental composition amongst the different ratios being

tested. The 46.48% Carbon, 5.96% Hydrogen, 41.96% Oxygen, and 1.32% Nitrogen content of

the 70:30 water hyacinth and corn husk mixture, together with the other ratios, belongs to the

ideal and standard carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen content for biomass briquette [40].

40
 20
18.41
18

16
13.9
14 13.4

12

10

0
Water Hyacinth Water Hyacinth and Corn Husk Water Hyacinth and Cow Dung

Calorific Value

Figure 9. Calorific value of water hyacinth briquette present in the market vs 70:30 ratio
water hyacinth and corn husk briquette

Figure 9 shows that 70:30 ratio water hyacinth and corn husk mixture briquette have a

greater calorific value than that of other briquettes with water hyacinth component present in the

market today, with 18.41 MJ/kg. Briquettes made out of water hyacinth only has a calorific value

of 13.4 MJ/kg while those made out of water hyacinth and cow dung mixture has a calorific

value of 13.9 MJ/kg [32]. The calorific value or higher heating value determines the

combustibility of the biomass and is calculated using proximate analysis and elemental

composition of the briquettes [39]. This also shows that the addition of corn husk to the product

has a significant effect in the combustibility of the briquettes.

41
 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary of Findings

The researchers aimed to determine hardness and durability of the briquette, effectiveness of

the product, and combustibility of the water hyacinth and corn husk mixture.

Based on the data gathered by the researchers, the study shows that the differences in the

ratio of raw material affect the shatter index or resistance of the product. Also, this study

indicates that the 70:30 ratio of water hyacinth and corn husk mixture on a weight basis is the

most durable and effective to use as product based on the proximate analysis and elemental

composition.

Based on proximate analysis, the water hyacinth and corn husk mixture pose promising

results in terms of greater higher heating value as compared to the existing biomass briquette

made out of water hyacinth only.

The low ash content indicates that the energy needed and produced in heating the product is

not wasted. The moisture content still belongs to the standard range, making the product still

ideal. The high fixed carbon content and volatile combustible matter present in all the briquette

ratio show a positive effect on the calorific value.

Furthermore, positive results show from the elemental composition, which all belong to the

standard range set for ideal biomass briquette. The researchers also found out that the product

has higher calorific value and thus more combustible when compared to existing briquettes with

water hyacinth component.

42
Conclusion

The researchers therefore conclude that the ratio of water hyacinth to corn husk on a per cent

weight basis has a significant effect on the hardness and durability of the briquette. Also, the

proximate analysis and elemental composition shows that the product can be used as an effective

and easy to combust biomass briquette. Furthermore, the higher heating value of briquettes made

from water hyacinth and corn husk mixture positively shows that it has the potential to compete

with other briquettes present in the market today

Recommendations

After conducting the study and throughout the gathering of the data, the researchers would

like to recommend the future researchers of a similar study to research a more in-depth study

about the topic. For the enhancement and improvement of biomass briquette made from water

hyacinth and corn husk, adding another binding agent is recommendable. Future works may also

look for other variables that will strengthen the study.

43
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