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Making Dish Detergent in Factory Setting

Name
Date
Department
Professor
E-mail
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Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3
Anionic Surfactants ................................................................................................................ 6
Nonionic Surfactants .............................................................................................................. 6
Cationic Surfactants ............................................................................................................... 6
Cleaning Mechanism of the Detergents ................................................................................. 6
Impact of the Use of Detergents in the Environment ............................................................ 7
Detrimental Impact of Detergents on the Health of Individuals ............................................ 7
Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 8
Materials Used ....................................................................................................................... 8
Equipment Used ..................................................................................................................... 8
Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 8
Caution ................................................................................................................................... 8
Assessing the Properties of the Detergent ............................................................................. 9
Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 9
Results ....................................................................................................................................... 9
4.1 Level of Cleanliness ......................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Difficulty of Removing the Stains from the Utensils .................................................... 10
4.3 Time Taken to Remove the Clay Stains in the Utensils ................................................ 11
4.4 Amount of Detergent Used in the Cleaning Process ..................................................... 12
4.5 Removal of Different Stains, or Impurities that May Be Found in Dishes.................... 12
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 13
Recommendations ................................................................................................................ 14
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Abstract
Dish detergents are effective cleaning products because they contain one, or more surfactants
(surface cleaning agents). The chemical makeup of the surfactants that are used in the
detergents can be engineered to perform well as cleaning agents in different conditions such
as different washing temperatures (hot, and cold), and water conditions (such as in hard
water). Detergents are considered to be superior to soaps in the cleaning process. The reason
for this is that they are able to be used effectively in the cleaning process of dishes even in the
presence of metallic ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ than is the case for normal soaps. In this
study, the agglomeration process was used to manufacture detergents. The researcher
produced three types of detergents: anionic-, cationic-, and nonionic-based detergents, and
assessed the following cleaning properties- level of cleanliness, level of difficulty in the
cleaning process, time taken to clean, and amount of detergent used. It was observed that the
anionic-based detergents performed the best in this study, and it was attributed to its negative
charge, which binds with the positive charge from the impurities in the dishes.

Introduction
Cleaning products are a ‘must-have,’ in the 21st century both in the home, and work
setting as they are essential in safely, and effectively removal of contaminants such as soil.
Soaps and detergents help people to stay healthy, take care of their places of residence, and
work stations, possessions, and in general make their surroundings to be more habitable.
Detergents are effective cleaning products because they contain one, or more surfactants
(surface cleaning agents) [4]. The chemical makeup of the surfactants that are used in the
detergents can be engineered to perform well as cleaning agents in different conditions such
as different washing temperatures (hot, and cold), and water conditions (such as in hard
water), and to clean different fiber, or fabrics of clothes [1]. It is important to point out that
the detergent surfactants were developed as a response to the shortage of animal, and
vegetable fats, and oils during World War I and II. Also, there were the need to have cleaning
products that were resistant to hard water, which ensured that the cleaning process was more
effective, especially in areas that have a high supply of sea water. Detergents were initially
derived from petrochemicals, and oleo-chemicals. However, due to ecological issues, a
majority of detergent manufacturers have transitioned from petro-and oleo-chemical bases
surfactants to enzymes such as lipase.
To illustrate how detergents, assist in the cleaning process, it is essential to assess the
following example. An individual is washing dishes that are oily. Water (cold water) alone is
not able to remove the grease as it is a hydrophobic agent [1]. Adding a detergent will assist
in the cleaning process as it contains a surfactant, which contains a hydrophobic end, which
will be repelled by water, but which will be attracted by the oil molecules in the dishes. Also,
it has a water-loving end, which will be attracted to the water molecules. The cleaning
process is aided by the cleaner’s using a dish scrubber to remove the grease from the dishes,
and therefore making them to be clean.
Detergents are considered to be superior to soaps in the cleaning process. The reason
for this is that they are able to be used effectively in the cleaning process of dishes even in the
presence of metallic ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ than is the case for normal soaps. Common
surfactants in detergents are Sodium tripolyphosphate because of its high chelating property,
and Chlorines which lead to redox reactions, and therefore lead to effective cleaning.
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There are different processes that can be used in the manufacture of detergents. In
powder detergents spray drying, agglomeration, dry mixing, or a combination of these
methods can be used during manufacturing. On the other hand, in liquid detergents batch and
continuous blending processes are used. The spray drying process is divided into different
stages [6]. In the first stage, the dry, and liquid ingredients of the detergent are combined into
a slurry in a tank known as a crutcher. The slurry suspension is then heated, and pumped to
the top tower, and then sprayed through the nozzles to create small droplets, which will form
hollow granules as they dry. They will then be collected at the bottom of the spray tower, and
then screened to obtain a relatively standard size [5]. After the granules have cooled
substances such as bleach, enzymes and fragrance are added. This process produces relatively
low-density powders.

#Figure 1: The diagram is a step-by-step illustration of the spray drying process of detergent
manufacturing.
The dry mixing process is normally used to blend the dry raw materials. Additionally,
small quantities of liquids are added. In the agglomeration process, the manufacturer will
normally blend dry raw materials with liquid ingredients [3]. The liquid binder, and shear
mixing will lead to the ingredients to collide, and adhere to each other leading to the
formation of larger particles. The liquid detergents can be manufactured using the batch, and
continuous blending processes. In these processes, stabilizers are normally added during the
manufacturing process to ensure that the finished, or final product is highly uniform, and
stable [2].
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#Figure 2: The diagram is an illustration of the agglomeration and dry mixing processes that
are used in the manufacture of detergents.
Dish washing, or laundry detergents are sodium sulfonate of the hydrocarbons.
Detergents have various advantages over soap in terms of enhancing the cleaning process
such as working effectively when used in hard water that contains Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, and
Mg2+ ions [1]. In the event that the alkyl group that is used in the manufacture of detergents
is linear, then it will contribute to little, or less pollution as it will be easily digested by
microbes. However, if the alkyl group has branches, then it will result in more pollution as
the microbes will be difficult to digest. The structures of the common detergents are as
follows:

#Figure 3: The diagram provides an illustration of the structure of the common detergents. A
majority of the detergents are ammonium, or sulphonate salts of long carboxylic acids.
There are different components that are used in the manufacturing of detergents. A
builder phosphate comprises of approximately 30-50 percent of the detergent. It is vital in
increasing the efficiency of the detergent in removal of the dirt during the cleaning process.
When used in hard water, the phosphate will combine with the present metal ions, and the
result will be a complex [4]. The water will then be softer, and therefore, the detergent will be
more effective in terms of removal of the dirt from the dishes that are being cleaned. When
dealing with dishes that are covered with grease, the polyphosphate that is present will help to
spread the oil, which makes it easier for the cleaner to remove it from the dish by simply
scrubbing the dirty cup, plate, or other cooking utensils. The Sodium Triphosphate (STPP)
substances are also highly effective in reducing water hardness. In fact, the STPP components
in the builder phosphate will make the water to be alkaline, creating the right environment for
the detergent to enhance the cleaning process.
Surfactants are another essential component in the detergent. The surfactant is defined
as a substance, which when it is dissolved in water, it will help to reduce the surface tension
of the water, and therefore make the cleaning process to be easier. The surfactants can be
anionic, cationic, or nonionic. It is important to point out that surfactants are responsible for
the production of bubbles by the liquid detergents during the cleaning process in both the
dish, and laundry detergents [5]. When a liquid detergent is applied on a dirty dish, the
surfactant reduces the surface tension, which leads to the wetting of the dirty dish, pulling the
dirty impurities towards the surface, and spreading the water. The surfactants are divided
into: nonionic surfactants, cationic surfactants, and anionic surfactants.
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Anionic Surfactants
For these surfactants, there are designated a (-) sign because they contain negative
ions. These negative ions contain the ability to wash-off soiled dishes that may be covered
with dirt, and even mud. It is important to point out that this type of surfactants form a lot of
foam, and are highly effective in high temperature water. However, they are not as effective
in hard water.
Nonionic Surfactants
In this type of surfactant, it does not have an electric charge. It only forms little foam.
However, it is effective in all the water conditions, and therefore, there is no need to add a
softening agent to the water [3]. A detergent that has this type of surfactant will work well in
cleaning dishes that contain grease.
Cationic Surfactants
In this type of surfactant, it has a positive charge (+).
Another component that is contained in some but not all the detergents is a water
softening agent. It is important to point out that while a water softener is not involved in the
process of elimination of the dirt from the dirty utensils, it will make the surfactant (anionic)
to be highly effective. The reason for this is that it assists in balancing the pH of the water,
and also to reduce water hardness [3]. The most commonly used water softeners are Sodium
tripolyphosphate. Other water softeners that can be added to the detergent are nitrate acetic
acid salts (NTA), citric acid salts, zeolites, phosphate salts, and polycarboxylic acids.
Other components that may be added in the detergent are:
 Antiperspirant: In a majority of the detergents, they have an anti-coagulant substance,
which assists in prevention of sedimentation of different components. A majority of
the detergents have sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as its antiperspirant.
 Substances that maintain alkalinity: Most detergents are effective in terms of their
cleaning processes when they are in an alkaline environment as it increases the
efficiency of the surfactants, and the most common components that are added to the
detergent for maintenance of alkalinity are sodium silicate and sodium carbonate.
 Solvent: A hydrotope is normally added to a detergent to make it dissolve better in
water such as sodium toluene, and xylene sulfonate.
 Enzymes: These are organic substances that help in the process of breaking down
molecules of compounds such as starch, protein, and fat that can be found in the
dishes.
 Perfume: These are components that improve the smell of the detergent, which make
it more pleasant to use.
 Color: They are added to a detergent, to make the product more pleasant to look at,
and use for the cleaning process. A majority of dish detergents are green in color.
Cleaning Mechanism of the Detergents
The cleaning mechanism of the detergents can be divided into eight types that will be
assessed in depth in this sub-section. The first type is the wetting the dirt and surfaces of the
dishes. The surfactant molecules will assist in wetting the surface of the dish that is being
cleaned. The second type is the neutralization of the natural impurities, which generally act as
an acid, and creating the right medium in the water that is being used to clean the dishes,
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which is supposed to be alkaline [3]. The third type is known as the removal of the dirt from
the surface. The surfactants in the detergent assist in reducing the attraction between the dirt,
and the surface that is being cleaned. Some of the impurities that are contained in the dishes
are eliminated by dissolving in the water that is being used to clean them (fourth type).
Impurities such as fats that may be contained in the dishes, when they react with alkalis, they
can transform into soap, which will either be dissolved, or suspended in the water, a process
which is commonly referred to as saponifiable (fifth type of cleaning mechanism of the
detergent).
The sixth type of cleaning mechanism of a detergent is the emulsion. When dishes are
contaminated with petroleum products, and then washed using a detergent, it helps in
reducing the surface tension, which will lead to the oil being suspended, and distributed in the
water assisting in the cleaning process of the detergents for the dirty dishes [3]. Dispersion is
effective in removal, or elimination of insoluble impurities such as dust. The last cleaning
mechanism for the detergents is the re-deposition process. There are impurities that may be
found in the dishes that may not be dissolved in the water once they are removed, or detached
from them, and will remain suspended in the water. It increases the possibility of a dish to be
acquire dirt from the water that is being used to clean them. Therefore, detergent may be
added to prevent dirt from being re-attached to the dishes that are being cleaned [3].
Impact of the Use of Detergents in the Environment
As has been noted before, a majority of detergents contain phosphate substances,
which are a nutrient to the algae, and other plants that are in the water. Therefore, when the
detergent is discarded into a water body, it will result in the aquatic plants to grow at a faster
rate than normal. It has a negative impact on the other living organisms in the water as it
reduces the oxygen volume in the water, cause obstruction during water transportation, and
even lead to a majority of organisms to die, which will then rot, and result in water pollution
[6].
It was pointed out that a majority of the detergents have enzymes, and some of these
components work differently than the human digestive enzymes, and when they come into
contact with the skin of an individual they may have a detrimental effect on it. Surfactants
such as LAS, and BAS are harmful to aquatic organisms even when they are disposed in low
quantities, and if a water body is constantly polluted by detergents that contain these
elements, then the aquatic animals may fail to survive. It has been established that LAS is
between 1.5-4times toxic to fish than is the case for BAS, and toxicity in the water bodies
depends on the quantity of the dissolved oxygen, water hardness, and temperature of the
water.
Detrimental Impact of Detergents on the Health of Individuals
As is the case with some of the soap, detergents can also cause skin irritations if an
individual comes into contact with it over a long period. Also, detergents that contain alkali
can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea if ingested. This may be as a result of using a dish
that was not properly rinsed. The consumed detergent will cause irritation of the digestive
lining, and cause the mucous membranes of the digestive tract to be inflamed [6]. If
consumed in large quantities, it may cause pain in the mouth, result in difficulty in
swallowing, and breathing. Therefore, caution should be taken when using these cleaning
agents on dishes to avoid the mentioned problems.
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Methodology
Materials Used
To conduct this research, the researcher used the following apparatus and ingredients in this
study:
 Surfactants
 Plasticizers and binders
 Lather enhancers
 Fillers and binders
 Water
 Fragrance
 Opacifying agents
 Dyes and pigments
 Water (55 gallons)
Equipment Used
 Large vats for mixing the ingredients
 Shuggi agglomerator
 Plastic bottles
 pH paper
 Beaker
 Stirring rod
Procedure
 The dry ingredients, which are used in the preparation of the dish detergent are placed
in a shuggi agglomerator. It is important to point out that the name ‘shuggi’ is that of
the manufacturer of this equipment.
 Allow the materials that have been added to the agglomerator to mix to a fine
consistency. It is important to point out that this process is similar to food being
textured in a food processor.
 Once the dry ingredients have been blended, and achieved a fine consistency, the
liquid ingredients are introduced by being sprayed on a dry mix through the nozzles
that are located in the agglomerator wall.
 The researcher will then ensure that the blending process continues, and will note that
the reaction that is taking place at that time is exothermic.
 The mixture that will be produced after the blending process is a hot, viscous liquid
that is highly similar to gelatin, which has not yet hardened.
 The researcher will then allow the liquid that has formed to flow out of the
agglomerator, and it will be cooled before being packed into labeled plastic containers
and transported to areas where the targeted consumers can access them.
 The method described above was repeated three times to produce cationic, anionic,
and nonionic detergents.
Caution
As the researcher will be dealing with chemicals that may be corrosive, and therefore can
result to injuries in the eyes, hands, or any part of the body that may come into contact with
them, it is essential to wear protective gear. Proper attire includes: hair net to ensure that it
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does not contaminate the chemicals that will be used during the dish detergent manufacturing
process. Other essential attire are face mask, gorgles, gloves and safety shoes. A diligent
researcher should ensure that he, or she adheres to the step-by-step process of the method that
he, or she is using during the manufacturing process of a dish detergent. Also, a researcher
should follow, or observe the quality control protocols that have been set for a particular
product.
Assessing the Properties of the Detergent
1. Elimination of Soil, Dust, or Mud from Dishes using the Different Detergents that
were Manufactured
Methodology
 Take a 6 cups, and 6 spoons, and then stain them with mud
 Leave the dirty utensils for approximately 5-10 minutes.
 Take two cups, and two spoons and then clean them using a detergent that contains
anionic surfactants.
 Repeat the process with the four cups and spoons, and use cationic, and non-ionic
surfactants to clean them as was the case in the utensils that were cleaned using the
anionic surfactants.
 Ask the cleaner, the level of difficulty he experienced during the cleaning using the
different surfactants (scale of 1 to 10)
 Record the findings of the results (level of cleanliness, difficulty of removal of stains,
amount of detergent used, and time taken to remove, or eliminate the stains).

2. Removal of Different Stains, or Impurities that May Be Found in Dishes

 Take 9 cups and 9 spoons and divide them into three (3 cups and 1 spoons) batches
 For the first batch, apply motor oil, and leave it for five minutes.
 For the second batch, apply cooking oil, and leave it for five minutes.
 For the third batch, apply tomato sauce and leave it for five minutes.
 Take one set from each batch (one cup, and one spoon), and then use the different
detergents (anionic, cationic, and nonionic surfactants) to clean the utensils.
 Observe and record the findings of this study

Results
Elimination of Soil, Dust, or Mud from the Dishes Using Detergents that Contain Different
Surfactants
4.1 Level of Cleanliness
After the dishes were washed, and left to dry, the researcher observed all the utensils
to determine the level of cleanliness, which was recorded in table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1: Level of Cleanliness of the Utensils that were Cleaned using the Different
Surfactants
Type of Surfactant in the Detergent Level of Cleanliness (%)
Anionic Surfactant 97
Cationic Surfactant 77
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Nonionic Surfactant 85

As evidenced in table 4.1 above, the anionic surfactant was observed to produce the
cleanest utensils after they were stained with mud, or clay. The reason for this is that, this
type of surfactant are highly effective in removing dirt, or clay stains as they are negatively
charged, and therefore bind with the positively charged particles such as clay. On the other
hand, cationic surfactants produced the least clean utensils as they have a positive charge,
which will repel the positively charged particles that are in the utensils i.e. the mud, or clay.
The cleaner had to wash three times using the cationic detergent for the utensils to be clean.
A graphical representation of the yield of soap from different oils is presented in this section.

Level of Cleanliness (%)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Anionic Surfactant Cationic Surfactant Nonionic Surfactant

#Figure 4: The graph above is an observation of the researcher on the level of cleanliness of
utensils that were stained with clay, and then cleaned using different type of surfactants as
labelled in the graph. The anionic surfactant produced 97% clean utensils, while cationic
surfactants produced 77% clean utensils.
4.2 Difficulty of Removing the Stains from the Utensils
The cleaner was asked to determine the level of difficulty that he experienced when
cleaning the utensils using the different types of dish detergents that were used in this study.
In this case, the level of difficulty was determined by noting the amount of force that was
applied during the scrubbing of the utensils, and recorded it the findings in table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2: Difficulty of Removing the Stains from the Utensils
Type of Surfactant in the Detergent Level of Difficulty
Anionic 30
Cationic 80
Nonionic 50
As was explained in the cleanliness of the utensils, the cleaner found it easier when
using the anionic dish detergent over the cationic dish detergent because of the charges of the
surfactants. The anionic surfactants easily bind with the positive clay particles, and therefore
they were easily removed by the cleaner. However, when the cleaner used the cationic
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detergents, the repletion of the positive charge from the surfactant, and the clay particles
made it a difficult process. The results of this are illustrated in graph 4.2 below:

Level of Difficulty
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Anionic Cationic Nonionic

#Figure5: The graph is an illustration of how the cleaner perceived the level of difficulty
when he used the three detergents that were produced in this study.
4.3 Time Taken to Remove the Clay Stains in the Utensils
The researcher felt that it was essential to determine the average time it takes to
remove the stains in the utensils, using the detergents that were manufactured in this study.
The time was recorded in seconds, and the findings are illustrated in table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Time Taken to Remove the Clay Stains from the Utensils
Type of Surfactant in the Detergent Time Taken (seconds)
Anionic 20
Cationic 147
Anionic 52

The researcher observed that when the detergent that contains the anionic surfactant
was used, it only took the cleaner 20 seconds to remove the dirt from the utensils that were
stained. However, when the cleaner used the cationic based detergent, the amount taken for
the cleaning process was 147 seconds. The reason for this is that the cleaner repeated the
process three times before he was able to remove the stains from the utensils. The graph
below is an illustration of the time taken to remove the stains.
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Time Taken (seconds)

Anionic Cationic Nonionic

#Figure 6: It is an illustration of the time taken by the cleaner to remove the stains from the
utensils using the different detergents that were used for cleaning purposes.
4.4 Amount of Detergent Used in the Cleaning Process
This is vital in determining the type of surfactants that should be used in the
production of detergents from an economic perspective. If one requires a high volume of
detergent to clean few utensils, then this type of detergent cannot be considered to be
economically viable. On the other hand, if during cleaning an individual uses a small quantity
of the detergent, then it can be considered to be economically viable, and effective for
cleaning of dirty dishes. The researcher recorded the results of this study in table 4.4 below.
Table 4.4 Amount of Detergent Used in the Cleaning Process
Type of Detergent Amount of Detergent Used (ml)
Anionic 1.4
Cationic 4.8
Nonionic 2.7
The researcher noted that when using the anionic-based detergent, the cleaner used
the least amount of the cleaning agent, while he used a high volume of the cleaning agent for
the cationic-based detergent. The reason for this is the type of charge of the surfactants in
these two detergents, and their interaction with the positively charged clay particles.
4.5 Removal of Different Stains, or Impurities that May Be Found in Dishes
The researcher felt that it was essential to assess the performance of the detergents
that were manufactured in this study to clean stains that can be found in dishes. The
impurities that were used were motor oil(MC), cooking oil (CC), and tomato sauce (TS). The
results were recorded in table 4.5 below.
Table 4.5: Removal of Different Impurities that Can Be Found in Dishes
Type of Impurity Cleanliness Level of Time Taken Amount of
Detergent Difficulty Detergent
Used
Anionic MC 92 30 20 1.4
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CC 97 32 20 -
TS 99 28 25 -
Cationic MC 68 85 155 4.8
CC 63 89 159 5.2
TS 78 93 162 5.7
Non-Ionic MC 87 50 52 2.7
CC 90 52 55 2.9
TS 92 55 51 3.2
The researcher noted that despite using different impurities, the anionic surfactants performed
better in terms of level of cleaning, difficulty, time taken, or required to wash the dirty
utensils, and needed the least amount of detergent to be effective in the cleaning process. The
graph below is a visual illustration of the results that were provided in table 4.6 below.

Comparison of the Different Types of Detergents

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
MC CC TS MC CC TS MC CC TS
Anionic Cationic Non-Ionic

Cleanliness Level of Difficulty Time Taken Amount of Detergent Used

#Figure 7: It is a graphical representation of the properties of the detergents that the

researcher tested during this study. The properties that were tested are cleanliness, level of
difficulty, time taken for the cleaning process to be achieved, and the amount of the detergent
that was used.

Conclusion
Most of the detergent manufacturing factories prefer to use the agglomeration process
as its main production method because it is continuous, which is effective for large scale
production in an economical scale. Detergents are considered to be more effective as cleaning
agents than soaps because they contain one, or more surfactants. In addition to that, the
chemical make-up of the surfactants can be engineered to perform effectively as a cleaning
agent in different conditions such as temperatures (both hot and cold temperatures), and water
conditions (soft and hard water). In this study, the researcher was interested in mastering the
production of detergents using the agglomeration process. After the production of the
detergent, the researcher performed the following tests to assess its effectiveness as a
cleaning agent. The researcher had prepared three types of detergents- ones with anionic
surfactants, cationic surfactants, and nonionic surfactants. The researcher was interested to
determine whether the charge of the surfactants had an impact on the effectiveness of a soap
as a cleaning agent. The following components were examined: cleanliness of the utensils,
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difficulty of cleaning them, time taken to clean them, and the amount of detergent that was
used. The researcher observed that detergents that contained anionic surfactants were the
most effective after evaluation of the mentioned properties. The reason for this is that a
majority of the impurities in the dishes such as dirt, clay, and oily stains are positively
charged, and therefore, they easily bind with the negative charge of the surfactants, and this
aids in the cleaning process.
Recommendations
The researcher noted that in future to get accurate results, there are a few pointers, and
precautions that need to be taken into consideration such as:
 Researchers being highly alert when adding reagents to the samples that are under
study to ensure that they make the appropriate observations that are required.
 Use of clean, and dry apparatus to get accurate results
 Taking precautionary measures to avoid accidents, and unnecessary mixture of
chemicals that can affect the yield, or the results.
 Clean, and dry the apparatus that have been used in the experiment.
 Examine the cleaning properties of the detergents in different conditions such as
acidic, and alkali environments, use hot and cold water in the cleaning process, and
use a wider variety of stains.
 Also, in future, a researcher may make a detergent that contains all the three types of
surfactants, and then observe its cleaning properties.
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References

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[2] Capeci, S., & Welch, R. G. (2017). Compact Powdered Detergent Process

Technologies. Powdered Detergents, 21-42. doi:10.1201/9780203742716-2

[3] De Groot, W. H. (1991). A Brief Description of the Sulphonation Processes Used for the

Manufacture of Active Detergents. Sulphonation Technology in the Detergent

Industry, 5-12. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-7918-6_2

[4] SDA. (1994). Soaps and Detergents. The Soap and Detergent Association.

[5] Tai, L. H., & Nardello-Ratj, V. (2001). Detergents The main surfactants used in

detergents and personal care products. Oléagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides, 8(2), 141-4.

[6] Wasilewski, T., Seweryn, A., & Krajewski, M. (2016). Improvement in the Safety of Use

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