KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES

BSc. BUILDING ECONOMICS

USE OF WASTEWATER SLUDGE AND SUGARCANE MOLASSES AS A PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF CLAY IN FIRED CLAY BRICKS

BY

ODONGO BOSCO

16/U/6157/EBD/PD

A RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES, KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF
BARCHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BUILDING ECONOMICS

DECEMBER, 2019
 DECLARATION

I ODONGO BOSCO declare that I am the sole writer of this proposal and all the information
contained herein unless otherwise acknowledged is my own work and a result of my commitment
in research and has therefore, never been submitted to any University or Institution of Higher
Education for any award.

Sign ………………………………….

Date ………………………………….

Odongo Bosco (Candidate)

Email: odongoboscoopira@gmail.com

Tel: +256787167349

+256703351316

i
 APPROVAL

This proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as the Research Supervisor.

Sign ………………………………….

Date ………………………………….

Mr. Okello Thomas

(University Supervisor)

ii
 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to my parents; Mr. Opira Bonny and Mrs. Grace Opira; my brother Okecha
Felix, my sister; Acayo Phionah and my friends; Mr. Akatwijuka Amon and Mr. Ogwang Jimmy
Jacob.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I gratefully acknowledge my senior Supervisor, Mr. Okello Thomas for his sustaining
encouragement, kindness, ever-enthusiastic spirit, endless patience in listening and explaining, and
professional and excellent guidance throughout this research work, which kept me focused until
the completion of this research proposal.

Secondly, I also express my heartfelt and sincere appreciation to my close friends and course mates
who during the course of this research proposal writing, valuably helped me, especially; Mr.
Wandera Chepkurui Moses.

Thirdly, I thank my parents, Mr. Opira Bonny and Mrs. Grace Opira for their everlasting support,
my brothers; Mr. Okech Stephen, Okello Jaspher and Okecha Felix, my sisters; Ajok Scovia,
Akello Stella, Ajok Eunice and Acayo Phionah

Lastly, I thank the Almighty God who granted me the courage, knowledge and strength to start
and finish this proposal. I will not also forget to appreciate myself for staying committed and
focused until the end no matter the hardships.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS .................................................................................................... x

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. xi

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. xii

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................................................. 3

1.3 MAIN OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................... 3

1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................ 3

5.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................................. 4

5.2 SIGNIFICANCE .............................................................................................................. 4

5.3 JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. 4

5.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................... 5

5.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5

5.4.2 The Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................... 6

5.5 RESEARCH SCOPE ....................................................................................................... 7

5.5.1 Geographical Scope .................................................................................................. 7

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 5.5.2 Content Scope ........................................................................................................... 7

5.5.3 Time Scope ............................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 8

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 8

6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 8

6.2 FIRED CLAY BRICKS ................................................................................................... 8

6.2.1 Traditional Brick Making ......................................................................................... 8

6.2.2 Types of Clay Bricks .............................................................................................. 10

6.2.3 Current Trend in brick making ............................................................................... 11

6.2.4 Hazardous Impact of the Traditional method of brick manufacturing ................... 12

6.3 RESEARCH LITERATURE ......................................................................................... 12

6.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 12

6.4 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS . 13

6.4.1 Biosolids/Sludge ..................................................................................................... 13

6.4.2 Sugarcane Molasses ................................................................................................ 16

6.5 STUDIES ON OTHER WASTES USED IN REPLACEMENT OF CLAY IN FIRED

BRICKS .................................................................................................................................... 16

6.6 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 20

METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 20

7.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 20

7.2 MATERIALS PREPARATION .................................................................................... 20

7.2.1 Brick soil ................................................................................................................. 20

7.2.2 Sugar Cane Molasses (SCM) .................................................................................. 20

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 7.2.3 Sludge/Biosolids ..................................................................................................... 20

7.3 TESTS ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ................................. 21

7.3.1 Determination of Atterberg limits of sludge solids and brick soils ........................ 21

7.3.2 Determination of Bulk density ................................................................................ 21

7.3.3 Determination of Specific gravity........................................................................... 21

7.3.4 Determination of Particle Size Distribution ............................................................ 21

7.4 PREPARATION OF BRICKS ....................................................................................... 21

7.4.1 Forming of bricks .................................................................................................... 22

7.4.2 Drying and firing of bricks ..................................................................................... 22

7.5 STUDIES ON THE BRICKS ........................................................................................ 22

7.5.1 Test Samples ........................................................................................................... 22

7.5.2 Shrinkage test .......................................................................................................... 23

7.5.3 Water Absorption test ............................................................................................. 27

7.5.4 Compressive Strength Test ..................................................................................... 29

7.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 31

7.7 FLOW DIAGRAM ........................................................................................................ 32

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 33

APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH PROGRAM ................................................................................ 33

APPENDIX 2: ESTIMATED BUDGET FOR RESEARCH ................................................... 34

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 35

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 6

Figure 2: Basic stages in Brick Manufacturing (Source: Ukwatta, et al., 2016) ............................ 9

Figure 3: Geotechnical Properties of Biosolids (Source: Mohajerani, et al., 2019) ..................... 15

Figure 4: Experimental design for Linear Shrinkage test ............................................................. 26

Figure 5: Experimental Design for Water Absorption Test ...........Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 6: Experimental Design for Compressive Strength test .................................................... 31

Figure 7: Method Flow Chart ....................................................................................................... 32

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The clay brick classification according to BS 3921 ....................................................... 10

Table 2: Initial Drying Shrinkage for test bricks at different replacement level .......................... 25

Table 3: Firing Shrinkage for test bricks at different replacement level ...................................... 26

Table 4: Percentage Water Absorption of Bricks at different replacement levels ........................ 28

Table 5: Compressive Strength of test bricks at different replacement levels .............................. 30

Table 6: Research Program Gantt Chart ....................................................................................... 33

Table 7: Research Budget Estimate .............................................................................................. 34

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 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Biosolids/Sludge These are treated organic residual by-products from the wastewater
treatment process.

Cane Molasses This is a dark-brown coloured liquid residue left after sugar crystallization
by Sugar Processing Factories as a by-product.

Clay an earthy or stony mineral aggregate consisting essentially of hydrous

silicates of alumina, plastic when sufficiently pulverized and wetted, rigid
when dry, and vitreous when fired to a sufficiently high temperature.

Brick A solid masonry unit of clay or shale, usually formed into a rectangular
prism while plastic and burned or fired in a kiln. Brick is a ceramic product.

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS

ASTM American Standards for Testing and Materials

BS British Standards

WTPS Wastewater Treatment Plant Sludge

SCM Sugar Cane Molasses

IRA Initial Rate of Absorption

PI Plasticity Index

MPa Mega Pascal

oC Degrees Celsius

hr hour

wt weight

mm millimetre

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

N Newton

GHG Green House Gases

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 ABSTRACT

Rapid urbanization in most places of the world has led to a huge increase in the volume of
wastewater sludge. In Uganda, these biosolids are used by farmers and horticulturist as manure for
fertilising the soil. However, according to researchers, only 30% of the total produced sludge is
put into use and the remainder ends up in stockpiles and landfills. Biosolids if not well disposed,
pose a threat to the environment and therefore, most countries are faced with high waste
management cost as a result of the increased production of biosolids and need for proper disposal
procedures.

Sugar is so far one of the most consumed product in the world. The large scale production of sugar
leaves behind a huge amount of by-products, among them is sugarcane molasses. Sugar producing
companies have the cane molasses sold to large and small scale alcohol distillers where it is
distilled into local breweries, one of the harmful products that has adversely affected the health of
many youths in Uganda. In addition, excess sugarcane molasses that cannot be taken by alcohol
distillers are disposed on land.

In Uganda, the production of biosolids is expected to grow with the establishment of new
wastewater treatment plants and the ever increasing demand for water and wastewater generation
in the major cities and towns of Uganda. In addition, the government is fighting really hard towards
eliminating the production of harmful alcoholic products, with this move put forward, there is a
limited option for disposing sugarcane molasses, this means the sugar producing factories will
have to look for another place to dispose their waste products.

With the increasing population, a lot of pressure is being put on the materials industry to supply
construction materials. Clay brick is one of the oldest, most demanded and used construction
material in the world. However, the production of bricks puts the environment at stake, this is
because approximately 1.5 trillion bricks is estimated to be produced annually and the production
of these bricks requires about 3.13 billion cubic meters of clay soil which is the reason for the
destruction of land and wetlands, resulting from deep depressions left after excavation. With the
huge demand being placed on the Construction materials industry currently in the past years as a
result of ever increasing population which causes an alarming shortage of construction materials,
a search for sustainable building materials through converting wastes is the current trend of the
xii
construction industry. In addition, the construction industry being one of the greatest users of
wastes, it is probably the right place where the excess biosolids and sugarcane molasses can be
disposed.

This research proposal therefore, presents the possibility of reusing the biosolids and sugarcane
molasses in the production of clay bricks. In addition, the research proposal shall also investigate
the effect of incorporating biosolids and sugarcane molasses on the compressive strength, initial
rate of water absorption, and shrinkage limit of bricks. To achieve this, an in-depth literature
review was carried out to establish the current knowledge as far as clay replacement in fired bricks
with wastes are concerned, during which the effects of the wastes on the engineering properties of
the bricks were reviewed as well.

In the first stage, laboratory studies on the clay soil, sugarcane molasses and sludge will be
conducted to establish the Atterberg limits, Specific gravity, Bulk density and Particle size which
will dictate the possibility of having them successfully incorporated into the clayey matrix. The
bricks shall then be manufactured incorporating four different percentages of molasses and sludge
(0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%). Furthermore, the engineering properties; compressive strength, water
absorption rate, and shrinkage of the final brick product incorporating the wastes shall be evaluated
to establish the possibility of having the bricks produced on a large scale.

Finally, the results of this research shall be presented and analysed quantitatively, after which it
shall be discussed in light of the objectives and other researches. A conclusion shall then be drawn
as to the possibility of making bricks using wastewater sludge and sugarcane molasses, and
recommendations for future researches shall be made to guide future researchers.

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Worldwide, Clay brick is one of the most aged and highly used building material in historic and
modern day buildings (Dalkilic & Nabikoglu, 2017; Ward-Perkins, 1981; Shakir & Mohammed,
2013) and approximately 1.5 trillion bricks is estimated to be produced annually (Mohajerani, et
al., 2019). This production requires about 3.13 billion cubic meters of clay soil which is the reason
for the destruction of land and wetlands, resulting from deep depressions left after excavation of
virgin soils. With the huge demand being placed on the construction materials industry currently
in the past years as a result of ever increasing population which causes an alarming shortage of
construction materials, a search for sustainable building materials through converting wastes is the
current trend of the construction industry (Shakir, et al., 2013).

Many studies have been carried out to establish an effective replacement of clay in bricks. For
example; By incorporating wastes from palm oil into clay bricks, Kadir, et al., (2017) discovered
that the dry density decreased with increasing amount of palm oil waste ranging from 1% to 10%.
However, incorporation of 20% and 30% of palm oil waste was found to have failed due to major
disintegration effect after sintering stage. Martínez-García, et al., (2012) studied the possibility of
manufacturing clay bricks incorporating different industrial wastes like; urban sewage sludge (15
wt.%), malt bagasse (2.5 wt.%), brewing sludge (5 wt.%), olive mill wastewater (6.5 wt.%), and
coffee ground (3 wt.%) residues. The results obtained proved that each type of an industrial waste
has a specific effect on the amended clay brick. Chen et al. (2015) also investigated the possibility
of recycling haematite tailing mixed with fly ash and raw clay to produce fired bricks. Quijorna,
et al., (2012) successfully replaced a maximum of 30% of clay in fired clay bricks using foundry
sand and waelz slag. Sutcu & Akkurt, (2009) used paper processing residue as an additive to
produce bricks. The results obtained revealed that the strength of bricks decreased gradually with
an increase in the percentage of paper residue.

1
Rapid urbanization in most places of the world has led to a huge increase in the volume of sludge
(Tay & Show, 1997). In Uganda, most of these sewage sludge is stockpiled and some used for
landfills or agricultural manure by horticulturists. Only approximately 30% of the world’s sewage
sludge are put to use (Mohajerani, et al., 2019). Mohajerani, et al., (2019) incorporated wastewater
sludge from treatment plants into the clayey body, results showed that the clay in bricks can be
replaced up to 25% without compromising the compressive strength of the biosolids-amended
bricks. The researchers also noted that a lot of energy was saved during firing, due to the substantial
amount of inorganic content found in biosolids. A study carried out by Jiang, et al, (2011) revealed
that the reuse of wastewater sludge as construction materials provides a technically feasible
alternative for sludge disposal. Several researches carried out have proved that sludge could
actually be incorporated into clay bricks (Berman & Alleman, 1984; Trauner, 1993; Tay & Show,
1997; Liu, et al., 2011; Liew, et al., 2003; Wiebusch & Seyfried, 1997; Mohajerani, et al., 2019).

However, according to the recent research carried out by Mohajerani, et al., (2019), increasing the
percentage weight of sludge increased the percentage water absorption by mass of the final brick
product, this was a result of numerous pores of about 1-200µm being formed after firing. This
affects the durability of the bricks thereby rendering such bricks less effective to be used in areas
of high rainfall levels as explained by (Fernandes, 2019). Various researches proposed various
ways in trying to replace clay in fired bricks, however, deficiencies in the final product still calls
for more research into the matter if a sustainable material is to be accomplished considering the
social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainability. This research thus proposes the use
of Sugarcane molasses as an additive and wastewater sludge from Wastewater treatment plants as
a partial replacement of clay in fired bricks.

2
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Fired clay bricks has been used for construction of walls for more than 300 years. With the
increasing population, the demand of clay bricks for construction has increased rampantly which
has brought about massive excavation of virgin soils, an environmentally unfriendly practice.
According to the researchers, about 1.5 billion bricks manufactured worldwide requires more than
3.13 billion cubic meters of clay soil. Uganda as a country, has seen wetland destruction as a result
of clay extraction used in brick making. However, a huge volume of wastewater sludge is produced
by the waste water treatment plants, this wastewater sludge ends up; in stockpiles, landfills and
some used as agricultural manure. Moreover, considerable amount of sugar molasses is produced
as waste products by Sugar producing factories. In Northern Uganda, the sugar molasses is distilled
into local breweries which has proven harmful to human health. Clay bricks produced from
wastewater sludge is able to attain the required minimum compressive strength, however, higher
level of porosity which results to increased water absorption rate is seen to make these bricks weak
under harsh weather conditions due to high water suction rate. In this proposal, the potentiality of
using sugar molasses and wastewater sludge as a partial replacement for clay used in modern day
fired clay bricks in Uganda is studied.

1.3 MAIN OBJECTIVE

To determine the potentiality partially replacing clay in fired bricks with wastewater sludge and
sugar cane molasses.

1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the physical properties of the wastewater sludge and sugar cane molasses.
2. To determine the compressive strength of different bricks made from Wastewater Sludge and
Sugarcane molasses.
3. To determine the percentage water absorption by mass of bricks made form Wastewater
Sludge and Sugarcane molasses.
4. To determine the linear shrinkage of bricks made from Sugarcane Molasses and Wastewater
Sludge.

3
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the physical properties of wastewater sludge and sugar cane molasses?
2. What is the minimum compressive strength of fired bricks used in low-rise buildings?
3. What is the allowable percentage water absorption by mass of fired bricks?
4. What is the permissible percentage of linear shrinkage of fired clay bricks?

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE

Incorporating biosolids and sugarcane molasses into the worldwide production of bricks would
not only save a considerable amount of virgin soil from being excavated, but also provide an
environmentally friendly way for recycling these wastes in clay–fired bricks. Use of sludge from
wastewater treatment plants as a raw material for brick making is also a better option instead of
dumping sludge into landfills. Considering the increasing use of clay bricks due to the increasing
demand of ceramics in the construction industry, this alternative is therefore, feasible and worth
trying.

1.7 JUSTIFICATION

Most buildings in Uganda are constructed in clay bricks, with the rapid urbanization, increased
threats are posed on virgin soils which are always excavated for brick making purposes. This has
left huge and vast amount of depressions and generally, degraded land. Many attempts have been
made to minimise this environmentally unfriendly practices. It is also necessary to note that with
the increasing population and improving wastewater treatment systems in urban areas, a vast
amount of sewage sludge is produced, a very small percentage which is put into use and the
remainder which is either stockpiled or disposed in water bodies.

Sugar cane is a perennial crop widely grown in Uganda. It is processed by Sugar factories into
sugar, a commodity widely consumed by many in Uganda. However, during processing, a large
amount of waste in the form of sugarcane molasses is left behind, this molasses ends up in dumping
sites. Some locals distil this molasses into local breweries, an alcoholic product that is harmful to
human health. It is expected that global sugar production will generate about 39 million tons or
cane molasses

4
However, these two waste materials can be purposefully used in the construction industry to help
solve the problem of having virgin soils excavated for brick making, a bad practice that is
responsible for the degradation of land.

Usage of only 15% of biosolids in brick generation would diminish the carbon footprint of brick
fabricating while fulfilling all the natural and building necessities for bricks (Mohajerani, et al.,
2019). As wastewater sludge is inorganic in nature, suitable for brick manufacturing and it has
disposal problem (Chaudhary & Gumaste, 2015). Hence, use of water treatment plant sludge for
brick making is a better option. In addition, cane molasses having a binding property, there is high
potential of having it recycled successfully in bricks. This research thus proposes incorporation of
wastewater sludge and cane molasses as a method of recycling them in an environmentally friendly
way as well as having them partially replace clay in fired bricks.

1.8 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.8.1 Introduction

The conceptual framework shows how the different variables (independent, moderating,
intervening and dependent variables) in this study are related to each other. The independent
variables are modified by the moderating variables which then through the intervening variables
affects the dependent variables. According to this study, the independent variables are linked to
the dependent variables through the intervening and moderating variables. However, the
moderating variables which modifies the independent variables are not linked to the intervening
variables in this study.

5
1.8.2 The Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables Intervening Variables

Brick soil
Method of handling materials
Sludge
Method of storing materials
Cane molasses (Admixture)

Moderating Variables

Proportioning of materials

Firing temperature

Particle size of materials

Dependent Variables

Compressive Strength of brick

Linear Shrinkage

Water absorption

Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework

6
1.9 RESEARCH SCOPE

1.9.1 Geographical Scope

The research will mainly be conducted in Kampala. However, material samples shall be picked
from different places out of Kampala. Sugar cane molasses will be collected from Kinyara Sugar
factory in Masindi where they are highly available, Wastewater sludge shall be collected from
National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) wastewater treatment plant in Kampala, and
the alluvial clay soils rich in silica shall be picked from a swamp in Banda, Kampala, Uganda.

1.9.2 Content Scope

The research will be limited to investigating the physical and mechanical properties of the clay
bricks produced from wastewater sludge and sugar cane molasses.

The physical properties of sludge to be tested are; Bulk density, Atterberg limits, and Particle size
through sieve analysis.

The mechanical properties of the amended brick to be investigated are; Compressive strength,
Linear Shrinkage, and Percentage Water Absorption by mass.

1.9.3 Time Scope

The research will be carried out within a 4-months timeframe, that is; from February, 2020 to June
2020.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The literature review was carried out on different matters relating to this research including sludge,
cane molasses and fired clay bricks. Firstly, this chapter discussed the background, history, and
production of fired-clay bricks, and the current trend in brick production. The state-of-the-art
review then addressed some of the waste materials that had been successfully incorporated into
clay bricks in previous studies together with the associated pros and cons. The effect of
incorporating such wastes on the physical and mechanical properties of bricks were also reviewed.
A summary was drawn to highlight the most important studies that informed the researcher’s
decision, capture major themes and suggest why more study is required on the topic, and advances
to explain how the proposed study will fill this need.

The Key words used while searching for the research literature include;

 Replacement, Recycling, Clay bricks, Wastes, Sludge, Biosolids, Sugarcane molasses.

2.2 FIRED CLAY BRICKS

2.2.1 Traditional Brick Making

Bricks are one of the oldest and strongest manufactured building materials in history, and have
been used over a long period of time (Marotta, 2010). The remains of the world’s oldest bricks
have been found in archaeological digs in ancient Jericho, on the banks of the River Jordan circa
8,000 BC. ruined structures have been found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin from as early as 6,000
BC. Mud bricks were invented between 10,000 BC and 8,000 BC; later, moulded bricks were
bricks were created in Mesopotamia around 5,000 BC. The foremost noteworthy breakthrough for
bricks was the development in Mesopotamia in around 3,000 BC of fired -bricks, too known as
high-temperature oven fired-bricks (Campbell & Pryce, 2003).

Due to the development of technology in the 17th century, bricks became cheaper and more
widespread. Then, in the 18th century, books were published in England concerning the methods

8
 and techniques for making bricks. By the 19th century, bricks had become a standard material and
were used in different industrial and commercial applications across the world (Campbell & Pryce,
2003). Even though the technology for brick making has improved, the basic theory of traditional
brick making has apparently remained the same (Taylor, 2013).

Extraction Crushing Proportioning Grinding

Screening
of clay and Mixing (Secondary
Crushing)

Yes

Are
particles
oversized
?
Adding required
amount of
water

No

Blending of Unloading bricks Firing of Drying Shaping

Bricks from kiln Bricks

Exhaust Gas
Packaging of from Kiln
bricks

Figure 2: Basic stages in Brick Manufacturing (Source: Ukwatta, et al., 2016)

9
2.2.2 Types of Clay Bricks

Clay brick are categorized depending on the compressive strength and percentage of water
absorption by mass according to BS 3921: 1985: Specification for Clay Bricks as illustrated in
Table 1.

Table 1: The clay brick classification according to BS 3921

Designation Class Compressive Water Absorption

Strength (N/mm2) (%wt)

Engineering A 70 4.5

Engineering B 50 7.0

Load bearing brick 5-100 No Specific

Damp proof course 1 5 4.5

Damp proof Course 2 5 7.0

(Taylor, 2013) reported different types of bricks in the literature depending on the properties of
the clay and the firing process. However, the main classification of bricks is:

 Common bricks
 Engineering bricks
 Facing bricks

Common bricks are the cheapest of the three since they offer little aesthetics and high strength.
Facing bricks are designed for beauty purposes and thus have an attractive appearance since they
do not have cracks on surface, and is derived from common bricks by adding a sand pigments
during the firing process. Engineering bricks, as the name sounds, have good engineering qualities;

10
higher compressive strength, lower percentage water absorption, and are always have a higher
density (Ukwatta, 2017).

2.2.3 Current Trend in brick making

Concrete Bricks

Concrete blocks are made by mixing Portland cement, sand and other aggregates while adding a
proportionate amount of water, then pressing the mixture into moulds. The blocks are removed
from the moulds, held for an initial setting period, and then cured in a kiln or autoclave. The entire
curing process usually is accomplished within 24 hours (Venta, 1998).

Calcium Silicate Bricks

It can be called as sand lime and sometimes flint lime. They are fabricated from well selected,
clean and high-grade sand, blended proportionately with (5-8%) of high calcium hydrated lime
[Ca(OH)2] while adding a controlled amount of water. The plastic blend is at that point shaped
into bricks and autoclaved beneath weight at steam environment for (3-8) hours depending on the
pressure-temperature level. Under these conditions, lime reacts with silica to create a complex of
hydro di-calcium silicate, comparative to those formed when the water reacts with Portland cement
that act as cementing fabric and give high dimension stability (Venta, 1998).

Clay Bricks

The majority of bricks utilized are made from clay and shale (Wiebusch & Seyfried, 1997); they
are used preliminary in the construction of walls by bedding and jointing of bricks into established
bonding arrangement. Clay is an abundant raw material with a variety of uses and properties. It is
a complex of group of material that consist of minerals commodities, each having somewhat
different mineralogy, geological occurrence, technology and applications. They are natural earthy
fine-grained minerals of auxiliary origin and composed of an aluminates silicate structure with an
additional iron, alkalis and alkaline earth element. Common clays are adequately plastic to allow
ready moulding and when firing, they vitrify below 1100°C (Oliveira & Holand, 2004).

11
Presently, bricks are the major cladding material for houses and are the forerunner of a wide range
of clay products used in the construction industry. Their weather resistance, strength, simplicity,
reliability and durability, have led to their extensive use and a leading place in history alongside
stone (Beall,2004). Worldwide, the current annual production of bricks is approximately 1.31
billion units, and the demand for bricks is rising drastically (Mohajerani, et al., 2019).

2.2.4 Hazardous Impact of the Traditional method of Brick manufacturing

Based on the intensive and comprehensive study which has been conducted by the researchers on
the traditional method of producing bricks in the past decades as well in the present, it was
indicated that the method of bricks production has not been considerably changed since centuries.
Although, numerous efforts were significantly laudable and rewarding in applying exceptional
evolutions on the bricks industry as recycling various waste material. However, they did not
consider the urgent environmental threat and the intensive consumption of non-renewable energy
and associated emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide
(CO) and other pollutants considered to accelerate negative climate change. As a vitrified or semi-
vitrified ceramic, clay brick achieves a crystalline or semi-crystalline structure due to the action of
heat, it becomes hard and durable by firing in a kiln (Elor, et al., 2019).

The catastrophic consequences of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from the traditional brick
industry have considerably contaminated the surroundings with smog, fog, acid rains, global
warming and climate change, human beings have massively suffered from asthma and heart
disease due to the wide spread of the GHG in the atmosphere. Therefore, the dangerous impacts
of the bricks manufacture have been a serious problem that has alarmed the environmental
protection agencies and dragged substantial attention from the researches (Elor, et al., 2019).

2.3 RESEARCH LITERATURE

2.3.1 Introduction

Worldwide, Brick is one of the most used masonry units as a building material due to its properties.
(Shakir & Mohammed, 2013). The massive excavation of clay and the removal of top soil have
caused an enormous depletion of the virgin clay soils. Hence, this has sparked researches on
recycling wastes in clay brick in an endeavour to spare the clay from depletion and reduce

12
environmental contamination by wastes, thus contributing to sustainability (Aeslina, et al., 2010).
Recently, the world has witnessed increased interest in the application of different waste materials
as a partial raw material to clay in the manufacture of fired-clay bricks. The incorporation of
different waste materials into bricks is not only a viable solution to waste disposal methods but
also saves the natural virgin resources. In this section, comprehensive literature is presented
regarding the use of different waste materials in the production of fired-clay bricks, including the
effects of these wastes on the physical and mechanical properties of the brick. However,
construction materials and components must not only be produced in a sustainable way, but their
use must also answer to new requirements deriving from holistic environmental prerequisites
(Okello, 2014), this brought the need to review literature on the adversities of such waste-amended
bricks.

2.4 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

2.4.1 Biosolids/Sludge

Biosolids are basically formed by silica, alumina, and ferric oxide, which are the major oxide
components, with small amounts of MgO, K2O, P2O5, and TiO2. The oxides, such as K2O, Na2O,
Fe2O3, CaO, and MgO, promote the vitrification and may influence the densification process of
bricks during the firing stage of the bricks (Eliche-Quesada et al., 2012). Moreover, a research
carried out by Ukwatta, (2017) showed that the chemical composition of biosolids are actually
similar to those found in brick soil, but with different percentages. Biosolids contained Silica,
Alumina, and Ferric oxide as the primary oxide components.

According to a research carried out by Ukwatta, et al., (2016) in an attempt to replace clay soil in
fired bricks with wastewater biosolids, it was established that the specific gravity of brick soil and
biosolids is 2.69 and 2.51 respectively.

Tay & Show, (1997) used municipal wastewater dewatered sludge and sludge ash collected after
sludge incineration at 600ºC, mixed with clay to produce fired bricks. The percentage by weight
of dried sludge and sludge ash used ranged between 10% - 40% and 10% - 50% and the final brick
product fired at a temperature of 1080ºC. Mechanical and physical properties of the bricks were
examined, including compressive strength, shrinkage, water absorption. Results showed that, the

13
compressive strength was as high as normal clay bricks with 10% sludge ash. However, 10% of
sludge reduced the compressive strength by 31.7%. Therefore, sludge ash bricks were much better
than clay bricks with dried sludge. In addition, the shrinkage after firing and the water absorption
value increased as the sludge percentage increased. Interestingly, similar behaviour was observed
for shrinkage after firing and the water absorption values in sludge ash bricks, but with lower
values. This shows that bricks incorporating sludge ash are more durable than those made with
dried sludge.

Liew, et al., (2004a, 2004b) incorporated dewatered wastewater sludge into fired-clay bricks in
different proportions ranging between 10% and 40% by dry weight of sludge. Brick specimens
were oven dried at 150ºC for 84hr and fired at 985ºC for 12hr before being cooled by thermal
regulation of the kiln for 16hr to ambient temperature. The manufactured bricks were tested for
firing shrinkage and compressive strength. Results showed that all the aforementioned properties
decreased with increase in the sludge.

Martinez-Garcia, et al., (2012) investigated the significance of adding wastewater treatment plants
sludge in the brick production process. Sludge was added in different percentages of; 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5,
10, and 15% in the clay matrix. The bricks were then fired at 950oC in the laboratory scale electrical
furnace after which the technological properties of the manufactured bricks were then evaluated.
Interestingly, results showed that incorporating up to 5 wt% of sludge was beneficial for producing
quality bricks. However, the incorporation of 5% caused a weakening of the mechanical properties,
thus producing poor quality bricks.

Puppala, et al., (2007) evaluated the physical and engineering properties of a control cohesive soil
amended with two types of material, biosolids, and dairy manure. The organic content of the
control and amended materials has a considerable influence on the specific gravity; as the organic
content increases, the specific gravity starts to decrease. The dry unit weight of biosolids-amended
soils decreased with an increase in the organic percentage as the lightweight organic matter
occupied the voids, and, hence, decreased the soil dry unit weight. Moreover, the strength
properties of cohesive soil improved when the percentage of biosolids was around 20-40%.
However, on further increase, the strength parameters decreased dramatically. Therefore, the
authors concluded that biosolids and dairy manure compost could provide engineering benefits to

14
the control soil when used in moderate proportions because physical and engineering properties
are directly related to the amount of organic matter present in the biosolids and dairy manure.

According to a study undertaken by Arulrajah, et al., (2013), the geotechnical properties of

biosolids, which were produced at WTP in Melbourne, Australia were assessed. The tests carried
out included consolidation, particle density, Atterberg limits and particle size distribution.
According to the results, the biosolids samples were classified as organic fine-grained soils of
medium to high plasticity. The particle density of the biosolids ranged between 1.75 Mg/m3 and
1.79 Mg/m3, which is considerably lower than natural organic soil. The consolidation behaviour
of biosolids indicated that biosolids have similar behaviour to organic soils.

Asakura, et al., (2009) investigated the geotechnical properties of sludge as well as sludge blended
with slag, and C&D waste in order to determine the allowable ratio of sludge required to ensure
anaerobic zone in landfills in Japan. The geotechnical properties of sludge, including moisture
content, loss on ignition, bulk density, particle density, particle size distribution, OMC, and MDD,
were measure.

Figure 3: Geotechnical Properties of Biosolids (Source: Mohajerani, et al., 2019)

15
2.4.2 Sugarcane Molasses

Suriadi et al. (2002) found out that structural strength of sodic clay soil could be increased through
mixing soil with molasses.

2.5 STUDIES ON OTHER WASTES USED IN REPLACEMENT OF CLAY IN FIRED

BRICKS

Bories, et al., (2015) studied the effects of the incorporation of wheat straw, sunflower seed cake,
and olive stone flour as pore-forming agents on the properties of fired bricks. The physical
properties especially linear shrinkage, loss on ignition, bulk porosity, water absorption, thermal
performances, and bulk density were measured. The research results indicated that the sunflower
seed cake can be successfully incorporated up to 4% by weight, which increased the porosity by
23% as compared to the control brick incorporating no additives.

Martinez-Martinez, et al., (2016) investigated the incorporation of glycerine; a by-product of

biodiesel production, and raw clays. In an attempt to measure the effect of pore formation for the
organic materials in the clay matrix, different percentages of glycerine (5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5,
and 20% wt) were added to the clayey matrix. Brick samples were moulded, oven dried for 24 hrs
at 110°C and then fired in an electric furnace at a rate of 8°C/min up to a maximum of 950°C for
1 hr, the properties of the bricks like; bulk density, water absorption, water suction, linear
shrinkage, porosity, and compressive strength were examined to verify that the resulting bricks
samples fulfilled the building standards. The test results showed that the addition of 5% wt. of
glycerine reduced the bulk density, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity by 4.5, 3.3,
and 0.4%, respectively. The higher addition of glycerine (20%) decreased the bulk density by
17.2% and compressive strength by 77.7% compared to the control bricks. Interestingly, all the
values for the physical and mechanical properties fall within the range required by the specific
standards for bricks.

Chen et al. (2011) investigated the feasibility of producing bricks from haematite tailings together
with a small amount of clay and fly ash. The mixtures with different proportions of tailings, clay,
and fly ash were mixed for 10 min in a blender before water was added to the mixture to
homogenise for 10 min. The results indicated that the bulk density of the bricks decreased with the

16
addition of fly ash and clay. Moreover, the compressive strength of the bricks showed a sharp drop
with the addition of fly ash. However, the water absorption of the manufactured bricks showed
little variation with various proportions of tailings. The mixed samples with different proportions
of tailings (100%-77%), clay (0%-15%), and fly ash (0%-8%) were fired at 1000ºC for 2hr. The
results indicated that the bulk density of the bricks decreased with the addition of fly ash and clay.
Moreover, the compressive strength of the bricks showed a sharp drop with the addition of fly ash.
However, the water absorption of the manufactured bricks showed little variation with various
proportions of tailings.

Another study conducted by Haiying, et al., (2011) used municipal solid waste incineration fly ash
as a blending material to make ceramic bricks. Brick samples were prepared using 15-30% fly ash,
60-50% red ceramic clay, 0-15% feldspar, and 20-25% sand. A series of laboratory tests were
performed to evaluate the compressive strength, water absorption, and shrinkage.

Veiseh & Yousefi, (2003) studied the production of lightweight bricks by mixing polystyrene foam
with clay soil in proportions 0-2% and firing at 900ºC to 1050ºC. The test results indicated that the
compressive strength and dry density decreased with the addition of polystyrene foam. In addition,
the thermal conductivity of the manufactured bricks reduced significantly with the addition of
polystyrene as a raw material. For instance, the thermal conductivity of bricks with 1.5%
polystyrene showed a 75% reduction compared to the control bricks with 0% polystyrene.

Sutcu & Akkurt, (2009) used paper processing residue as an additive to produce bricks. Brick raw
materials and paper residue were mixed together with different proportions (0%, 10%, 20%, and
30%). The mixtures were ground into the mortar, and granulised with 10% of water and uniaxially
compacted in a hydraulic press under a pressure of 10 MPa for the rectangular-shaped specimens.
Green specimens were air dried for 24hr and oven dried at 45ºC for 1hr. Dried specimens were
fired in a furnace at a rate of 2.5ºC min-1 until 600ºC, and then at a rate of 10ºCmin-1 until 1100ºC
for 1h The drying and firing shrinkage of the fired brick samples were investigated as well as the
loss on ignition, bulk density, apparent porosity, compressive strength, water absorption, and
thermal conductivity. The results obtained revealed that the green, dry, and fired bulk densities
decreased gradually with an increase in the percentage of paper residue. The apparent porosity and

17
water absorption values increased with an increase in the paper residue addition, whereas the
compressive strength of the samples decreased depending on the increase in the residue addition.

Mymrin, et al., (2015) investigated the possibility of incorporating paper production sludge and
scrap glass in manufacturing fired-clay bricks. Paper sludge and scrap glass with a total content of
up to 35% were used as replacement materials for clay and green bricks and fired at different
temperatures (700, 800, 900, 1000, 1050, 1100°C). The properties of the fired bricks showed that
the waste created bricks showed better mechanical properties than the control bricks with no
additives fired at 1050 and 1100°C.

Another study was conducted by Demir, (2008) who investigated various residue additives for
inclusion within bricks, such as sawdust, tobacco, and grass. In order to obtain comparable results,
four different series of samples were prepared for tests; a separate series for each residue. These
four series of samples contained 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10% residue additions. The test results
indicated that an increase in the amount of organic residue caused a reduction in the bulk density,
while the porosity, and water absorption increased with an increased amount of residue; sawdust,
tobacco, and grass.

Mohammed, et al., (2014) studied the addition of rice straw and microcrystalline cellulose in the
presence or absence of cement kiln dust to produce fired-clay bricks. The effect of the addition of
waste materials into the ceramic body was evaluated in terms of bulk density, compressive
strength, and porosity. The test results showed that incorporating 10% of microcrystalline cellulose
improved the compressive strength of bricks compared to the control bricks at a firing temperature
of 1000°C.

Quijorna, et al., (2012) used foundry sand and waelz slag by replacing clay in the manufacturing
of fired-clay bricks. In this research, these two waste materials were incorporated in fired-clay
bricks with a maximum percentage of 30%. Bricks with no waste were used as the control brick
sample. The physicochemical and environmental properties of the manufactured bricks were
evaluated, and it was found that the bricks with waste materials have lower water absorption when
compared to the control bricks. A significant reduction in CO2 and NOx was noticed during the
firing stage.

18
Baspinar, et al., (2010) investigated the effect of the addition of different percentages of silica
fume (2.5, 5, 10%), which is an inorganic waste material, on the properties of fired-clay bricks.
The test results showed that the addition of silica fume into the ceramic body improved the
efflorescence behaviour of the bricks. The bulk density of the bricks decreased with the addition
of silica fume at firing temperatures below 1000°C. The compressive strength of the bricks
increased with the addition of silica fume of more than 2.5%, while a decrease in the bulk density
was observed.

2.6 SUMMARY

This chapter presented detailed knowledge of the environmental issues associated with the
excessive production of biosolids throughout the world. The production of biosolids has
dramatically increased due to the urbanisation and improvement of treatment methods, and, as
biosolids remain in stockpiles throughout the world, a sustainable recycling destination is required.
In this literature review, the detailed explanation of the use of various waste materials as an
alternative raw material in manufacturing bricks was presented. A variety of recycled waste
materials and their effect on the physical and mechanical properties of bricks was reviewed.
According to the previous literature reviewed under this chapter, it is possible that wastewater
sludge and sugar cane molasses has the engineering properties that can aid the effective
incorporation into the production of clay bricks.

19
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

To achieve the objectives of this study, the materials shall be investigated to establish their physical
properties. The test materials shall be mixed in different proportions by incorporating cane
molasses and biosolids from wastewater sludge. The potentiality of using these waste materials
(Sugarcane molasses and Biosolids from sewage sludge) shall be studied by carrying out
compressive strength test, water absorption test and shrinkage test on the bricks. The bricks will
thus be moulded and sundried, then fired and tested under compression to evaluate the compressive
behaviour of the final brick incorporating the wastes. Percentage Shrinkages shall also be
investigated to establish the initial linear drying shrinkage and firing shrinkage.

3.2 MATERIALS PREPARATION

3.2.1 Brick soil

Clay soil to be used in the manufacture of the bricks shall be obtained from local traditional brick
manufacturing plants in Banda.

3.2.2 Sugar Cane Molasses (SCM)

The sugar cane molasses to be used in this study shall be acquired from Kinyara Sugar factory’s
waste dumping sites located in Masindi District because of its abundance. The study proposes the
use of the cane molasses in its original liquid form.

3.2.3 Sludge/Biosolids

The biosolids (sludge) to be used as a replacement of the brick soil shall be acquired from local
authority’s Wastewater treatment plants in Kampala. The sludge will first be air dried to remove
excess moisture. The dried solids will then be crushed into fairly fine particles using a crushing
machine before its incorporation in the bricks.

20
3.3 TESTS ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

The physical properties to be tested on the materials are; specific gravity, bulk density, Particle
size, and the Atterberg Limits of soils (Liquid limit, Plastic limit and Plasticity Index). In this
research, the bulk density shall aid in the proportioning of the materials in sample bricks.

3.3.1 Determination of Atterberg limits of sludge solids and brick soils

The Atterberg limits of the sludge biosolids and the brick soil shall be investigated by carrying out
Liquid Limit tests, Plastic limit test and determining the Plasticity Index (PI) of the samples so as
to determine the plasticity of the samples. Test shall be carried out in accordance with BS1377:
Part 2:1990 and ASTM D4318 -17 Standard Test methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and
Plasticity Index of Soils. Liquid Limit test will be done to establish the moisture content at which
soil and sludge passes from liquid state to plastic state.

3.3.2 Determination of Bulk density

This test shall be carried according to ASTM D6683-19 Standard Test Method for Measuring Bulk
Density Values of Powders and other Bulk Solids as a Function of Compressive Stress.

3.3.3 Determination of Specific gravity

The test will be done according to ASTM D854-14 Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of
Soils by Water Pycnometer and BS1377: Part 2:1990.

3.3.4 Determination of Particle Size Distribution

This test will be done in accordance with ASTM C136-06: Standard Test Method for Sieve
Analysis for fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.

This will be done to determine the particle size distribution of the sludge and brick soil by wet
sieving.

3.4 PREPARATION OF BRICKS

Bricks will be manufactured incorporating three different percentages (10, 20, and 30 %wt.) of
Sludge and Sugarcane molasses. This means for a 10% replacement; the mix design shall contain

21
5%wt of sludge and 5%wt of cane molasses. The samples at different replacement levels will be
labelled B10, B20, B30 respectively. For the purposes of comparison of properties, control bricks
with no sludge and cane molasses (0% replacement) shall be made and labelled as B0.

3.4.1 Forming of bricks

Different percentages of SCM and WTPS shall be added to brick soil and the waste-soil mixtures
will be manually mixed while adding the required amount of water. The manually mixed samples
shall be kept in air-tight sealed bags for 24 hours to achieve satisfactory homogenization. The
homogenised sludge-molasses-soil mixture shall be compacted in a standard sized timber mould
by 30 uniformly distributed blows of the rammer falling freely from a height of 300 mm, which
will be the equivalent compaction energy to achieve the green conventional brick dimensions of
225x115x75mm (Length x Width x Height).

3.4.2 Drying and firing of bricks

The green (unburnt) brick samples will first be air dried under a shade while it is being cured 48
hours. This will be followed by oven drying at 105oC ± 5 for 24 hours. The oven dried bricks shall
then be removed and fired in a clamp kiln at a temperature of 900oC – 1100oC.

3.5 STUDIES ON THE BRICKS

The Studies below shall be carried out on bricks to investigate whether the amended bricks meet
the minimum requirements as specified by BS EN 771: Part 1:2003- Specification for Masonry
Units- Clay Masonry Units.

3.5.1 Test Samples

A total number of 36 specimen bricks shall be required for the studies. 12 specimen bricks to be
tested for Shrinkage, 12 specimen bricks for Water absorption test and also 12 sample bricks for
Compressive strength test. It should be noted that, all the tests shall be replicated three times and
results presented as an average value.

22
3.5.2 Shrinkage test

The drying shrinkage (Before firing) and firing shrinkage (After firing) of the bricks shall be
investigated according to ASTM C157: Standard Test Methods for Shrinkage; to measure the
shrinkage of the bricks. The initial drying shrinkage of the amended brick samples will be
determined by measuring the dimensions of green-bricks and oven-dried brick samples, whereas
the firing shrinkage of the brick samples is to be determined by measuring the dimensions of the
as-fired and oven-dried brick samples, using a Vernier calliper with a precision of 0.01 mm.

Required Equipment

 A flat glass plate.

 Two palette knives or spatulas.
 A drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 105 °C – 110 °C.
 Clean water.
 A brass mould for linear shrinkage test.
 Silicone grease or petroleum jelly.
 Vernier Callipers or steel rule with accuracy of 0.5 mm.

Sample preparation

This test shall be carried out as a continuance of the Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit tests, and
materials for the test will therefore conveniently be prepared as part of the Liquid Limit test.
Otherwise a 150g sample shall be prepared in the same way as specified in the Liquid Limit test.
A sample of materials passing through a 425µm sieve shall be thoroughly mixed with distilled
water until the mass becomes a smooth homogenous paste with a moisture content about the Liquid
Limit of the soil.

Procedures for determining linear drying shrinkage

Step 1: Clean the mould thoroughly and apply a thin film of silicone grease or petroleum jelly to
its inner faces to prevent the sample adhering to the mould.

Step 2: Take the 150g soil paste sample at approximately the liquid limit.
23
Step 3: Place the soil/water mixture in the mould such that it is slightly proud of the sides of the
mould. Gently jar the mould, or carefully tap the mould against a firm surface, to remove any air
pockets in the mixture.

Step 4: Level the soil along the top of the mould with the palette knife and remove all soil adhering
to the rim of the mould by wiping with a damp cloth.

Step 5: Place the mould where the paste can air dry slowly for 1-2 days until the soil has shrunk
away from the walls of the mould.

Step 6: Then complete the drying in an oven at 105°C ± 5°C.

Step 7: Cool the mould and measure the mean length of the soil bar by pressing it against the end
of the mould where there is a better fit, while measuring the distance between the opposite side of
the mould and the soil bar.

Calculations and Results

Calculate the Linear Drying Shrinkage of the soil as a percentage of the original length of the
specimen, Lo (in mm), from the equation:

𝐿𝐷
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (1 − ) × 100
𝐿0

Where: LD is the Length of the oven-dry specimen (in mm).

L0 is the Length of the original specimen (in mm).

Report the Linear Drying Shrinkage of the specimen to the nearest whole percentage and Capture
results using Table 2 below.

24
 Table 2: Initial Drying Shrinkage for test bricks at different replacement level

Serial No. WTPS & SCM (%) Drying Shrinkage (%)

DS-B0 0

DS-B1 10

DS-B2 20

DS-B3 30

Procedures for determining firing shrinkage

Step 1: Take the oven dried soil bar and measure the mean length LD (in mm).

Step 2: Fire it at approximately 600 - 900°C in a laboratory furnace or in a clamp kiln.

Step 3: Remove the brick and cool it, then measure the mean length LF of the fired brick.

Calculations of firing shrinkage

Calculate the linear firing shrinkage of the brick as a percentage of the length of the oven dried
specimen, LD (in mm), from the equation;

𝐿𝐹
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (1 − ) × 100
𝐿𝐷

Where; LD is Length of oven dried brick (in mm).

LF is Length of kiln fired brick (in mm).

Results of the linear firing shrinkage of the bricks shall be presented in the table below.

25
 Table 3: Firing Shrinkage for test bricks at different replacement level

Serial No. WTPS & SCM (%) Firing Shrinkage (%)

FS-B0 0

FS-B1 10

FS-B2 20

FS-B3 30

Experimental design

Shrinkage Test

TEST SAMPLES

B1 (0% replacement) B2 (Clay replacement)

10%

20%

30%

Figure 4: Experimental design for Linear Shrinkage test

26
3.5.3 Water Absorption test

Bricks are dry and porous; therefore, it has the ability to release and absorb moisture inherently
from weather, mortar or concrete. If the dry bricks absorb water when laid, the mortar will become
weak and poorly bonded as a result of insufficient water for the hydraulic reaction of the cement
in the mortar thereby, reducing the strength of the construction. Therefore, to establish whether the
test bricks meet the minimum requirement, the Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) shall be
investigated as shown in ASTM C67: 5-hour and 24-hour Immersion Tests.

Apparatus

 Oven, Weight balance and Tray.

Procedures

Take any three (3) random bricks from a lot of bricks as a specimen.

Dry the specimen in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105 ± 5°C until it achieves considerably
constant mass.

Cool the specimen to room temperature (25 ± 5°C) and take its weight (M1).

Take a completely dry specimen then immerse it in clean distilled water at room temperature for
24 hours.

Remove the specimen brick from water after 24 hours and wipe out water with a damp cloth and
weigh the specimen. Take the weight (M2) of the specimen after 3 minutes of removing from the
water.

Calculations and Results

Percentage of water absorption of brick by its mass, after 24-hour immersion in cold water shall
be calculated using the formula;

(𝑀2 − 𝑀1)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝑀1
27
Results shall be recorded using the table below

Table 4: Percentage Water Absorption of Bricks at different replacement levels

Serial No. Sludge & Molasses (%) Average Water Absorption (%)

W-B0 0

W-B1 10

W-B2 20

W-B3 30

Water Absorption Test

TEST SAMPLES

B1 (0% replacement) B2 (Clay replacement)

10%

20%

30%

Figure 5: Experimental Design for Compressive Strength test

28
3.5.4 Compressive Strength Test

The compressive strength test to determine the load carrying capacity of the bricks shall be carried
out according to ASTM C67 / C67M -19: Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick
and Structural Clay Tile. The experiments will be replicated three times and the results presented
as an average value.

Apparatus

 Universal Compression Testing Machine

 The Compression plates.

Sampling

Three number of amended bricks from sample made will be taken and the dimension measured to
the nearest 1mm. Samples to be tested shall be picked from different lots (replacement levels) as
shown in the schematic design for Compressive strength test.

Procedures

Fill all voids in the bed faces with cement mortar (1cement, 1 clean fine aggregate of grade 3mm
and down). Store it under damp jute bags for 24 hours followed by immersion in clean water for
3days. Remove and wipe out any traces of moisture with a damp cloth.

Unevenness on the bed faces of bricks shall be removed by grinding to provide two smooth parallel
faces. Immerse the bricks in water at room temperature (20 °C ±5) for 24 hours, then remove the
specimen and drain off surplus moisture at room temperature.

Place the specimen brick with flat faces horizontal and mortar filled face facing upwards between
the plates of the testing machine.

Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 9Mpa per minute until failure occurs and note the maximum
load at failure. The load at failure is the maximum load at which the specimen brick fails to produce
any further increase in the indicator reading on the testing machine.

29
Calculation of Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of the bricks shall be calculated using the formula below;

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁)

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑚𝑚2 )

Results

The test results shall be captured, recorded and reported in the table shown below.

Table 5: Compressive Strength of test bricks at different replacement levels

Serial No. Replacement Levels (%) Compressive Strength

(N/mm2)
C-B0-A Specimen A
C-B0-B Specimen B
0
C-B0-C Specimen C
C-B0 Average
C-B1-A Specimen A
C-B1-B Specimen B
10
C-B1-C Specimen C
C-B1 Average
C-B2-A Specimen A
C-B2-B Specimen B
20
C-B2-C Specimen C
C-B2 Average
C-B3-A Specimen A
C-B3-B Specimen B
30
C-B3-C Specimen C
C-B3 Average

30
 Shrinkage Test

TEST SAMPLES

B1 (0% replacement) B2 (Clay replacement)

10%

20%

30%

Figure 6: Experimental Design for Compressive Strength test

3.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

The data collected shall be reviewed, edited, analysed and interpreted quantitatively in light of the
research questions and reference to the previous literature.

Microsoft Excel Software and SPSS shall be used during data analysis to generate graphical
presentation of research results using; bar graphs, line graphs and pie charts.

A multivariate statistical analysis using SPSS shall be carried out to investigate the correlation
between all properties tested in this study. A clustering technique of single linkage cluster method
along with the absolute correlation coefficient distance as a measure of similarity of each group
shall be employed in this study. Multivariate statistical analysis is of great importance because it
is considered a useful tool for evaluating the significance of physical properties of materials in
relation to any individual variable and the mutual influence of variables on each other.

31
3.7 FLOW DIAGRAM

Collect Raw Materials

(Brick Soil, Sludge, & Cane Molasses)

 Crushing
Preparation of Materials  Sieving

Physical Properties
Test Raw Materials
 Atterberg Limits
WTPS & SCM  Bulk Density
(%)  Specific Gravity
 Particle Size
0% Distribution
Forming Bricks
10%

20% 1 Air drying

2 Oven drying
30% Drying and Firing Bricks
(105 ±°C)
3 Firing in Kiln
(900-1100°C)

Test Amended Bricks

Compressive
Strength (N/mm2)

Linear Shrinkage
(%)

Initial Rate of
Data Analysis, Interpretation Absorption (%)
& Discussion

Figure 7: Method Flow Chart

32
 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH PROGRAM

Table 6: Research Program Gantt Chart

TIME

15/05/2020
18/11/2019

08/01/2020

28/01/2020

30/03/2020

31/04/2020

08/05/2020
24/08/2019
ACTIVITY

Proposal writing
Pilot study
Materials collection & preparation

Tests on samples and data collection

Data Analysis and result discussions

Final Report writing

Final Presentation

33
APPENDIX 2: ESTIMATED BUDGET FOR RESEARCH

Table 7: Research Budget Estimate

Item Description Unit Qty Rate (UGX) Amount (UGX)

1 Transport No. 1 175,000 175,000

2 Stationery/printing No. 6 11,000 66,000

3 Feeding No. 28 3,000 84,000

4 Material tests No. 33 25,000 825,000

5 Miscellaneous costs No. 1 100,000 100,000

6 Contingencies No. 1 150,000 150,000

TOTAL 1,400,000

34
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