Principles of

Sustainable I AN INTEGRATED
APPROACH TO

Development SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
F. Douglas Muschett

A s a p a r a d i g m a n d i m p o r t a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l theme, "sustainable
d e v e l o p m e n t " is p u z z l i n g . O n the o n e h a n d , the t e r m means
w h a t i t says; sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t means e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p -
m e n t a n d a standard o f l i v i n g w h i c h d o n o t i m p a i r the f u t u r e
ability o f the e n v i r o n m e n t t o p r o v i d e sustenance a n d life s u p p o r t
f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n . O n the other h a n d , it is m o r e difficult t o
e n v i s i o n a l l o f the f o r m s a n d implications o f "sustainable d e v e l -
o p m e n t " t o relate one's professional career o r personal lifestyle
t o its pursuit.

C. Lee Campbell Victor S. Lee F. Douglas Muschett is principal of F. Douglas Muschett and Associates in
Rochester, New York. He has held technical positions with environmental con-
Victoria Evans F. Douglas Muschett sulting firms and at Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., and served as

Walter W. Heck Thomas T. Shen a professor of environmental policy and resource management at Syracuse Uni-
versity. His major interest has been resolving multiple objectives of economic
Si Duk Lee John L. Warren development and environment through interdisciplinary analytical and policy
approaches, about which he has authored numerous articles. He holds a B.S. in
geography from the University of Michigan, an M.S. in meteorology and air
pollution from Penn State University, and a Ph.D. in environmental systems and
economic geography from the University of Michigan.
St. Lucie Press
Delray Beach, Florida
©St. Lucie Press CCC 1-57444-079-9 1/97/$100/$.50 1
2 An integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
Perhaps part o f the d i f f i c u l t y comes f r o m the fact that "sus-
tainable development," and the w o r l d i n w h i c h w e seek to prac-
tice it, cuts across and integrates many diverse disciplines. As
humans inhabit a n d use t h e natural e n v i r o n m e n t to i m p r o v e a
standard of l i v i n g , they utilize a large variety o f technologies a n d
act, w i t h i n the constraints o f their culture, to transform the en-
vironment a r o u n d them. H o w e v e r , i n the t w e n t i e t h century age
of w h a t I call "microspecialization," it is often difficult to see the
w h o l e system a n d h o w the parts are related to the w h o l e . There-
fore, m u c h o f w h a t f o l l o w s i n this chapter underscores the i m -
portance o f an interdisciplinary, "systems" approach i n order to
treat b o t h fundamental problems and special situations.
I n a v e r y real sense, m y goal of trying to relate w h a t consti-
tutes sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t is very h u m b l i n g . W e recognize
that the objectives o f sustainable development are to p r o v i d e f o r
the economic w e l l - b e i n g o f present and future generations a n d
to maintain a healthy e n v i r o n m e n t and life s u p p o r t system.
However, n o one truly k n o w s w h a t sustainable development is
because w e really cannot p o i n t to any examples w h e r e it has
occurred. The wealthier industrial countries d o n o t k n o w about
the "sustainable" part and most of the rest o f the w o r l d does n o t
k n o w about the " d e v e l o p m e n t " part. Unfortunately, as w e note
b e l o w w i t h some historical examples o f the decline o f civiliza-
tions, it is easier to cite w h e r e it has not occurred.
Moreover, it is impossible to lose sight o f the fact that sus-
tainable development is n o t strictly a p r o b l e m of science o r
engineering or economics o r proper management. T h e roots are
f o u n d i n values, ethics a n d culture o f b o t h d e v e l o p e d countries
and d e v e l o p i n g countries.
This chapter strives t o articulate a better, integrated under-
standing o f the imperative for and the many elements o f sustain-
able development. A t the same time, a l t h o u g h I have attempted
to be suggestive about some o f the changes and approaches
w h i c h w i l l be needed, it is not an "action p l a n " for h o w to
achieve sustainable development.
F. Douglas Muschett 3
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
U n d o u b t e d l y , p r i o r to the h i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d J u n e 1992 U n i t e d
Nations Conference o n E n v i r o n m e n t a n d D e v e l o p m e n t ( U N C E D )
i n Rio de Janeiro, relatively f e w p e o p l e h a d h e a r d o f the t e r m
"sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t . " Since that t i m e , a l t h o u g h it is n o t
exactly a h o u s e h o l d w o r d , there has b e e n r a p i d l y g r o w i n g inter-
est a m o n g international organizations, the research c o m m u n i t y ,
e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups a n d professionals, a n d business to learn
about "sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t , " to p r o m o t e it a n d , i n some
cases, t o get i n o n the "next w a v e " o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l concern.
Lessons from Other Civilizations and Societies
A l t h o u g h the t e r m m a y be n e w , sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t is n o t
a n e w p h e n o m e n o n or concern. O n the contrary, the impetus f o r
o u r present concern dates back thousands o f years, as so w e l l
illustrated b y Dale a n d Carter i n their c o m p e l l i n g b o o k , Topsoil
and Civilization} T w o rather dramatic a n d insightful examples
are the civilizations o f N o r t h Africa, i n the v i c i n i t y o f ancient
Carthage ( n o w Tunisia) a n d Egypt, barely one t h o u s a n d miles to
the east.
At the height o f its civilization a n d p o w e r , Carthage h a d o v e r
one m i l l i o n inhabitants a n d had an abundant f o o d s u p p l y f r o m
the c u l t i v a t i o n a n d grazing i n the fertile l o w l a n d s b e t w e e n the
coast a n d Atlas M o u n t a i n s . Once Rome c o n q u e r e d Carthage a n d
decided to make Carthage a colonial f o o d supplier f o r the Ro-
m a n Empire, a cycle o f irreversible l a n d degradation began,
w h i c h i m p o v e r i s h e d p e o p l e t h r o u g h history t o the present. Rome
o p t e d for intensive cultivation w i t h m a x i m u m y i e l d per acre a n d
w h e n the fertility began t o decline planted even more intensively
to "make u p " the d e c l i n i n g y i e l d . As p r o d u c t i v i t y naturally de-
c l i n e d even more, Rome spread c u l t i v a t i o n a n d grazing i n t o
marginal and u p l a n d areas, triggering a cycle o f erosion a n d
d e c l i n i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y w h i c h ultimately r u i n e d the l a n d forever.
 4 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
I n contrast, civilization i n Egypt persisted f r o m the time o f
Cleopatra until the t w e n t i e t h century o n a "sustainable" basis; the
annual spring f l o o d i n g o f the Nile p r o v i d e d b o t h water a n d a
replenishment o f soil nutrients. Ironically, n o w , i n the t w e n t i e t h
century, w i t h the construction o f the A s w a n D a m , this stable
system is i n decline. I n addition to a decline i n soil fertility,
w h i c h h a d to be s u p p l e m e n t e d b y artificial soil fertilizers, there
have also been m a n y other w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d , severe impacts
u p o n health, sustenance a n d ecology f r o m the altered h y d r o l o g y
a n d saltwater intrusion into the delta region.
Similar examples a b o u n d o n virtually every continent, f r o m
the time of ancient civilizations t h r o u g h the M i d d l e Ages a n d
Renaissance periods a n d to the time o f the Industrial Revolution.
European countries, ranging f r o m Ireland to Switzerland a n d
Spain, a m o n g others, suffered ravages o f deforestation, overgraz-
i n g and resulting f l o o d i n g a n d loss o f fertility. Watt presents an
interesting theory o n the decline of Spain as a naval a n d w o r l d
p o w e r due to the inability of its limited forest resources to
sustain the demands f o r s h i p b u i l d i n g . Moreover, p o w e r f u l land-
2 deterioration" i n wilderness regions w h i c h h a d pristine air. G e n -
lords ("meseta") r u i n e d a vast p o r t i o n o f the central a n d southern
p l a i n t h r o u g h the massive annual "sheepwalks," w h i c h d e n u d e d
the land, changed the soil structure a n d damaged soil fertility.
Recent Roots of Sustainable Development
I n the U n i t e d States, w e have o n l y to t h i n k of w h a l i n g , the
b u f f a l o a n d t h e D u s t B o w l as h i s t o r i c a l e x a m p l e s of
"nonsustainable d e v e l o p m e n t . " It is n o t w i d e l y recognized that
the seeds of our present concern w i t h sustainable development
w e r e first s o w e d a r o u n d the b e g i n n i n g of the t w e n t i e t h century
d u r i n g the first w a v e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l concern i n the U n i t e d
States, as described b y Stewart Udall i n his classic b o o k , The
Quiet Crisis? The nation's first forester, Gifford Pinchot, p r o -
m o t e d "conservation" as a f i e l d of inquiry to determine h o w the
national forests c o u l d best serve the nation's m a n y c o m p e t i n g
F. Douglas Muschett 5
e c o n o m i c interests w i t h o u t d e p l e t i n g the forests over the l o n g e r
t e r m . A t the t i m e , he was v e h e m e n t l y o p p o s e d b y J o h n M u i r , a
"preservationist," w h o , i n response t o w i d e s p r e a d destruction o f
natural resources d u r i n g the settlement o f the n a t i o n , f o u g h t t o
establish forests a n d wilderness as refuges t o preserve the p h y s i -
cal stock o f nature a n d the spirit o f h u m a n s .
As part o f the w a v e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n i n the U n i t e d
States f o l l o w i n g Earth D a y i n 1970, air q u a l i t y became a p r i m a r y
c o n c e r n a n d air q u a l i t y p o l i c y began to address "sustainable
d e v e l o p m e n t " — a l t h o u g h , o f course, that t e r m h a d n o t yet b e e n
u s e d — t h r o u g h questions o f h o w t o balance air q u a l i t y a n d eco-
n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . There w e r e at least three contexts. O n e
w a s the ( c o n t i n u i n g ) question o f h o w t o enable c o n t i n u i n g eco-
n o m i c g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n areas w h i c h d o n o t meet
a m b i e n t air q u a l i t y standards. A second c o n c e r n w a s to ensure
that c o n t i n u i n g g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t d o n o t cause unsatis-
factory air q u a l i t y at a future time (air q u a l i t y maintenance). A
t h i r d , still i m p o r t a n t , context was the " p r e v e n t i o n o f significant
erally, these approaches prescribed "technological retrofits" t o
specific polluters b y r a t i o n i n g small increments o f clean air at a
time. 4
M o r e f u n d a m e n t a l a n d controversial questions about the roles
o f p o p u l a t i o n , resource c o n s u m p t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n
a n d t e c h n o l o g y surfaced i n the early 1970s d u r i n g the so-called
"Limits t o G r o w t h " debate. Under sponsorship o f the prestigious
Club o f Rome, research b y a g r o u p o f scholars projected dire
future g l o b a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences f r o m some s i m p l i f y i n g
assumptions a n d extrapolations about p o p u l a t i o n a n d resource
g r o w t h rates. M u c h f u r o r a n d controversy resulted w h e n these
5
projections became w i d e l y interpreted i n the media as predic-
tion. Because, t o o , these projections neglected the capacity o f
humans a n d t e c h n o l o g y to adapt—about the same t i m e as the
"Green R e v o l u t i o n " demonstrated a capacity to greatly increase
f o o d p r o d u c t i o n — t h e w o r k became discredited f o r a w h i l e .
6 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
At the same time, it is important to note that o n the t w e n t i e t h
anniversary of their original study, the authors u p d a t e d the re-
sults i n a n e w b o o k , Beyond the Limits. 6 Using recent data a n d
trends, the authors reached the same conclusions b u t underscore
that environmental decay a n d economic decline are not i n e v i -
table p r o v i d e d that g r o w t h i n p o p u l a t i o n a n d material c o n s u m p -
t i o n is n o t perpetuated a n d p r o v i d e d that there is a drastic
increase i n the efficiency o f use of materials a n d energy t h r o u g h
technological i m p r o v e m e n t s .
Aside f r o m these projections o f the future, c o n t e m p o r a r y is-
sues a n d experience—ranging f r o m tropical rain forests a n d g l o -
bal climate change t o the G u l f War to the r a p i d economic a n d
p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h i n some d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s — p o i n t out the
necessity to live w i t h i n the carrying capacity o f the earth's eco-
sphere, t o make the g l o b a l economies m o r e efficient i n the use
o f natural resources a n d to reduce p o p u l a t i o n pressures. There
are, i n fact, "limits t o g r o w t h , " a n d it is vital t o ask (1) w h a t k i n d
of g r o w t h is desirable, (2) w h a t k i n d is n o t a n d (3) h o w to
develop economic p o l i c y a n d environmental p o l i c y accordingly
w h i l e maintaining consumer choices a n d a sense o f equity w i t h i n
a market economy.
DEFINING AND UNDERSTANDING
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
At the 1992 U . N . Conference o n Environment a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
i n Rio, UNCED Principle #3 characterized sustainable d e v e l o p -
ment as "the right to development must be f u l f i l l e d so as to
equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present
and future generations." U N C E D Principle #4 further states: " i n
order to achieve sustainable development, e n v i r o n m e n t a l protec-
t i o n shall constitute an integral part o f the development process
and cannot be considered i n isolation f r o m i t . " These t w o p r i n -
ciples, stated as part o f the U . N . Conference Agenda 21, have
F. Douglas Muschett 7
some v e r y p r o f o u n d implications f o r use a n d s t e w a r d s h i p o f
natural resources, ecology a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , as I discuss later i n
considerable d e t a i l . 7
For present purposes, it is i m p o r t a n t to ask: W h a t does it
mean t o " e q u i t a b l y meet d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l needs
o f present a n d f u t u r e generations"? I suspect that i n t e r n a t i o n a l
dissension w i t h i n the U n i t e d Nations over A g e n d a 21 indicates
that the answer is far f r o m c o m p l e t e . Nonetheless, the "spirit" o f
Principle #3 w o u l d seem to indicate a "fairness" i n m e e t i n g the
needs o f all peoples i n the present generation, a "fairness" i n
m e e t i n g the needs o f future generations as w e l l as the present
generation a n d a "balance" b e t w e e n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e n v i r o n -
mental preservation.
There is a tendency i n official gatherings a n d c o m m u n i q u e s
and agency programs to focus u p o n areas o f consensus a n d v e r y
specific "missions." Issues o f controversy are swept aside, a n d
the o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e is that c o n t i n u e d e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d
n e w t e c h n o l o g y w i l l solve p r o b l e m s o f p o v e r t y a n d e n v i r o n m e n t
for all peoples. Notions o f "social change" or " z e r o - s u m " eco-
n o m i c s " a n d "sacrifice" are politically incorrect. Yet, as n o t e d i n
the f o l l o w i n g section, there is a considerable b o d y o f scholarly
t h o u g h t a n d research w h i c h indicates that sustainable d e v e l o p -
m e n t must i n c l u d e a major transformation o f society. Conse-
quently, i n listing elements of sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t (Table
1.1), I have i n c l u d e d some o f the m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l , r o o t causes,
as w e l l as economic, e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d t e c h n o l o g y d i m e n s i o n s
w h i c h are m o r e frequently m e n t i o n e d .
I n d e e d , w e cannot attain sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h o u t
better technologies w h i c h w i l l enable us to "stretch o u t " scarcer
n o n r e n e w a b l e resources a n d to utilize r e n e w a b l e resources.
Nonetheless, a l t h o u g h the focus o f this chapter a n d b o o k is n o t
o n social change, it is i m p o r t a n t f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l professionals,
economists a n d o r d i n a r y citizens alike to recognize that there are
limits to w h a t can be accomplished b y technology.
8 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
TABLE 1.1 Elements of Sustainable Development
• Population stabilization
• New technologies/technology transfer
• Efficient use of natural resources
• Waste reduction and pollution prevention
• " W i n - w i n " situations
• Integrated environmental systems management
• Determining environmental limits
• Refining market economy
• Education
• Perception and attitude changes (paradigm shift)
• Social and cultural changes
Ethics and Culture
It w o u l d be impossible t o try to define sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t
w i t h o u t discussing the importance o f ethics a n d culture. T h e
subjects o f ethics a n d culture t e n d to make many individuals,
i n c l u d i n g scientists, engineers and politicians, very u n c o m f o r t -
able. After a l l , isn't every person entitled to his or her "pursuit
o f happiness"? W h a t "right" d o any o f us have to tell another
person h o w to live (unless, o f course, that person happens to be
a relative or close friend, i n w h i c h case it is o u r inalienable
right!)? A n d , anyway, isn't there a certain inevitability to progress
a n d n e w technology, a n d isn't the "free market" the best judge?
These questions have been debated, o f course, w i t h respect
to every social issue imaginable, b u t the p o i n t here is to empha-
size that ethics a n d culture are n o less i m p o r t a n t w i t h respect t o
sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t than w i t h respect to other issues such
as b i r t h c o n t r o l , g u n c o n t r o l , redistribution o f w e a l t h , etc. Fur-
F. Douglas Muschett 9
thermore, u p o n a m i n i m a l a m o u n t o f reflection, it becomes obvious
that m a n y other social issues are closely l i n k e d t o "sustainable
development."
T h e ethical dimensions o f sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t are t w o -
f o l d : (1) o u r relationship to f e l l o w inhabitants o f o u r c o u n t r y a n d
planet a n d (2) o u r relationship to the l a n d a n d p l a n t a n d a n i m a l
inhabitants o f the w o r l d . I f m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l professionals are
shy, there is n o shortage o f ethicists, theologians a n d e n v i r o n -
mentalists w i l l i n g t o address these questions.
Is it i m m o r a l that the U n i t e d States has to i m p o r t o v e r one-
h a l f o f its energy supply? O r that a c h i l d b o r n i n t o the culture
o f the U n i t e d States w i l l consume 30 to 40 times p e r capita the
energy a n d natural resources o f the "average" o f the rest o f the
w o r l d a n d 200 times as m u c h as several u n d e v e l o p e d countries?
A n g l i c a n A r c h b i s h o p J o h n T a y l o r believes so. I n his p r o v o c a t i v e
b o o k Enough Is Enough, T a y l o r discusses e n v i r o n m e n t a l t h e o l -
ogy; based u p o n Judeo-Christian theology, he offers practical
guidelines f o r a m o r e responsible c o n s u m e r i s m w h i c h p r o m o t e s
personal f u l f i l l m e n t a n d sharing b u t also reduces u n f u l f i l l i n g ,
unnecessary c o n s u m p t i o n . 8
W h e n so m u c h o f the fossil fuels a n d critical m i n e r a l re-
sources have to be i m p o r t e d b y the U n i t e d States a n d other
Western countries, there is m u c h that has to be r e f o r m e d w i t h i n
o u r cultures t o set us o n a p a t h t o w a r d s sustainable d e v e l o p -
ment. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the i m p o r t a n c e a n d role o f t e c h n o l o g y ,
economics a n d better management strategies, m a n y scholars are
c o n v i n c e d that the o n l y real h o p e f o r sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t
is a radical shift i n society.
Calculations b y Adler-Karlsson demonstrated that a d o u b l i n g
o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f the p o o r countries increases the c o n s u m p -
t i o n o f w o r l d resources b y one-sixth as m u c h as d o u b l i n g o f the
p o p u l a t i o n i n rich c o u n t r i e s . Carol a n d J o h n Steinhart have
9
o b s e r v e d that "the best energy technology can d o is m a k e things
tidier w h i l e w e struggle t o change o u r habits." Stivers argued for
10 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
"a n e w w o r l d v i e w i n v o l v i n g a radical change of attitudes a n d
v a l u e s . " B i r c h a n d Rasmussen note that "history's testimony is
10
that the most far-reaching change comes o n l y w i t h the c o m b i n a -
t i o n o f strong pressures, f r o m w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t , and a c o m p e l -
l i n g alternative v i s i o n . "
1 1
These statements w e r e w r i t t e n d u r i n g the 1970s. Perhaps the
reader can p o n d e r w h e t h e r the U n i t e d States is b e g i n n i n g to see
strong external pressures i n the f o r m o f situations i n v o l v i n g the
G u l f War, Haiti, Cuba, Mexico and Somalia and strong internal
pressures stemming f r o m structural economic changes a n d social
alienation a n d decay. N o one k n o w s w h a t the " c o m p e l l i n g v i -
s i o n " w i l l be, b u t m a n y scholars have suggested that it w i l l have
to be s o m e t h i n g o f religious p r o p o r t i o n s . B o t h Taylor a n d Birch
and Rasmussen have suggested the ( O l d Testament) concept o f
"shalom," or wholeness and h a r m o n y i n relationships w i t h n e i g h -
b o r a n d creation.
F r o m the perspective of d e v e l o p i n g countries, the essence o f
sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t is to p r o m o t e development w h i c h (1)
reduces the disparities i n lifestyles a n d global c o n s u m p t i o n a n d
(2) improves a n d maintains a healthful local environment a n d (3)
then, and only then, contributes towards solving critical global
e n v i r o n m e n t a l management of the g l o b a l " c o m m o n s " — s u c h as
g l o b a l climate change, oceans and fisheries, a n d forests.
There tends to b e a w i d e spectrum o f environmental ethics
r a n g i n g f r o m a belief that all plants a n d animals are o n earth to
serve humans to a belief that all life is part of creation a n d must
be respected and protected. These t w o polar v i e w s , h e l d respec-
tively b y "conservationist" forester G i f f o r d Pinchot and "preserva-
tionist" J o h n Muir, w e r e the source o f m u c h acrimony d u r i n g the
spread o f the first environmental m o v e m e n t w i t h i n the U n i t e d
States towards the e n d o f the nineteenth century. It s h o u l d be
p o i n t e d out, h o w e v e r , that mainstream religious denominations
and theologians generally p r o c l a i m an intermediate v i e w that
plant a n d a n i m a l life and natural resources are o n earth t o serve
F. Douglas Muschett 11
humans, b u t that w e also have a "stewardship" responsibility t o
care f o r the earth a n d its life.
M a n y economists take the "utilitarian" p o i n t o f v i e w that other
species d o n o t have an intrinsic w o r t h a n d that, therefore, eco-
logical p r o t e c t i o n s h o u l d be based u p o n w h e t h e r the species o r
habitat provides a direct economic benefit or indirect b e n e f i t
t h r o u g h m a i n t a i n i n g an ecological s y s t e m . I n reality, h u m a n
12
civilization a n d its diverse cultures, f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l hunters a n d
gatherers to sedentary agriculture to m a n u f a c t u r i n g to h i g h tech-
n o l o g y , have already caused the e x t i n c t i o n o f m a n y species a n d
are encroaching u p o n the habitat a n d threatening the survival o f
thousands o f others. T o help resolve f u t u r e conflicts b e t w e e n
l a n d use and e c o n o m i c activities a n d the survival o f habitat a n d
species, I believe that it is i m p o r t a n t to further d e v e l o p a n d
i m p l e m e n t a set o f criteria for setting priorities i n the p r o t e c t i o n
o f plant a n d a n i m a l species a n d h a b i t a t . 13
The Interaction of Whole Economic and
Natural Systems
N o t e , too, i n Principle #4 that m a k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n
a n "integral part o f the d e v e l o p m e n t process" is m u c h different
from the traditional pattern o f m a k i n g e c o n o m i c decisions a n d
t h e n correcting the e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts w h i c h m a y result. It
is a critical aspect o f sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t that the interac-
tion a n d feedback b e t w e e n the economic system a n d the e n v i -
r o n m e n t a l system be evaluated so that d e v e l o p m e n t can p r o c e e d
i n ways w h i c h w i l l prevent a n d reduce e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts.
Let us illustrate b y e x a m i n i n g the conceptual m o d e l i n Figure
1.1. T h e interaction o f the natural system a n d e c o n o m i c system
and the f l o w s o f materials a n d energy are illustrated. It is i m p o r -
tant to note that as the t e r m is b e i n g used here, the "natural
system" includes the ambient physical e n v i r o n m e n t , ecosystems
and natural resources. The "economic system" refers to the fac-
 F. Douglas Muschett 13

tors o f p r o d u c t i o n for goods a n d s e r v i c e s . For purposes o f

14

conceptualization a n d discussion, the systems are generalized,

but, as w i l l be n o t e d later, these "boxes" can be a p p l i e d t o
specific e c o n o m i c sectors and products.

T h e p u r p o s e o f Figure 1.1 is t o illustrate the interactions i n

terms o f (1) the k i n d s o f i n p u t demands a n d stresses that the
e c o n o m i c system places u p o n the natural system a n d ( 2 ) the
waste o u t p u t s a n d stresses w h i c h the e c o n o m i c system places
u p o n the natural system. W i t h respect t o the i n p u t d e m a n d s
p o s e d b y agricultural, industrial, c o m m e r c i a l a n d residential eco-
n o m i c sectors c o m p r i s i n g the w h o l e e c o n o m i c system, there are
a f e w b r o a d categories of stresses i n c l u d i n g : (1) the c o n v e r s i o n
o f l a n d a n d habitat to other uses; (2) ecological d e p l e t i o n a n d
possible e x t i n c t i o n o f l i v i n g species t h r o u g h harvesting, h u n t i n g ,
fishing a n d habitat conversion a n d (3) c o n s u m p t i o n o f n o n l i v i n g
m i n e r a l a n d fossil f u e l resources.

I n terms o f the outputs a n d stresses w h i c h the e c o n o m i c

system places u p o n the natural system, again some b r o a d cat-
egories are n o t e d , i n c l u d i n g (1) air a n d water pollutants a n d
s o l i d wastes; (2) greenhouse gases, such as carbon d i o x i d e , w a t e r
v a p o r a n d other "trace" gases, a n d t h e r m a l energy; (3) "altered"
land, w h i c h m a y have been cleared, d e n u d e d or p a v e d a n d (4)
silt, minerals a n d nutrients, resulting f r o m erosion, r u n o f f a n d
decay products f r o m b o t h organisms a n d s o l i d wastes.

F r o m the standpoint of sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t , it s h o u l d

be observed that the importance o f these impacts u p o n the
natural system varies greatly geographically, d e p e n d e n t u p o n the
e x i s t i n g states o f b o t h the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d the
e c o n o m y . T h e U n i t e d States has b e e n s l o w to c o m e to grips w i t h
its h i g h per capita demands for natural resources. A l t h o u g h the
h i g h per capita c o n s u m p t i o n o f energy a n d m i n e r a l resources
is w e l l d o c u m e n t e d , little attention has b e e n g i v e n to the c o n -
t i n u i n g loss o f p r i m e f a r m l a n d . A c c o r d i n g to the U.S. D e p a r t -
m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e , the U n i t e d States lost 4 m i l l i o n acres o f
14 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
p r i m e f a r m l a n d to d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g the p e r i o d 1982-92, an
increase o f 18% i n d e v e l o p e d land c o m p a r e d to a 9% increase
in p o p u l a t i o n .
The loss o f p r i m e farmland, together w i t h w i d e s p r e a d soil
erosion a n d soil profile changes, are examples o f w h a t can be
considered an "environmental deficit." That is, analogous to an
economic budget deficit w h i c h is repaid b y a n d at the expense
of future generations, environmental systems and natural resources
are frequently c o n s u m e d at the expense o f future generations. I n
some cases, such as i n the change o f soil structure, the damage
may be permanent. Similarly, w i t h respect to soil erosion a n d
certain nuclear wastes, damages cannot be reversed over m a n y
thousands o f years. I n other cases, such as toxic p o l l u t i o n o f lake
sediment a n d aquifers, the t i m e frame may be almost as b a d . O n
the other h a n d , i n some instances, such as w i t h certain forest
regeneration a n d w e t l a n d regeneration, the restoration can be
more timely.
Perhaps the first constructive step towards dealing w i t h this
"deficit" p r o b l e m is the recognition that it exists. Towards this
end, the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f Commerce has recently d e v e l o p e d a
n e w indicator o f Gross Domestic Product (GDP), w h i c h subtracts
the c o n s u m p t i o n o f natural resources a n d the costs o f p o l l u t i o n
and adds the benefits f r o m improvements i n environmental quality.
Fixing the Economic System Relations
There are several basic, u n d e r l y i n g reforms needed t h r o u g h o u t
the w h o l e economic system to reduce b o t h the natural system
inputs a n d the pollutant a n d waste outputs. First, w i t h respect t o
the manufacturing sector, there must be more efficient p r o d u c t
design a n d m o r e efficient manufacturing processes a n d quality
control ( m o r e o n this later). There is a tendency to associate
such modifications solely w i t h the manufacturing sector. H o w -
ever, other reforms are also needed w i t h i n the agricultural a n d
commercial sectors as w e l l . Careful farming methods, l a n d use
F. Douglas Muschett 15
p l a n n i n g a n d p r o p e r construction practices can all reduce s o i l
erosion. Better l a n d use a n d transportation p l a n n i n g are neces-
sary to reduce pollutant emissions a n d impacts. A n d n e w c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n s t e c h n o l o g y w i l l l i k e l y reduce the a m o u n t o f b u s i -
ness travel, c o m m u t i n g a n d transportation p o l l u t i o n .
A n o t h e r basic r e f o r m r e q u i r e d to better integrate p r o t e c t i o n o f
the natural system w i t h i n the m a c r o e c o n o m y is a shift o r eco-
n o m i c s u b s t i t u t i o n for the inputs. For e x a m p l e , e c o n o m i c substi-
tutions i n c l u d e a shift f r o m fossil energy i n p u t s to e n e r g y e f f i -
ciency a n d renewable energy, a shift f r o m a v i r g i n resource t o
a recycled i n p u t a n d a shift f r o m p r i m e agricultural l a n d d e v e l -
o p m e n t t o w a r d s other lands. A c h i e v i n g sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t
i n d e v e l o p i n g countries may e v e n require some s u r p r i s i n g shifts,
such as f r o m o n e f o r m o f renewable energy ( w o o d biomass) t o
another f o r m o f renewable energy, or e v e n a shift f r o m w o o d t o
a fossil f u e l ' ( c o u p l e d w i t h efficient energy use).
Economic Incentives
"The m a r k e t " focuses u p o n p r o f i t a n d tends to allocate a n d
r e w a r d investments w i t h short-term paybacks. Some desirable
p o l i c y outcomes, such as p r o t e c t i o n o f the e n v i r o n m e n t a n d
conservation o f natural resources, traditionally have n o t b e e n
achievable t h r o u g h reliance u p o n the market. Hence v a r i o u s
p r o g r a m s o f g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n have e v o l v e d . A l t h o u g h
g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n has generally succeeded i n m e e t i n g other,
" n o n e c o n o m i c " goals, there has b e e n increasing dissatisfaction
f r o m all sides. Slow response, s l o w adaptability to c h a n g i n g
conditions, lack o f i n n o v a t i o n , excessive adjudication a n d e x p e n -
sive solutions—these have all b e e n undesirable effects o f g o v e r n -
ment r e g u l a t i o n .
T h e q u e s t i o n becomes h o w to effect these k i n d s o f m o r e
efficient p r o d u c t designs, m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes a n d e c o n o m i c
substitutions o f inputs. Invariably, as the w o r l d shifts m o r e a n d
m o r e t o w a r d s a global, free-market e c o n o m y , these shifts a n d
16 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
economic substitutions w i l l have to be g u i d e d b y economic
incentives of various types. Closely related to the use o f eco-
n o m i c incentives, h o w e v e r , is manufacturer awareness o f alter-
natives, consumer awareness and concern, changes i n corporate
culture and a concern f o r life cycle costs of processes a n d p r o d -
ucts. M a n y such "barriers" must be overcome before economic
incentives can be f u l l y effective.
Historically, w i t h i n the f i e l d of e n v i r o n m e n t a l economics,
economic incentives have been frequently v i e w e d as either a
f o r m o f payment or subsidy (incentive) or a f o r m of tax (disin-
centive) or a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h , w h i c h is sometimes referred
to as " p u s h - p u l l . " I n a broader sense, however, m o r e basic tools
such as targeted investment tax credits can be important incen-
tives to stimulate investment i n more efficient manufacturing
processes a n d to adopt the life cycle costing approach discussed
below.
Other Western countries, more than the U n i t e d States, have
relied u p o n tax p o l i c y t o reduce resource c o n s u m p t i o n a n d
environmental impacts. Increasingly, t h o u g h , environmental laws
call f o r emission charges a n d fees as a disincentive for polluters.
The present effort t o revise tax p o l i c y to replace tobacco subsi-
dies w i t h tobacco taxes to pay for health care demonstrates a
k i n d o f " p u s h - p u l l " tax p o l i c y ; similar policies c o u l d eventually
become more w i d e s p r e a d as "sustainable development" issues
such as global climate change, l a n d use and p r i m e f a r m l a n d
protection become m o r e p r o m i n e n t .
However, it s h o u l d be recognized that there are also various
other p o w e r f u l kinds o f economic incentives b e y o n d those de-
fined b y government economic policies. U n d o u b t e d l y , the stron-
gest k i n d of incentive is a " b o t t o m - l i n e " cost saving t h r o u g h
efficient operation, w h i c h means m i n i m i z i n g the i n p u t o f energy
and r a w materials for operations a n d reducing waste. Related to
this must be an increasing awareness a n d a d o p t i o n of "life cycle
costing" of products so that performance, durability a n d opera-
t i o n costs are taken into account for the lifetime o f the p r o d u c t .
F. Douglas Muschett 17
This neglect has generally h a m p e r e d the a d o p t i o n o f state-of-the-
art energy efficiency for homes a n d offices a n d factories. A t least
i n Western countries, another i m p o r t a n t k i n d o f e c o n o m i c i n c e n -
tive is the m a r k e t i n g a n d p r o m o t i o n a l value d e r i v e d f r o m c o n -
sumer preference o f "green" p r o d u c t s . 15
I n the case o f d e v e l o p i n g countries, there is potentially a
particularly p o w e r f u l economic incentive w h i c h c o u l d be used t o
p r o m o t e sustainable economic d e v e l o p m e n t : i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a n k
and l e n d i n g policies. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this leverage is f r e q u e n t l y
not used i n practice. Moreover, the increasing t r e n d t o w a r d s
" p r i v a t i z a t i o n " w i t h creative, private f i n a n c i n g o f projects i n de-
v e l o p i n g countries means that private p r o f i t interests can super-
sede p u b l i c interests i n sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t . For e x a m p l e ,
repeating the pattern o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n the U n i t e d States, o n e
of the m o r e disturbing g l o b a l trends i n d e v e l o p i n g countries is
the avalanche o f electrical p o w e r plant construction, without
strong a c c o m p a n y i n g energy efficiency programs, life cycle cost-
ing a n d full-cost accounting. •
I n fact, the p r e c e d i n g underscores the fact that there w i l l
always b e a n e e d for some regulation to p r o m o t e p u b l i c interests
w h i c h w o u l d otherwise be o v e r w h e l m e d b y private interests.
H o w e v e r , to the extent that incentives can be i n c o r p o r a t e d suc-
cessfully w i t h i n the economic system, e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y sustain-
able d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l be obtainable m o r e q u i c k l y a n d at a
generally l o w e r cost than b y regulation.
A NEW KIND OF ECONOMIC GROWTH
The U . N . W o r l d Commission o n E n v i r o n m e n t a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
( W C E D ) observes, "Sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t requires a change
i n the content o f g r o w t h , to m a k e it less material a n d energy-
intensive a n d m o r e equitable i n its i m p a c t . " I n a global, " o p e n "
16
economy, the interactions b e t w e e n the economic a n d natural
systems affect transfers at regional levels f r o m one r e g i o n to
18 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
another. Thus, a related feature is that the economic demands
f r o m o n e region can cause problems o f economic equity a n d
h u m a n w e l f a r e a n d stresses u p o n the natural system i n another
region. For example, i n d e v e l o p i n g countries, exports o f cash
crops a n d natural resources may reduce the land a n d natural
resources available t o sustain the local p o p u l a t i o n a n d concen-
trate the w e a l t h f r o m exports a m o n g a relative f e w .
T h e above statement b y the W C E D raises issues w h i c h , i n
fact, are not n e w . A r o u n d the time o f Earth D a y 1970, b o t h
economists a n d environmentalists w e r e discussing the question
of c h a n g i n g the content o f economic g r o w t h "to make it less
material a n d energy intensive" and m o r e equitable i n its impact.
I n contrast to the traditional " c o w b o y " e c o n o m y w h i c h fostered
i n d e p e n d e n c e , recklessness a n d waste, e c o n o m i s t K e n n e t h
B o u l d i n g i n t r o d u c e d the concept o f a "spaceship e c o n o m y . " As
the finite spaceship required the interdependency o f the p e o p l e
and systems, a finite w o r l d requires p e o p l e to w o r k together
w i t h i n the limits set b y the natural system a n d requires efficiency
i n o u r use o f resources a n d care i n our use o f the e n v i r o n m e n t .
17
D u r i n g a l o n g career, economist E.F. Schumaker w a s con-
cerned w i t h e c o n o m i c development a n d e q u i t y — p r o m o t i n g the
"right k i n d " o f economic g r o w t h a n d factors o f p r o d u c t i o n
w h i c h i m p r o v e local e m p l o y m e n t a n d w e l l - b e i n g . A l t h o u g h
Schumaker was definitely out o f the mainstream o f a w o r l d
w h i c h is concerned w i t h m a x i m i z i n g g r o w t h rates, m a n y o f his
tenets about culture, technology transfer a n d sustainable devel-
o p m e n t projects are—finally, after his d e a t h — b e g i n n i n g to re-
ceive serious a t t e n t i o n . 18
Commoner's Simple Model
I n a previous section, the interaction o f the w h o l e economic
system a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l system at a fundamental, h i g h l y aggre-
gated level was discussed. H o w e v e r , let us suppose that the
F. Douglas Muschett 19
" e c o n o m i c system" b o x i n Figure 1.1 n o w represents a specific
p r o d u c t category such as electric p o w e r , a u t o m o t i v e h o r s e p o w e r ,
plastics, w o o d p u l p , etc. T h e n Figure 1.1 represents the stresses
u p o n the natural system resulting f r o m (1) the i n p u t s d e m a n d e d
b y the p r o d u c t category f r o m the natural system a n d (2) the
waste a n d pollutant o u t p u t s f r o m the p r o d u c t category.
C o m m o n e r was c o n c e r n e d w i t h the latter i n an analysis o f the
origins o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts i n the p o s t - w a r U.S. e c o n o m y . 1 9
For a large variety o f e c o n o m i c goods ( p r o d u c t s ) , C o m m o n e r
d e f i n e d an " i n d e x o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t " ( w h i c h is really
p o l l u t a n t emissions) t h r o u g h the f o l l o w i n g relationships:
Pollutants per = Population (population)
Product
Product O u t p u t , .,. , ,
x tL_ (affluence) (1.1)
Population
' Pollutants /. i I .
x (technology)
Product O u t p u t
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH
T w o examples o f the k i n d o f analysis p e r f o r m e d b y C o m m o n e r
are g i v e n i n Table 1.2. It is i m p o r t a n t t o note i n the above
parentheses the interpretations o f the three terms as g i v e n b y
C o m m o n e r . These interpretations are h o w e v e r , I believe, a b i t
simplistic. T h e second factor relating to p e r capita c o n s u m p t i o n
o f a g o o d is i n d e e d related to e c o n o m i c affluence, b u t consumer
decisions are also related to culture a n d awareness. Similarly, the
t h i r d factor w h i c h relates p o l l u t i o n t o the a m o u n t o f p r o d u c t
p r o d u c e d is i n d e e d related to t e c h n o l o g y a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l
changes, b u t is also related to economics, r e g u l a t i o n a n d c o r p o -
rate culture. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g these criticisms, C o m m o n e r w a s
 TABLE 1.2 Applications of Commoner's Model for Environmental Degradation

Synthetic Organic Pesticides: Environmental Impact Index

Index factors Total impact index

(a) (b) (0 (a x b x c)
Crop production 3 Synthetic
Population Pesticide consumption organic
Population (crop production Crop production pesticides
(1,000) units/cap.) (1,000 lb/prod, unit) (million lb.)

1950 151,868 5.66 x 10- 7 3,326 286

1967 197,859 5.96 x 10- 7 8,898 1,050

1967 : 1950 1.30 1.05 2.68 3.67

Percentage 30 5 168 267

increase,
1950-1967

a T h e crop output index is an indicator of agricultural production; 1957-59 average = 100.

iiiiuiwimiini.il in " i . w i . .1111111.11,411 piiiin m

Nitrogen Oxides from Passenger Vehicles: Environmental Impact Index

Index factors Total impact index

(a) (b) (c) (a x b x c)
Population Vehicle-miles Nitrogen oxides 3

(1,000) Population Vehicle-miles Nitrogen oxides

1946 140,686 1,982 33.5 10.6

1967 197,849 3,962 86.4 77.5
1967 : 1946 1.41 2.00 2.58 7.3
Percentage 41 100 158 630
increase,
1946-1967

a Dimension = N O (ppm) x gasoline consumption (gal. x 1CT ). Estimated from product of passenger vehicle gasoline
x 6

consumption and ppm of N O emitted by engines of average compression ratio 5.9 (1946) and 9.5 (1967) under running
x

conditions, at 15 in. manifold pressure: 1946, 500 ppm N O ; 1967, 1,200 ppm N O .
x x

Source: Originally published as Tables 3 and 7 on pages 46 and 57, respectively, in Reference 17.
22 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development F. Douglas Muschett 23

able to present a rather c o n v i n c i n g case, as i n the examples i n Fossil Fuel Energy Population
Table 1.2, f o r the relative importance i n the changes i n p o p u l a - Input to Steel
tion, economic d e m a n d a n d technology as they affected the
Steel O u t p u t
dramatic g r o w t h o f p o l l u t i o n f r o m different economic activities i n (1.3)
Population
the post-war p e r i o d .

Aside f r o m the specific sectoral analysis, part o f the appeal o f Energy Input
Commoner's w o r k is that he attempted to analyze some f u n d a - Steel O u t p u t
mental causes f o r the d o m i n a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m o f the
or
time. It is perhaps interesting to also note that, i n a far less
technical fashion, an e n v i r o n m e n t a l theologian, Charles Birch, Land Input = Population
also d e v e l o p e d a similar conceptual approach for analyzing root to H o u s i n g
causes o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e c a y .
20
x Housing Output
Population

Applying the Model to Sustainable Development Land Input

W i t h respect to sustainable development, Commoner's simple Housing Output

approach can be adapted to p r o v i d e some insights into h o w to
"change the content o f economic g r o w t h , to make it less material
and energy-intensive." A l t h o u g h he was concerned w i t h waste
and pollutant outputs, a similar formulation can be used to examine
inputs d e m a n d e d b y a specific p r o d u c t or economic sector f r o m
the natural system, as f o l l o w s :
Natural Resources Population
Input per Product
Product O u t p u t
Population
Resource Input
x c—
Product O u t p u t
A n y resource o f interest (e.g., energy, metals, w o o d ,
etc.) c o u l d be analyzed i n this fashion to determine the relative
importance o f f u n d a m e n t a l factors i n the d e m a n d f o r inputs. For
example, t w o such formulations c o u l d be:
V i e w e d i n this manner,, f r o m the general f o r m u l a t i o n (Equa-
t i o n 1.2) above, a n y measure w h i c h serves to reduce the factors
o n the r i g h t - h a n d side w i l l reduce p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y the n a t u r a l
resource i n p u t s r e q u i r e d f o r a g i v e n e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t . T h e first
observation is the direct i m p o r t a n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n i n sustainable
d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c o u p l i n g o f the substantial p o p u l a t i o n s i n
d e v e l o p i n g nations a n d their desire to b e c o m e e c o n o m i c c o n -
sumers l i k e the Western nations is an e m e r g i n g cause f o r g l o b a l
e n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns a n d a major d r i v i n g force f o r sustainable
^ 2 j development.
Therefore, it is essential f o r the Western countries, f o r reasons
o f b o t h "fairness" a n d their o w n self-interest, t o b e c o m e "better
m e n t o r s " i n their c o n s u m p t i o n o f natural resources. W e can
b e g i n b y u s i n g the above scheme to ask the f o l l o w i n g questions:
land,
(1) Is it desirable or feasible t o effect b e h a v i o r a l
changes to reduce the per capita c o n s u m p t i o n o f
the p r o d u c t (second term)?
24 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
(2) W h a t technical means are available to reduce the
resource i n p u t per unit of p r o d u c t o u t p u t ( t h i r d
term)?
Per Capita Consumption
Occasionally, i n specific instances w h i c h are regarded as b e i n g
important t o the general health a n d w e l l - b e i n g , there are efforts
b y the g o v e r n m e n t or p u b l i c interest groups to inteivene to
change consumer habits (e.g., smoking, energy conservation e d u -
cation, safe d r i v i n g , eating habits or products f r o m endangered
species). I n the short t e r m , there are already m a n y i n d i v i d u a l
examples w h e r e b y an i n f o r m e d , aware consumer m a y w i s h to
shift c o n s u m p t i o n f r o m o n e p r o d u c t to another f o r reasons of
health, economics or consumer satisfaction—and at the same
time p r o m o t e "sustainability"—a " w i n - w i n " situation.
For example, b y r e d u c i n g electric p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n , the
consumer saves m o n e y a n d reduces fossil f u e l inputs. By reduc-
i n g c o n s u m p t i o n o f c o r n - f e d beef for health reasons, a r e d u c t i o n
i n energy a n d agricultural chemicals is also b r o u g h t about. B y
purchasing a smaller house, the consumer can save money, reduce
maintenance a n d increase leisure time, a n d reduce natural re-
source c o n s u m p t i o n .
I n a free society, any large shifts i n consumerism, such as
b e c o m i n g a less materialistic and consumptive society, are nec-
essarily dependent u p o n values a n d major social a n d cultural
changes over l o n g periods o f time. Such changes must overcome
a lot of skepticism a m o n g b o t h economists a n d consumers about
the nature o f economic g r o w t h a n d w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n to the
consumer-based e c o n o m y if there w e r e a d e c i d e d longer t e r m
shift towards a less materialistic society. For a l o n g time, e n v i -
ronmental quality—clean air a n d clean water, for e x a m p l e — w a s
thought t o be a " d r a g " o n the e c o n o m y a n d jobs. I t was just n o t
perceived that consumers c o u l d choose to d e m a n d m o r e clean
air a n d m o r e clean water i n the sense that they c o u l d d e m a n d
F. Douglas Muschett 25
other e c o n o m i c goods. N o w , h o w e v e r , it is w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d
that the d e m a n d f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n creates jobs.
I n the same w a y , i n the l o n g t e r m , possible f u t u r e shifts i n
consumer d e m a n d towards f e w e r b u t m o r e d u r a b l e g o o d s a n d
m o r e services (e.g., " o n l i n e , " arts, recreation, etc.) are c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h a h e a l t h y e c o n o m y . This is n o t t o i m p l y that there is n o
c o n c e r n a b o u t dislocations o f p r o d u c t s a n d jobs; f o r e x a m p l e ,
the U.S. a u t o m o b i l e industry requires time f o r p l a n n i n g a n d
adaptation. H o w e v e r , there is n o reason to fear c u l t u r a l changes
a n d related changes i n the e c o n o m y over t i m e . Historically, i n
fact, the interaction of culture, technology a n d the market e c o n o m y
has d e m o n s t r a t e d that every p r o d u c t a n d service i n the m a r k e t -
place has its so-called "S" curve, f e a t u r i n g stages o f r a p i d g r o w t h ,
s l o w e r g r o w t h , stability a n d decline.
Reducing the Inputs
It is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t ' t h e extent to w h i c h w e are able t o
reduce the ratio o f "material i n p u t s to p r o d u c t o u t p u t s " o v e r
time, either b y efficiency or substitution m e t h o d s discussed be-
l o w , is an i m p o r t a n t indicator o f technological progress t o w a r d s
sustainability. Thus, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the k i n d o f p r o d u c t life
cycle analysis discussed earlier, it is i m p o r t a n t t o evaluate trends
i n this ratio.
More Efficient Use of Inputs
D u r i n g the past decade, " b o t t o m - l i n e " priorities a n d c o m p e t i t i v e
pressures have shaped an emphasis u p o n m o r e efficient m a n u -
facturing processes w h i c h (1) use inputs m o r e efficiently a n d
p r o d u c e less waste per unit o f o u t p u t a n d (2) have better q u a l i t y
c o n t r o l a n d p r o d u c e less waste. M o r e recently, the design o f the
p r o d u c t itself, size a n d packaging are b e c o m i n g r e c o g n i z e d as
i m p o r t a n t means o f r e d u c i n g resource inputs. A n e m e r g i n g f i e l d
o f p r o d u c t "life cycle design" is s t u d y i n g w a y s t o p r o m o t e
26 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
sustainability, i n c l u d i n g the use of c o m p o n e n t parts w h i c h can
be r e c y c l e d . 21
Substitution of Inputs
Somewhat related t o the previous concept o f p r o d u c t design is
another m e t h o d o f r e d u c i n g resource inputs: a substitution o f
inputs. T h e idea is t o substitute a m o r e p l e n t i f u l resource f o r a
critical or less p l e n t i f u l resource. There are several k i n d s o f
substitutions w h i c h are possible for m a n u f a c t u r i n g . Substitutions
can include one n o n r e n e w a b l e resource f o r another (steel i n -
stead o f t i n ) , a renewable resource f o r a n o n r e n e w a b l e resource
( w o o d or biomass-derived chemicals instead o f petrochemicals),
one renewable resource (maple w o o d ) for another renewable
resource (mahogany) or, as i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f music key-
boards, a renewable resource ( w o o d ) or even a n o n r e n e w a b l e
resource (plastic) f o r an endangered resource ( i v o r y ) .
Such substitutions are also critical f o r the economies i n devel-
o p i n g countries. I n most cases, countries must utilize abundant
local natural resources such as sand, stone, w o o d a n d fossil fuels
for housing and fuel, respectively. H o w e v e r i n other cases, they
must try to protect d i m i n i s h i n g natural resources, such as forests,
f r o m p o p u l a t i o n pressures.
Despite the above examples as to h o w a substitution o f i n -
puts can p r o m o t e sustainable development, the opposite is often
true i n practice. That is, for reasons o f product economics, per-
formance a n d consumer preference, there are frequently substi-
tutions w h i c h utilize m o r e critical resources a n d n o n r e n e w a b l e
resources. For example, over the past t w o decades a u t o m o b i l e
construction has shifted away f r o m steel towards a l u m i n u m a n d
n o w plastic. Rubber tires are n o longer made f r o m natural rub-
ber. Containers have shifted towards plastics.
This situation makes one particular k i n d o f substitution i n -
creasingly i m p o r t a n t for sustainable development: a recycled
input. As part o f the emerging "life cycle design" n o t e d above,
F. Douglas Muschett 27
p r o d u c t s are b e i n g designed so that the c o m p o n e n t s c a n use
r e c y c l e d materials a n d so that the c o m p o n e n t s themselves can
e v e n t u a l l y b e recycled. Economist H e r m a n D a l y suggested the
ultimate, idealized goal o f a "stationary state" e c o n o m y w h i c h
m i n i m i z e s w h a t he referred to as the " t h r o u g h p u t " b y reusing
and recycling. 22
A f e w p r o d u c t s i n w h i c h the U n i t e d States is the w o r l d leader
b u t w h i c h w o u l d never c o m e to m i n d are i r o n a n d steel scrap
metals a n d waste paper. These waste p r o d u c t s have e c o n o m i c
v a l u e i n large measure d u e to the energy saved i n u s i n g t h e
waste scraps versus processing r a w materials. So, the U n i t e d
States e x p o r t s the waste products, a n d m a n y countries, particu-
larly the Asian countries, i n t u r n p r o d u c e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s l i k e
steel, paper, autos a n d appliances. This is not t o suggest that U.S.
manufacturers are s t u p i d o r u n a w a r e ; there are m a n y c o m p l i -
cated factors a n d domestic "barriers" to the use o f recycled
materials w h i c h l e d to this situation.
Increasing the Value-Added of the Resource
Computers a n d software, c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t e c h n o l o g y , aerospace,
agricultural products, perhaps even e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l tech-
n o l o g y — t h e s e are products i n w h i c h the U n i t e d States is a w o r l d
leader. I n most cases, these products share the fortunate eco-
n o m i c trait o f h a v i n g a h i g h "value-added." That is, above a n d
b e y o n d the e c o n o m i c v a l u e o f the natural resources i n the p r o d -
u c t — t h e cost o f the s i l i c o n a n d metal c o m p r i s i n g c o m p u t e r
c o m p o n e n t s is rather m i n i m a l — t h e r e is considerable value a d d e d
to the p r o d u c t b y the sophisticated t e c h n o l o g y , professional
e n g i n e e r i n g a n d design, a n d w o r k e r skills.
I n t h e context o f sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t , o n e w a y o f reduc-
i n g the natural resource i n p u t per u n i t o f p r o d u c t is to i m p r o v e
t h e q u a l i t y a n d durability o f the p r o d u c t ; that is, t o m a n u f a c t u r e
a "better," m o r e expensive p r o d u c t . A second w a y , as w e have
n o t e d above, is to d e v e l o p t e c h n o l o g y a n d e c o n o m i c incentives
28 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
w h i c h w i l l facilitate greater use of scrap materials. A t h i r d w a y
to increase the economic o u t p u t f r o m the resource is to shift the
product itself to another product. For example, if there are l i m i -
tations u p o n the a m o u n t of forest that can be sustainably har-
vested, instead o f e x p o r t i n g timber or l u m b e r (the next higher
valued p r o d u c t above timber), it may be desirable to produce
furniture or doors or cabinets or prefabricated housing.
Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization
Before c o n c l u d i n g this section, recall that I began w i t h an o b -
servation f r o m the U . N . W o r l d Commission o n Environment a n d
D e v e l o p m e n t that sustainable development requires a change i n
the content o f g r o w t h , to make it less material a n d energy inten-
sive and m o r e equitable i n its impact. Therefore, I discussed
some approaches towards reducing the inputs of natural re-
sources r e q u i r e d for i n d i v i d u a l economic products. H o w e v e r , as
w e have n o t e d previously, actions taken to reduce the economic
inputs w i l l also reduce the wastes a n d pollutants p r o d u c e d b y
the economic system.
Thus there is a close relation b e t w e e n the above approaches
and the concepts o f " p o l l u t i o n p r e v e n t i o n " and "waste m i n i m i -
zation" discussed i n other chapters. P o l l u t i o n prevention emerged
d u r i n g the 1980s as perhaps the most i m p o r t a n t environmental
paradigm o f the decade; it was originally d e v e l o p e d b y a h a n d f u l
of corporate giants acting i n their enlightened self-interest to save
money o n the costs o f p r o d u c t i o n and the costs o f air a n d w a t e r
p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l . Methods of p o l l u t i o n p r e v e n t i o n i n c l u d e
2 3
changing industrial processes, changing the inputs to industrial
processes, reusing industrial wastes, using industrial energy more
efficiently a n d changing product design. Subsequently, the c o n -
cept e x p a n d e d to embrace waste m i n i m i z a t i o n for analogous
methods o f reducing s o l i d a n d hazardous wastes.
One specific related issue deserves m e n t i o n , however. Since
considerable pioneering research undertaken d u r i n g the 1970s at
F. Douglas Muschett 29
Resources f o r the Future i n W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., it has b e e n rec-
o g n i z e d that beneficial, economically efficient trade-offs a m o n g
the c o m p o n e n t s o f the e n v i r o n m e n t a l m e d i a can be o b t a i n e d
w i t h certain changes i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes. For e x a m p l e , a
decrease o f 50% i n water organic emissions m i g h t be a c h i e v e d
w i t h a process that increases air sulfur d i o x i d e emissions b y 10%o.
Because the e v o l u t i o n o f regulatory p o l i c y i n the U n i t e d States
has b e e n t o w a r d s singular pursuit o f specific air a n d w a t e r p o l -
lutants, an efficient, integrated " m u l t i m e d i a " presents f o r m i d a b l e
legal obstacles. Despite some recent attempts t o w a r d s " m u l t i m e -
dia" management concerns, there is still a l o n g w a y to g o . H o p e -
f u l l y , other countries can d e v e l o p m o r e f l e x i b l e approaches i n
their e m e r g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l management programs.
Win-Win Strategies in Sustainable Development
I n the course o f other discussions I have a l l u d e d to the fact that
there exist possible " w i n - w i n " situations; that is, t a k i n g actions
w h i c h w i l l meet m o r e than one objective at the same t i m e . I
believe that an i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t
i n the near t e r m s h o u l d a n d w i l l be efforts to i d e n t i f y a n d
p r o m o t e " w i n - w i n " d e v e l o p m e n t strategies a n d policies w h i c h
can simultaneously h e l p meet b o t h d e v e l o p m e n t objectives a n d
e n v i r o n m e n t a l objectives. Certainly, these " w i n - w i n " types o f
policies are more capable of generating public, private and political
s u p p o r t than policies w h i c h are perceived to s i m p l y restrain
d e v e l o p m e n t . A n d some of these policies can also be h e l p f u l
immediately w h i l e w e grapple w i t h changes i n o u r t e c h n o l o g y ,
e c o n o m i c system, t h i n k i n g and behavior.
There are a f e w specific categories o f " w i n - w i n " situations
w h i c h deserve m o r e explicit m e n t i o n than previously g i v e n . O n e
category is agriculture, a f o r m o f renewable resource. I n some
d e v e l o p i n g countries, l a n d is used almost exclusively f o r the
p r o d u c t i o n o f so-called "cash crops." A n o t h e r possibility, w h i c h
promotes b o t h renewable resources a n d economic d e v e l o p m e n t ,
30 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
as Brazil has s h o w n , is to produce biomass-derived chemicals
and fuels.
H o w e v e r , there are also important benefits f r o m shifting some
land use f r o m cash crops, generally o w n e d b y large landowners,
to more f o o d p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n d i v i d u a l l a n d o w n e r s h i p . The
p o p u l a t i o n w i l l be better fed, a n d better l a n d stewardship is
generally possible. O f course, "cash crops" are an i m p o r t a n t
economic base w h i c h serves to pay f o r imports a n d taxes; h o w -
ever, the w e a l t h tends t o be concentrated a n d m u c h o f it f l o w s
for purchase abroad rather than stimulating the local economy.
O f t e n it w i l l also be necessary to effect a degree o f l a n d r e f o r m
and transfer o f p o w e r a n d w e a l t h .
F r o m a U.S. perspective, our present agricultural system can
be characterized as an amazing success story i n agricultural output,
but one w h i c h is completely nonsustainable w i t h present m e t h -
ods. The vast increases i n agricultural output a n d consumer choice
have come at the expense o f methods w h i c h have cost a p p r o x i -
mately one-half o f the t o p s o i l a n d have r e q u i r e d a "subsidy" of
about ten calories o f fossil-fuel i n p u t for farming, processing,
distribution and preparation for each calorie of f o o d o u t p u t . I n
the l o n g r u n , it is also desirable that agricultural p o l i c y help
effect a return o f the f a r m i n g o c c u p a t i o n a n d the "family farm."
This w i l l h e l p to p r o v i d e economic opportunities a n d i m p r o v e
rural economies a n d also likely w i l l p r o m o t e better care of the
l a n d (a family tends to be interested i n m a i n t a i n i n g a n d not
"depreciating" the l a n d ) .
A second k i n d o f " w i n - w i n " situation f o r sustainable d e v e l o p -
ment, an extension o f a prior discussion, is to manufacture n e w
products f r o m recovered waste p r o d u c t s — s o l i d wastes (rubber,
plastics, scrap metals, papers), agricultural a n d organic wastes ( i n
excess of those needed to maintain soil fertility) a n d a n i m a l a n d
h u m a n wastes. M a n y states, such as N e w Y o r k , n o w have c o n -
siderable departments w i t h i n their respective economic d e v e l o p -
ment agencies w h i c h are dedicated towards p r o m o t i n g a n d p r o -
v i d i n g incentives t o w a r d s these goals a n d o v e r c o m i n g some of
F. Douglas Muschett 31
the t r a d i t i o n a l market barriers. M a n y successes are beginning to
occur, s u c h as the recovery a n d remanufacture o f plastic p r o d -
ucts l i k e p a c k a g i n g materials.
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy:
The Ultimate Win-Win Situation
Clearly, energy is a critical factor i n sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t . O n
the o n e h a n d , the h i g h per capita c o n s u m p t i o n o f fossil fuels b y
the U n i t e d States a n d other Western nations is nonsustainable,
and o n the other, the d e v e l o p i n g countries are seeking t o be-
c o m e m o r e l i k e the West i n lifestyle a n d t e c h n o l o g y . Energy
costs are an i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f industry competitiveness
and consumer expenditures, a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f
fossil-fuel energy are far-reaching.
W i t h respect t o renewable energy, a l t h o u g h m a n y t e c h n o l o -
gies o f the future, such as solar p h o t o v o l t a i c p o w e r , are n o t
generally e c o n o m i c a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e n o w , there are a variety o f
niche applications w h i c h are. W i n d p o w e r is particularly w e l l
suited t o p o w e r i n g small c o m m u n i t i e s a n d irrigation, a n d solar
photovoltaics is w e l l suited f o r remote areas away f r o m a trans-
mission g r i d . Some forms of biomass wastes, r a n g i n g f r o m agri-
cultural t o manures, are also a r e n e w a b l e f o r m o f energy, u n -
d o u b t e d l y m o r e w i d e l y used i n the d e v e l o p i n g countries t h a n
the d e v e l o p e d countries. The " p i g g y b a c k i n g " o f certain alternate
sources o f energy is also p o s s i b l e . 24
Several years ago at a conference, I made the c o m m e n t that
energy conservation is an i m p o r t a n t strategy to combat air p o l -
l u t i o n ; i n response, I w e l l remember receiving a n u m b e r o f b l a n k
stares o f b e w i l d e r m e n t . Thus, despite the fact that the major
source o f c o n v e n t i o n a l air p o l l u t i o n , p h o t o c h e m i c a l s m o g a n d
acid p r e c i p i t a t i o n alike is f u e l c o m b u s t i o n , these issues have
b e e n w i d e l y perceived as p o l l u t i o n issues, n o t as energy issues.
Consequently, e n v i r o n m e n t a l management strategies have suc-
cessively focused u p o n these issues as separate p r o b l e m s requir-
32 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
ing separate programs a n d technologies to clean u p p o l l u t i o n
f r o m fuel c o m b u s t i o n . H o w e v e r , simultaneous " w i n - w i n " situa-
tions exist b y p r e v e n t i n g p o l l u t i o n t h r o u g h m o r e efficient use of
energy.
Fortunately, perception o f the emerging greenhouse issue o f
global w a r m i n g is different, although its major cause, energy
consumption, remains the same. This situation provides an i m -
portant e n v i r o n m e n t a l " w i n - w i n " o p p o r t u n i t y ; energy efficiency
measures t a k e n to reduce the c o n s u m p t i o n of fossil fuels w i l l not
only reduce the emission o f carbon d i o x i d e , a major greenhouse
gas, but w i l l simultaneously reduce the emissions related to several
other atmospheric p o l l u t i o n problems as w e l l .
Energy efficiency has several economic benefits as w e l l . Be-
cause energy efficiency reduces the costs of energy, the local
and national economies are h e l p e d i n several ways: (1) domestic
manufacturers can be m o r e competitive, (2) corporate a n d con-
sumer disposable income is increased, (3) m o r e of the latter is
spent i n the domestic economy, (4) the vulnerability o f the
domestic e c o n o m y to international o i l prices is reduced a n d (5)
n e w jobs are created i n energy efficiency. N e w technology f o r
lighting, industrial motors a n d h o u s e h o l d appliances allows truly
amazing energy savings o f 30 to 60% n o w . 2 5
Because the other resource conservation, e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d
economic reasons f o r energy efficiency are c o m p e l l i n g i n their
o w n right, it is n o t necessary t o wait u n t i l all the facts are i n t o
begin to take action against global w a r m i n g . Moreover, a w i d e l y
touted U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report c o n c l u d e d
that delaying b y a f e w decades c o u l d increase the g l o b a l w a r m -
ing c o m m i t m e n t b y 3 0 % . I n response to the 1992 U n i t e d Na-
26
tions Conference o n E n v i r o n m e n t a n d D e v e l o p m e n t i n Rio, the
United States is t a k i n g a leadership p o s i t i o n b y a d o p t i n g a v o l -
untary p r o g r a m , the President's Climate Change A c t i o n P l a n .
A l t h o u g h this p r o g r a m is relatively modest, it is a b e g i n n i n g .
A c o m p e l l i n g goal f o r sustainable development a n d g l o b a l c l i -
F. Douglas Muschett 33
mate p o l i c y alike w i l l be to further integrate e n v i r o n m e n t a l , energy
and e c o n o m i c p o l i c y to p r o v i d e " w i n - w i n " situations. As I have
w r i t t e n elsewhere, there are three c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h are essen-
tial t o w a r d s this g o a l : 2 8
(1) A d o p t i n g a holistic e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t
f r a m e w o r k f o r related e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a n d
solutions
(2) Fostering a creative c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e g u l a t i o n , i n -
centives a n d penalties t o g u i d e consumer, i n d u s t r y
a n d the marketplace
(3) Research a n d d e v e l o p m e n t initiatives that e m p h a -
size the utilization, as w e l l as the d e v e l o p m e n t , o f
energy efficiency a n d r e n e w a b l e energy t e c h n o l o g y
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND
THE AMBIENT ENVIRONMENT
The Role of Assimilative Capacity in
Environmental Management
I n the p r e v i o u s section, I discussed sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t
f r o m the perspective o f t r y i n g t o change the content o f e c o n o m i c
g r o w t h t o b e c o m e "less material a n d energy intensive a n d m o r e
equitable." As necessary as this objective is t o w a r d s the goal o f
achieving sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t , it is n o t sufficient. I f the
b r o a d objectives o f reducing resource c o n s u m p t i o n i n p u t s a n d
r e d u c i n g p o l l u t a n t outputs are achieved, neither w i l l be achieved
absolutely. N o r w i l l p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h be stabilized i n the f o r e -
seeable f u t u r e . Hence, there w i l l always be stress u p o n the
ecology a n d ambient physical e n v i r o n m e n t .
27
Originally, the concept o f a "sustainable y i e l d " was a p p l i e d t o
enable the harvest o f ecological r e n e w a b l e resources, such as
forests a n d fisheries, at the same rate as nature (assisted b y
34 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development F. Douglas Muschett 35

h u m a n management) was able to r e p l e n i s h . There are limits as

29

to w h a t nature w i l l permit w i t h o u t damaging the ecological sys-

tem and resource base. Similarly, environmental scientists have
come to recognize that the physical, chemical a n d b i o l o g i c a l
characteristics o f the ambient e n v i r o n m e n t determine the ability
to accept, dilute, diffuse a n d transform pollutants; this "assimila-
tive capacity" limits the a m o u n t o f p o l l u t i o n tolerable w i t h o u t ^ Measure Ambient Environmental Quality
causing damages.

This principle holds w h e t h e r one is considering a very local-

ized thermal p o l l u t i o n p l u m e i n a river, a regional air p o l l u t i o n
NO
p r o b l e m or a global climate change. I n general, as the geo-
graphical scale increases, h o w e v e r , the complexities a n d interac-
tions of natural scientific processes also increase. Thus, to achieve
sustainable development, i n all cases w e must be concerned w i t h
the "assimilative capacity" o f the e n v i r o n m e n t a l system, w h i c h i n
turn determines the "carrying capacity" f o r s u p p o r t i n g p o p u l a t i o n
and economic activity a n d resulting pollutant emissions. Inventory Sources of Pollutants

Determine Ambient Assimilative Capacity

The general f r a m e w o r k f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l quality manage-
ment, s h o w n i n Figure 1.2, has been w e l l established i n the -^•Determine Environmental Management Strategies
United States a n d Western countries f o r air a n d water quality
Model Ambient Concentration With Strategies
management. There is o f t e n an "iterative" process w h i c h exam-
ines different strategies, the resulting spatial patterns o f emissions
and the m o d e l e d ambient concentrations w h i c h w o u l d theoreti-
cally result as a result o f the assimilative capacity. Ultimately, one YES
or more environmental strategies are selected and i m p l e m e n t e d .
This general f r a m e w o r k is useful not o n l y i n the U n i t e d States
and Western countries, b u t also i n d e v e l o p i n g regions a r o u n d
the w o r l d . H o w e v e r , as n o t e d b e l o w , a m o r e creative m i x o f
environmental management strategies w i l l be r e q u i r e d t h a n has
generally been adopted i n the U n i t e d States.
Implement Environmental Management Strategies

FIGURE 1.2 General framework for air and water quality management.
Air Quality Management and Sustainable Development
Engineering c o n t r o l strategies have generally been h i g h l y effec-
tive i n reducing air pollutant emissions, often i n excess o f 95 to
36 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
99%, and i n meeting standards for air quality. A l t h o u g h engineer-
ing control strategies w i l l continue to be w i d e l y used, many are
m o r e costly than p o l l u t i o n p r e v e n t i o n and other strategies; m a n y
countries w i l l face difficult choices a m o n g expenditures for social
w e l l - b e i n g and must pursue other strategies as w e l l .
There are also some situations i n w h i c h the c o m b i n a t i o n o f
a h i g h density o f p o p u l a t i o n and economic activity, together w i t h
a p o o r ambient air quality assimilative capacity, defy a s o l u t i o n
based strictly u p o n engineering controls of pollutants. Over a
decade ago, as part o f a course I taught i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n -
agement, w e w e r e able to demonstrate using unsophisticated,
"back of the envelope" calculations that there was n o t a conven-
tional technological s o l u t i o n to the smog p r o b l e m i n Los A n g e -
les. The p o p u l a t i o n increase, c o u p l e d w i t h more automobiles
traveling more miles, s i m p l y o v e r w h e l m e d the rate at w h i c h air
quality improvements w e r e made f r o m the "turnover" o f n e w
vehicles w i t h better technology replacing older vehicles.
Other i m p o r t a n t air quality management strategies include (1)
land use p l a n n i n g strategies, (2) transportation p l a n n i n g a n d (3)
energy management strategies. There are several types o f l a n d
use p l a n n i n g strategies w h i c h , incidentally, do not m e a n that B i g
Brother is dictating exactly h o w a l a n d o w n e r is able to use the
land. 3 0
Infrastructure strategies, i n c l u d i n g the placement o f natural
gas pipelines, major highways, high-speed rail and sewage treat-
ment facilities, are h i g h l y effective o n b o t h regional and local
scales i n i n f l u e n c i n g w h e r e economic g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t
take place. Locational strategies a n d incentives can be used to
influence w h e r e industrial development or residential develop-
ment takes place; these strategies are currently b e i n g used i n
locations such as M e x i c o City a n d Beijing to b o t h reduce the
density o f p o l l u t a n t emissions a n d reduce the exposure o f the
p o p u l a t i o n . I n smaller cities, green space a n d open-space strat-
egies can be used at local geographic scales to i m p r o v e the
assimilative capacity f o r air pollutants.
F. Douglas Muschett 37
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n strategies to reduce a u t o m o b i l e emissions have
b e e n w i d e l y used w i t h i n m a n y major u r b a n areas o f the U n i t e d
States, w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f success. Strategies i n c l u d e
c a r p o o l i n g , l i m i t i n g h i g h w a y access, mass transit, light rail, p a r k -
i n g fees, r o a d tolls, bicycle paths a n d f l e x i b l e w o r k s c h e d u l i n g .
M a n y European countries have b e e n m o r e effective i n r e d u c i n g
their dependence u p o n the a u t o m o b i l e f o r transportation t h a n
has the U n i t e d States (another example o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f
culture i n sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t ) . I n Europe, h o w e v e r , the
h i g h p o p u l a t i o n densities a n d congestion i n cities, a n d relatively
short distances f o r intercity travel, t e n d to reduce the attractive-
ness o f a u t o m o b i l e c o m m u t i n g a n d t o enhance alternative m o d e s
o f transit. (Some v e r y provocative ideas o n l a n d use a n d trans-
p o r t a t i o n p l a n n i n g are presented i n Chapter 6.)
Energy m a n a g e m e n t strategies i n c l u d e " f u e l - s w i t c h i n g " t o
cleaner fuels, a d o p t i o n o f energy-efficiency strategies t o reduce
the d e m a n d for energy, cogeneration o f electricity a l o n g w i t h
industrial process heat a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t o f alternative a n d
renewable sources o f energy, i n c l u d i n g biomass a n d agricultural
wastes, geothermal, w i n d a n d solar p h o t o v o l t a i c e n e r g y . O d d l y ,
31
whereas " f u e l - s w i t c h i n g " was w i d e l y recognized as a major p o l -
l u t i o n c o n t r o l strategy d u r i n g the 1970s, energy efficiency a n d
energy conservation still are not.
Water Quality Management and Sustainable
Development
It must be emphasized that m u c h , i f n o t most, o f the p r e c e d i n g
discussion related t o air quality also applies to w a t e r quality.
That is, bodies o f w a t e r — r i v e r s , lakes, estuaries—have an ( h i g h l y
v a r i a b l e ) assimilative capacity w h i c h is d e p e n d e n t u p o n the
physical a n d b i o c h e m i c a l processes w h i c h dilute, m i x a n d trans-
f o r m pollutants. ( G r o u n d w a t e r , such as aquifers, is a special case
w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d assimilative capacity because o f l i m i t e d w a t e r
flows and turnover.)
38 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
Dependent u p o n the amount o f p o l l u t a n t discharge i n t o the
water and the assimilative capacity, the resulting concentrations
of pollutants i n the w a t e r and i n the tissues of aquatic organisms
w i l l determine w h e t h e r the b o d y o f w a t e r is fit or u n f i t for
h u m a n consumption, aquatic life, commercial fishing, recreational
purposes or industrial use.
Moreover, there are t w o notable constraints that the e n v i r o n -
mental system poses i n relation to water quality. First, river f l o w s
tend to be extremely variable f r o m season to season, a n d c o u p l e d
w i t h w i t h d r a w a l s for h u m a n use, there is a severe u p p e r l i m i t o n
assimilative capacity. Second, the increasing " b i o a c c u m u l a t i o n "
of pollutants i n successively higher levels of the f o o d chain also
severely limits the allowable concentration o f pollutants i n the
water.
The c o m b i n a t i o n o f these limiting ambient conditions, to-
gether w i t h a h i g h density of p o p u l a t i o n and economic activity,
can make sustainable development very difficult to achieve. M a n y
developing nations suffer widespread p o o r water quality d u e to
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h p o p u l a t i o n density, widespread p o l l u t a n t
discharge f r o m natural resource extraction and processing, i n -
creasing industrialization and inadequate assimilative capacity.
Since the age o f industrialization began, most countries of
continental Europe have experienced w i d e s p r e a d p o o r water
quality i n surface rivers. W i t h i n the five river basins c o m p r i s i n g
the Ruhr district i n Germany, a u n i q u e a n d fairly c o m p l e x system
of water quality p l a n n i n g and "stream specialization" had e v o l v e d
by the 1960s. For example, the Ruhr River was m a i n t a i n e d i n a
state o f water treatment and ambient water quality suitable for
water supply and recreation, whereas a parallel river, the Emscher,
had b e e n designated f o r untreated pollutant discharges a n d the
d i l u t i o n of pollutant wastes carried downstream.
A l t h o u g h the Ruhr district, one o f the most concentrated i n -
dustrial and p o p u l a t i o n centers o f the w o r l d , is hardly an ex-
ample of sustainable development, this example does serve to
underscore the importance of c o m b i n i n g engineering a n d tech-
F. Douglas Muschett
39
n o l o g y strategies a n d l a n d use p l a n n i n g to achieve sustainable
d e v e l o p m e n t . I n some cases, it w i l l also be possible to i m p l e -
m e n t " w i n - w i n " situations; that is, infrastructure a n d locational
strategies can b e devised that w i l l protect b o t h air q u a l i t y a n d
w a t e r q u a l i t y . Perhaps the case w a s best stated b y landscape
architect I a n M c H a r g i n the title o f his b o o k Design with Nature.
Ecological and Life Support Issues
T h e p r e c e d i n g principles a n d discussions o f this chapter are
o f f e r e d w i t h the goal o f n u r t u r i n g some general, integrated a p -
proaches w h i c h can be used w i t h i n the m a r k e t e c o n o m y a n d
p u b l i c p o l i c y t o b e g i n t o achieve sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t as
p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d . Yet, there are special, critical p r o b l e m s w h i c h
w i l l r e q u i r e special, intricate responses, v e r y possibly w i t h m u c h
trial a n d error a n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a l o n g the w a y . Some o f these
critical p r o b l e m s include:
(1) Species a n d habitat p r o t e c t i o n , as previously dis-
cussed
(2) G l o b a l agriculture—emphasis u p o n f e e d i n g the
p o p u l a t i o n (not just raising cash crops) a n d agri-
cultural methods w h i c h use i n d i g e n o u s a n d re-
n e w a b l e resources and m a i n t a i n soil structure a n d
fertility
(3) T r o p i c a l rain forests—forest management f o r suit-
able e c o n o m i c uses, such as harvesting o f fruits,
nuts, hides, plants a n d l u m b e r (subject t o p r o p e r
management o f tree species, density a n d l o c a t i o n )
(4) G l o b a l climate change—as p r e v i o u s l y discussed,
i d e n t i f y i n g a c o n t i n u u m o f possible e n v i r o n m e n -
tal management responses t o reduce emissions o f
g r e e n h o u s e gases a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g p r o g r a m s
w h i c h m a k e sense to d o n o w f o r other reasons
(e.g., " w i n - w i n " situations such as methane gas
40 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development
recovery f o r f u e l , c o m p o s t i n g a n d energy m a n -
agement)
These problems are w e l l established a n d o f sufficient c o m -
p l e x i t y to be b e y o n d the scope o f a detailed analysis here.
H o w e v e r , i n the spirit o f sustainable development a n d U N C E D
Principle #4 (discussed above), it is important to emphasize that
the "integration o f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d environmental p r o t e c t i o n "
w i l l again require a n interdisciplinary approach. The close w o r k -
i n g cooperation o f scientists, natural resource specialists, econo-
mists, geographers a n d planners w i l l be needed t o formulate,
evaluate a n d i m p l e m e n t d e v e l o p m e n t and p r o t e c t i o n strategies
w i t h i n a given culture w h i c h either d o not d i m i n i s h the life
support systems or can p r o v i d e reasonable trade-offs.
Holistic skills a n d perspectives are needed to "ask the right
questions" t o " o b t a i n the right answers." Creativity is r e q u i r e d for
development strategies w h i c h meet the needs of the local p o p u -
lation and utilize local resources w i t h o u t exceeding e n v i r o n m e n -
tal limits.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
I n this chapter, I have presented an o v e r v i e w of sustainable
development a n d the relationship b e t w e e n the natural systems
a n d the e c o n o m i c system. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o realize t h a t
"sustainability" f r o m the standpoint o f either the availability o f
natural resources t o meet the needs o f the w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n
an equitable manner or f r o m the standpoint of e n v i r o n m e n t a l
protection is really t w o sides o f the same coin. That is, an
integral part of the s o l u t i o n t o b o t h involves f i n d i n g w a y s to limit
per capita natural resource c o n s u m p t i o n i n b o t h d e v e l o p e d a n d
d e v e l o p i n g nations a n d w a y s t o substitute renewable resources
and "waste products."
As depicted i n Table 1.1, sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t includes
several elements. There is w i d e s p r e a d agreement that p o p u l a t i o n
F. Douglas Muschett 41
stabilization i n d e v e l o p e d a n d d e v e l o p i n g countries alike m u s t
be a first p r i o r i t y . Similarly, it is w i d e l y agreed that m o r e sustain-
able technologies must be d e v e l o p e d a n d e m p l o y e d .
H o w e v e r , it is difficult to say w h i c h o f the other elements is
m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the others. Clearly t h o u g h , s o m e o f the
objectives w i l l take relatively l o n g periods o f t i m e t o effect: f o r
e x a m p l e , p o p u l a t i o n stabilization, r e f i n i n g m a r k e t economies,
a d o p t i n g a systems t h i n k i n g perspective, integrating e n v i r o n m e n -
tal management approaches, e d u c a t i o n a n d changes i n social
t h i n k i n g a n d cultural behavior. Hence it is i m p o r t a n t for all
nations t o b e g i n initiatives, i n c l u d i n g research a n d p i l o t p r o -
grams, incentives a n d transfer o f appropriate technologies, w h i c h
w i l l s u p p o r t a n d effect these changes. A n i m p o r t a n t n e x t step is
to set specific priorities a n d t o establish programs t o m e e t g l o b a l
and n a t i o n a l sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t concerns w i t h i n the na-
t i o n a l a n d local context o f needs.
This is n o t to suggest, h o w e v e r , that all actions m u s t await the
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d f u n d i n g o f grandiose master plans. "Grass-root"
movements are important to effect perception and attitude changes,
w h i c h w i l l lead to social a n d cultural changes. Personal, i n d i -
v i d u a l r e f l e c t i o n a n d response t o a sustainable ethic are vital.
It is also i m p o r t a n t for the private s e c t o r — w h e r e capital,
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d expertise are concentrated—to grasp the b u s i -
ness o p p o r t u n i t i e s presented b y sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t . B y
taking reasonable risks t o d e v e l o p n e w tools o f analysis, p r o d -
ucts a n d services, w h i c h p r o m o t e better management o f natural
systems, efficiency a n d reuse, the private sector can stimulate
i m p o r t a n t n e w markets w h i c h w i l l a i d the transition.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I w o u l d l i k e t o express m y gratitude t o M i t c h Baer, A m e r i c a n
Petroleum Institute, a n d Chuck Marshall, JACA C o r p o r a t i o n ,
for their r e v i e w a n d critique of this manuscript a n d h e l p f u l
comments.
42 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development F. Douglas Muschett 43

pools are eliminated, then the possibilities for discovering future

NOTES benefits to humankind are also.
1. V.G. Carter and T. Dale, Topsoil and Civilization, rev. ed., Univer-
13. For example, criteria might include the "endangerment" of the
sity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1974.
species, the "uniqueness" of the species, the importance of the
2. K. Watt, Understanding the Environment, Allyn and Bacon, Bos- species i n the food chain and ecological system, the ecological
ton, 1982, pp. 352-353. productivity of the habitat, the scarcity of the habitat and other
alternatives for human setdement and use.
3. S. Udall, The Quiet Crisis, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
1963. 14. Note, too, that the product outputs are placed i n a separate box,
apart from the economic system, because products are a form of
4. It should be noted that various air quality planning tools, including
"storage." The return of matter from both "durable" and "nondu-
air quality modeling, emission density zoning and optimization
rable" goods occurs over time, whereas pollutant wastes are re-
modeling, were developed and are available for applications of
turned immediately to the natural system.
sustainable development i n which the carrying capacity of the
airshed is threatened. For additional information, see J.R. Kurtzweg 15. Although an environmental ethic in Western countries is becom-
and C.J. Nelson, "Clean air and economic development: an urban ing an important part of purchasing decisions, it is frequendy
initiative," /. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 30:1187-1193, 1980; F.D. difficult for consumers to make intelligent decisions. At one level
Muschett, "Clean air with economic growth: optimization model- of analysis, product labeling and information are often confusing
ing," Environ. Manage., 6:145-154, 1982. and misleading. However, at a deeper level of analysis, there are
many factors to consider w h e n trying to make a "sustainable"
5. D.H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth, Universe Books, New
consumer decision. For example, it is not obvious whether vinyl
York, 1972. siding for a house or w o o d shingles with paint is a better choice
6. D.H. Meadows et al., Beyond the Limits, Chelsea Green Publica- or whether an electric power mower or gasoline power mower is
tions, Post Mills, VT, 1992. more desirable.

7. Agenda 21, UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio 16. United Nations World Commission o n Environment and Develop-
de Janeiro, 1992. ment, Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1987.

8. J.V. Taylor, Enough Is Enough, Augsburg Publishing House, Min- 17. K. Boulding, "The economics of the coming spaceship earth," i n
neapolis, 1977. Environmental Quality in a Growing Economy, H . Jarrett, Ed.,
Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1966.
9. A.M. Thunberg, "The egoism of the rich," Ecumenical Rev., 26(3):460,
1974. 18. E.F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful, Harper and Row, New York,
1973.
10. R.L. Stivers, The Sustainable Society Ethics and Economic Growth,
The Westminister Press, Philadelphia, 1976. 19- B. Commoner, "The environmental cost of economic growth," i n
Energy, Economic Growth and the Environment, S. Schurr, Ed.,
11. B.C. Birch and L.L. Rasmussen, The Predicament of the Prosperous, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1972.
The Westminister Press, Philadelphia, 1978, p. 73-
20. C. Birch, "Creation, technology and human survival: calls to re-
12. It should be observed, however, that such decisions run the risk plenish the earth," Ecumenical Rev., 28(1):70, 1976.
of being based upon present knowledge. I f species and genetic
44 An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Development F. Douglas Muschett 45

21. G. Keoleian and D. Menerey, "Sustainable development by design:
review of life cycle design and related approaches," Air and Waste,
44:645-667, 1994.
22. H . Daly, Ed., Towards a Steady-State Economy, W . H . Freeman, San
Francisco, 1973.
23. F.D. Muschett and M . Enowitz, "The changing pollution control
industry," Pollut. Eng., 18:44-47, 1986.
24. For example, i n producing alcohol fuels, the distillation process
requires a large input of energy to reduce the water content of the
fuel; solar energy could potentially replace fossil energy for this
purpose.
31. From the standpoint of sustainable development, one has to be
rather analytical and cautious about what is sometimes called
"alternate" sources of energy. Certain "alternate energy" forms may
be counterproductive, such as wood-fired power plants w h i c h
compete for limited forest resources or so-called "resource recov-
ery" plants w h i c h are designed to burn garbage without separa-
tion, reuse and recycling of nonorganic materials. Even some forms
of solar collectors are very resource-intensive i n tenns of the amount
of glass, metal and land consumed i n relation to the amount of
energy produced.

25. A. Lovins, "Abating air pollution at negative cost via energy effi-
ciency," /. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 39:1432-1435, 1989-

26. D. Lashof and D. Tirpak, Eds., Policy Options for Stabilizing Cli-
mate, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
1989.

27. B. Clinton and A. Gore, Jr., The Climate Change Action Plan,
Executive Office of the President No. 93-0624-P, Washington, D.C.,
1993.

28. F.D. Muschett, "Global warming calls for changes in public cli-
mate," Forum Appl. Res. Public Policy, 6:44-54, 1991-

29. In practice, this is a kind of "dynamic equilibrium" i n the long run

because natural factors such as climate and ecological productivity
vary from year to year. It should also be noted that when the
harvest rate exceeds the replenishment rate, a new state of equi-
librium w i t h a lower resource base is reached.

30. Unfortunately, during the Reagan administration there was a back-

lash against the notion of land use planning and the Land Use
Planning Branch within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
was terminated. During the 1980s the "deindustrialization" of the
United States, together with the large number of plant closings,
probably also meant that the immediate applications of land use
planning for air quality were more related to transportation issues
than industrial-related air quality.