Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32

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Ocean & Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

The Reef Corridor of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico: Challenges for its
management and conservation
Leonardo Ortiz-Lozano a, *, Horacio Pérez-España b, c, Alejandro Granados-Barba a,
Carlos González-Gándara d, Ana Gutiérrez-Velázquez e, Javier Martos d
a
Análisis y Síntesis de Zonas Costeras, Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Pesquerías, Universidad Veracruzana, Av. Hidalgo #617, Col. Río Jamapa 94290,
Boca del Río, Veracruz, Mexico
b
Arrecifes Coralinos, Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Pesquerías, Universidad Veracruzana, Av. Hidalgo #617, Col. Río Jamapa 94290, Boca del Río,
Veracruz, Mexico
c
Centro de Investigación de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Autónoma del Carmen, Av. Laguna de Términos s/n, Col. Renovación 2da sección, CP 24155,
Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico
d
Laboratorio de Arrecifes Coralinos, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Zona Poza Rica Tuxpan, Universidad Veracruzana, Carr.
Tuxpan.-Tampico km 7.5, Col. Universitaria, CP 92860, Tuxpan, Veracruz, Mexico
e
Posgrado. Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Departamento de Ecología y Comportamiento Animal, Apartado Postal 63, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Flow of species and spatial continuity of biological processes between geographically separated areas
Available online 25 October 2013 may be achieved using management tools known as Ecological Corridors (EC). In this paper we propose
an EC composed of three highly threatened coral reef systems in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico: Sistema
Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan, Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano and Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas. The proposed EC is
supported by the concept of Marine Protected Areas Networks, which highlights the biogeographical and
habitat heterogeneity representations as the main criteria to the establishment of this kind of networks.
These three reef systems represent the coral biodiversity of the western Gulf of Mexico. Nevertheless
there are serious shortcomings in its protection. Under this approach, the challenges that Mexican
government will face for management and conservation of this EC are discussed. There is an obvious lack
of an adequate legal framework to establish networks of protected areas in Mexico, mainly because
national legislation does not consider connectivity as an important factor in the selection of MPA.
Ó 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-SA license.

1. Introduction consequences (Fitzpatrick and Donaldson, 2007; Hoegh-Guldberg

One of the most important instruments for in situ protection of
natural resources and biodiversity has been the establishment of
protected areas (Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a). These areas, under
different categories of protection, are the basis for international
efforts to counter the effects of human development on the envi-
ronmental goods and services that they provide.
Coral reefs are one of the marine ecosystems that have provided
more goods and services to humans. With a total world area of
approximately 527 000 km2 (Mora et al., 2006), coral reefs have
been intimately linked to human development and have suffered its
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ52 229 9567070.
E-mail addresses: ortizleo@gmail.com, leoortiz@uv.mx (L. Ortiz-Lozano).
et al., 2007). That is why about 20% of the global area of these
ecosystems is within a Marine Protected Area (MPA). However, the
number of MPAs and its coverage can be misleading indicators of
effective conservation of coral areas, since its establishment does
not warrant the application of good management measures and
enforcement (Mora et al., 2006; Fraga and Jesús, 2008).
Although MPAs are intended to limit human activities, coral
reefs are vulnerable to threats from outside the boundaries of the
protected area, such as turbidity and sedimentation (Orpin et al.,
2004; James et al., 2005), water pollution (Fabricius, 2005), and
coastal development (Fichez et al., 2005; Mora et al., 2006; Ortiz-
Lozano, 2012) (Gutiérrez-Ruiz et al., 2011; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012).
Also, life cycles and ethology of different reef species may exceed
the geographical boundaries of protected areas (Palumbi, 2004) as
well as internal ecological processes dominated by the influence of
the external areas (McClelland and Valiea, 1998; Miller and Ayre,
2008), which increases the vulnerability of reefs to the effects of
anthropogenic impacts.

0964-5691 Ó 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-SA license.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.10.006
 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 23

Fig. 1. Reefs Systems of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico: Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV) and Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas (AT).

For these reasons, it is necessary to analyze MPAs, not only in the establishment of the first Mexican Marine Protected Area
terms of individual performance, but in relation to the major re- Network in the Gulf of Mexico.
gions that integrate and represent a relevant role in its spatial and
temporal permanence (Pressey, 1994; Hansen and Defries, 2007;
2. Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico
Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a).
Ecological corridors (EC) are biological or physical strips con-
The Gulf of Mexico is a Large Marine Ecosystem (Sherman, 1991)
necting areas and allowing movement of species (Van der Windt
with a mixture of ecological characteristics of temperate and
and Swart, 2008). EC have become a concept for integrating, un-
tropical environments. It is an inland sea whose basin of
der a management perspective, areas that despite being
1.5  106 km2 (Bryant et al., 1991) receives discharges from rivers
geographically separated from each other, maintain a flow of spe-
that led to the formation of environmentally and biologically
cies that generates connections between areas within it.
diverse coastal systems.
The aim of this manuscript is to present the Southwest Gulf of
Coral reefs require particular oceanographic and environmental
Mexico reefs as a marine ecological corridor. Here we show the
conditions such as shallow, oligotrophic, and warm (>20 C) ma-
importance of these reefs and the main stressors to which they are
rine waters, with an optimum between 26 and 28  C, with salinities
exposed. We explain the criteria to account this ecological corridor
of 33e36 ups, minimal turbidity and sedimentation, well lit and
under the figure of a network of marine protected areas.
with low wave energy (Hubbard, 1997; Carricart-Ganivet, 2004).
To arrive at this proposal, we conducted a qualitative approach
However, in the Gulf of Mexico, some reefs developed despite the
at different spatial scales. First, we considered the large region
conditions of turbidity, sedimentation, temperature and organic
which includes the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). The GoM was divided
inputs, produced by natural disturbances and human activities
according to their geological characteristics and the presence of
(Salas-Pérez and Granados-Barba, 2008; Salas-Pérez and Arenas,
reef systems. With this, we identified the factors that group these
reef systems into two sets, according to the type of continental
Table 1
shelf, either carbonated or sedimentary. At a smaller spatial scale
Scleractinean Coral Species in Gulf of Mexico reef areas.
for sedimentary platform reefs, we integrate information about the
presence of scleractinian coral species, the main environmental Reef system Number of Source
coral species
characteristics, the relationship with human uses and the pressures
to which they are subjected. This information was obtained from Flower Garden Banks 23 Aronson et al., 2005
Sistema Arrecifal 28 Horta-Puga et al., 2007
published data for different reef systems and expert knowledge in
Lobos Tuxpan
each of the areas. Evidence of connectivity between different reef Sistema Arrecifal 38 Horta-Puga et al., 2007, this research
systems was collected from the scientific literature, considering Veracruzano
existing data on benthic organisms. We must emphasize that the Arrecifes de Los 20 Pérez-España et al., 2008; CONANP, 2009
main purpose of this paper is to set the conceptual basis to coor- Tuxtlas
Banco de Campeche 44 Horta-Puga et al., 2007, this research
dinate research efforts and management of this Reef Corridor, and
24 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32

Table 2 (>150 km width). It is one of the few regions in the world showing a
Scleractinean Coral Species in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico reef systems. Sistema sedimentary gradient from terrigenous to biogenic materials (car-
Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV), Arrecifes de Los
Tuxtlas (AT). The closest reef system, Banco de Campeche reefs (ABC), is included as
bonate). Because of these characteristics, reef systems with variable
an external reference. Sources: Horta-Puga et al., 2007; Pérez-España et al., 2008; morphology and development are found (Heilprin, 1890; Lara et al.,
CONANP, 2009; *Perez-España personal communication. 1992; Carricart-Ganivet and Horta-Puga, 1993; Jordán-Dahlgren,
# Family Species SALT SAV AT ABC
2002).
The environmental heterogeneity and biological complexity of
1 Acroporidae Acropora cervicornis 1 1 1 1
the Gulf of Mexico is reflected in the shelf off the coast of Veracruz,
2 Acropora palmata 1 1 1 1
3 Agariciidae Agaricia agaricites 1 1 1 1 which is narrow (w6e33 km), shallow (<70 m) and sinuous, with
4 Agaricia fragilis 1 1 1 1 complex topography due to the presence of reefs, islands and
5 Agaricia humilis 0 1 1 1 submarine canyons. According to Salas-Pérez and Granados-Barba
6 Agaricia lamarcki 0 1 0 1
(2008), physiographic complexity of this region is important in
7 Helioseris cucullata 0 1 1 1
8 Caryophylliidae Cladocora arbuscula 0 0 1 1
modifying flows generated by different components of circulation
9 Mussidae Colpophyllia natans 1 1 1 1 associated with oceanographic conditions in the Gulf of Mexico
10 Diploria clivosa 1 1 1 1 (hydrographic parameters, oceaneatmosphere interaction and
11 Diploria labyrinthiformis 0 0 0 1 circulation), supporting retention and survival of reef systems.
12 Diploria strigosa 1 1 1 1
There are three well-defined areas with different degree of coral
13 Favia fragum 0 1 0 1
14 Manicina areolata 1 1 0 1 development within the region (Fig. 1), hosting 40 species of
15 Mussa angulosa 1 1 0 1 scleractinian corals (Table 2): Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan
16 Mycetophyllia aliciae 0 0 0 1 (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV) and a set of small reefs
17 Mycetophyllia daniana 1 1 0 1 called Arrecifes de Los Tuxtlas (AT). There are also patches of sub-
18 Mycetophyllia ferox 1 1 0 1
19 Mycetophyllia lamarckiana 1 1 0 1
merged reefs that share species with these main reef systems.
20 Scolymia cubensis 1 1 0 1 The characteristics of these systems are:
21 Scolymia lacera 0 1 0 1
22 Meandrinidae Dichocoenia stokesi 0 1 0 1 3.1. Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT)
23 Eusmilia fatigiata 0 0 0 1
24 Meandrina meandrites 0 0 0 1
25 Pocilloporidae Madracis decactis 1 1 1 1 This system is composed of platform reefs, six of which are
26 Madracis auretenra* 0 1 0 1 emerged and four are submerged (Fig. 2, Table 3). Because of its
27 Montastraeidae Montastraea annularis 1 1 0 1 ecological, scientific, educational, recreational, historical and cul-
28 Montastraea cavernosa 1 1 1 1 tural importance, in June 2009 was declared an MPA with the
29 Montastraea faveolata 1 1 0 1
30 Montastraea franksi 1 1 0 1
category of “Flora and Fauna Protection Area” (DOF, 2009). There is
31 Oculinidae Oculina diffusa 1 1 1 1 a characteristic type of reefs in the region as is pointed out by
32 Oculina robusta 0 1 1 1 Castro-Aguirre and Márquez-Espinoza (1981), consisting of high
33 Oculina tenella 0 0 1 1 relief structures that do not reach the sea surface, called “sub-
34 Oculina valenciennesi 0 1 0 1
merged reefs”. In the intertidal zone off Cabo Rojo, is “Bajo Verde”, a
35 Oculina varicosa 1 1 1 1
36 Poritidae Porites astreoides 1 1 1 1 patch of limestone covered by remains of mollusks, polychaete
37 Porites branneri 0 1 0 1 tubes and with a coral cover less than 5%, formed mainly of stony
38 Porites colonensis 1 1 0 1 corals (Fig. 2B). There are also two reef structures located west of
39 Porites divaricata 1 1 0 1 Tuxpan reef, and another located southeast of the mouth of the
40 Porites furcata 1 1 0 1
41 Porites porites 1 1 0 1
Cazones river (Fig. 2B and C). The dimensions of these reefs are
42 Siderastreidae Siderastrea radians 1 1 1 1 similar to those emerging reefs, as they are 1.5e2.5 km long by 1 km
43 Siderastrea siderea 1 1 1 1 wide (Martos, 2010; González-Cobos, 2010).
44 Astrocoeniidae Stephanocoenia intersepta 1 1 1 1 Although the first formal studies of SALT date back to Moore
Total species 28 38 20 44 (1958), knowledge of their biodiversity and their communities is
limited. There are 1 110 species known in the area, emphasizing
2010; Pérez-España et al., 2012; Tunnell, 1992; Godinez-Ortega corals, mollusks and fishes, including 31 species of stony corals
(Escobar-Vázquez and Chávez, 2012; Morales, 2012) that provide
et al., 2009; Gutiérrez-Ruiz et al., 2011; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012).
shelter for 299 mollusk species (Tunnell et al., 2007) and 278 fish
In the Gulf of Mexico, reefs are distributed in two major groups
species (González-Gándara, 2003, 2010). Limited knowledge of
linked to the environmental features of the continental shelf were
some taxa, such as sponges and tunicates is highly remarkable.
they are located: the terrigenous platform present in West and
North, and the Southeastern carbonate platform (Fig. 1). In the
3.1.1. Economic importance
terrigenous shelf biological diversity is lower (Tunnell, 1988;
The SALT is located near Tuxpan and Tamiahua cities, whose
Jordán-Dahlgren, 2002) due to the extreme conditions in which
productive activities are linked in part to these reef ecosystems.
they develop and the longest distance and low connectivity they
have with the center of the Caribbean Biogeographic Province; the Significant economic incomes arise from port of Tuxpan, which
received 585 vessels in 2012, most of them carrying fuel (SCT,
carbonated shelf is closer to the Caribbean and have a higher bio-
logical diversity (Horta-Puga et al., 2007) (Table 1). 2013). About 100 fishermen extracted species for regional and na-
tional consumption, mainly octopus. Also, domestic tourism for
diving and reef fishing is important in the region.
3. Reefs of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico (RSGoM)
3.1.2. Environmental impacts
The East Mexico Shelf (Bryant et al., 1991, Fig. 1) is located in the SALT reefs are apparently less exposed to human activities;
Southwest Gulf of Mexico. It is a continental shelf with unusual however, the growth of the Port of Tuxpan and accidental fuel
topographic features, narrowing from north to south (w90e6 km discharges are increasing pressures on coral reefs. Tuxpan river
width), and widening to its boundaries with the Yucatan Shelf pollutes with contaminants as biocides, fertilizers, heavy metals
 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 25

Fig. 2. The Flora and Fauna Protection Area, Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (A). It is composed by two polygons: B) North polygon, in front of Tamiahua Lagoon. C) South polygon, in
front of Tuxpan city.

and fecal coliform to the region (Ponce-Velez and Botello, 2005) relevance in the last six years (Taylor and Akins, 2007; Winfield
(Table 4). et al., 2007, 2009, 2010; Okolodkov et al., 2007, 2011; Ortiz-
Lozano et al., 2007, 2009a, b; Salas-Pérez et al., 2012; Salas-Pérez
3.2. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV) and Granados-Barba, 2008; Okolodkov, 2008, 2010; Godínez-
Ortega et al., 2009; Salas-Monreal et al., 2009; Aké-Castillo et al.,
The SAV is the most developed reef system in the region. It has 2010; Parra-Toriz et al., 2010; Arceo and Granados-Barba, 2010;
27 reefs, and six islands (Fig. 3, Table 5). It has four fringing reefs, Aké-Castillo, 2011; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012Salas-Pérez et al., 2012). It is
and the rest are platform reefs. Of these, 19 are emerged and four also the only system in the region adjacent to a metropolitan area
are submerged. The SAV has three categories of protection. It has (Veracruz). There are vessels entering to the commercial port
been a national park since 1992 and was declared as a Biosphere through the MPA. These aspects are crucial to the impacts and
Reserve by UNESCO since 2006. Additionally, was registered by the human influence on SAV (Hayasaka Ramírez, 2011; Ortiz-Lozano,
Mexican government as a wetland of international importance in 2012).
the Ramsar list in 2004. Until today there is not a management
program for the protected area, making it difficult to conduct 3.2.1. Economic importance
proper management and conservation actions. The SAV is the most important reef area in the history of Spanish
The SAV is the best studied reef system of Southwest Gulf of colonization (Rodríguez and Manrique, 1991). From the late
Mexico (Jiménez et al., 2007) and has acquired particular scientific sixteenth century has been both a shelter to the first port in con-
tinental America and the source of material for the construction of
Table 3 the city of Veracruz. The Port of Veracruz moved 729 717 containers
Reefs of the Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan. Location, area and types.
in 2007 (Guerrero and Rivera, 2009). There are around 500 fishing
Reef name Lat. Long. Average surface Reef type families in the area. The value of the catch in 2006 was U.S. $ 10915,
(ha) 047, the value of diving tourism in 2008 was U.S. $ 50 444, 774, and
Blanquilla 21.533333 97.288056 49.32501 Platform emerged the beach tourism revenue was U.S. $ 90 519, 365 during the same
Medio 21.500000 97.237222 32.24406 Platform emerged year (Arceo et al., 2010).
Lobos 21.450000 97.220278 199.70091 Platform emerged
Tanhuijo 21.133333 97.271111 90.90751 Platform emerged
En Medio 21.066667 97.254167 37.23010 Platform emerged 3.2.2. Environmental impacts
Tuxpam 21.016667 97.186389 97.90615 Platform emerged SAV reefs are located in a heavily impacted area. There have
Cabo Verde 21.553889 97.321944 NA Platform Submerged been identified 17 different types of environmental impacts asso-
Oro Verde 21.188889 97.288056 NA Platform Submerged ciated with 50 different causes of both human and natural origin
Pantepec 21.045833 97.237222 NA Platform Submerged
Blake 20.758333 96.999722 NA Platform Submerged
(Ortiz-Lozano, 2012). While there is no accurate assessment of the
impacts in the area, it can be said that urban development of the
26 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32
Table 4
Environmental problems located in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico reefs. Sistema
Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV), Arrecifes de Los
Tuxtlas (AT). Modified from Ortiz-Lozano (2012).
Category Environmental problem
Direct physical Siltation of coral reef structures
damage to Reef area reduction
the reef Rupture and partial
fragmentation of corals
Coral Death (death, bleaching,
coral diseases, coral species
decline)
Destruction of seagrass (direct
physical damage
and indirect functional damage
to seagrass beds)
Impact on Disappearance of ornamental
fisheries fish species
Loss of commercial mollusk
species
Loss of clam areas (reduction of
areas suitable for growth
of clams, declining populations
of clams)
Decrease in the size of fish
caught in commercial fishing
Changes in the Dominance of algae (relative
structure of increase in the area covered
biological by algae)
communities Invasion of exotic species
Pollution processes Pollution by agrochemical
Pollution by fecal coliform
Pollution from industrial waste
Pollution generated by oil and
petroleum products
Pollution by organic matter
Heavy metal pollution
Pollution from solid waste
(trash and other)
Fig. 3. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano National Park (A). Include two reef subsystems (Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a). B) Veracruz Subsystem. C) Antón Lizardo Subsystem.
Veracruz metropolitan area, and the presence of the Port of Vera-
cruz have been responsible for most of the deterioration of the reef
conditions (Table 4). Despite being a protected area since August
1992, the Mexican federal government, through the Ministry of
SALT SAV AT Environment and Natural Resources, began in 2011 a legal proce-
X dure to modify the protected area boundaries, excluding a fringing
X X reef called Punta Gorda. This has generated strong social opposi-
X X
tion, since the government’s intention is to expand the facilities of
X X the Port of Veracruz on the reef area.
3.3. Arrecifes de Los Tuxtlas
X
This reef system consists of a set of 32 small coral formations off
the coast of Los Tuxtlas (Fig. 4, Table 6). Most of them formed of
X X rocky substrates on which different colonies of hard corals species
grow. There is a fringing reef called “La Perla del Golfo”, which
X
reaches 13 km long and 0.5 km wide, and has a coral cover close to
X 15%, dominated by Diploria clivosa (Pérez-España et al., 2008). The
whole area is considered within a Marine Protected Area proposal
called “Arrecifes de Los Tuxtlas”, under the category of Biosphere
Reserve (CONANP, 2009). It is an area with a low level of knowledge
X X X
because it is difficult to access, and there are only a few records
X X about it (Pérez-España et al., 2008). The most complete information
about the area is the technical report that justifies the inclusion of
the area as a protected area (CONANP, 2009). It is stressed a coral
X X
X X
species richness similar to that of SALT, although the abundance is
X X lower. See Table 4 for environmental impacts detected.
X X
X X X 4. Towards the establishment of the Reef Corridor of the
Southwest Gulf of Mexico
X X
X X
X X Ecological corridors (EC) are strips that connect physical and
biological areas that allow movement of species (Van der Windt
and Swart, 2008). Although they may be defined in different
 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 27

Table 5 Table 6
Reefs of the Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano. Location, area and types. Location of reefs of Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas (CONANP, 2009).

Reef name Lat. Long. Average surface Reef type Reef name Lat. Long.
(ha)
Punta Puntilla 18.709667 95.286333
Punta Gorda 19.251085 96.183811 39.02952 Fringing Isla El Terrón 18.701833 95.238833
Galleguilla 19.231271 96.122688 34.98794 Platform emerged La Ensenada 18.704000 95.189833
Blanquilla 19.227298 96.098208 42.48632 Platform emerged Playa Escondida 18.704167 95.185000
Anegada de 19.226322 96.055719 75.84691 Platform emerged La Poza 18.709333 95.157500
Adentro Armita 1 18.686333 95.159833
Verde 19.203466 96.068006 67.11012 Platform emerged Armita 2 18.685167 95.152500
Hornos 19.191584 96.122661 12.02126 Fringing La Herradura 18.681667 95.145500
Pájaros 19.188906 96.089496 113.08381 Platform emerged Playa Hermosa 18.670000 95.126167
Sacrificios 19.177016 96.092385 45.17923 Platform emerged Montepío Costero 18.665833 95.095667
Anegada de 19.158676 95.854501 471.59684 Platform emerged Montepío Poza 18.652833 95.092667
Afuera Punta Sábalo 18.574667 95.082167
Ingenieros 19.149029 96.092824 43.73221 Fringing Muelle Balzapote 18.621833 95.069667
Topatillo 19.142977 95.835755 13.72432 Platform emerged Las Cruces (Punta Balzapote) 18.538000 95.067167
Santiaguillo 19.142477 95.809003 17.50261 Platform emerged Punta Playita 18.609000 95.058167
Anegadilla 19.136971 95.795912 20.62310 Platform emerged Jicacal 1 18.591167 95.037833
Polo 19.108503 95.977635 21.96971 Platform emerged Jicacal 2 18.588500 95.047500
Enmedio 19.106099 95.939164 258.61579 Platform emerged Jicacal Poza 18.621833 95.033333
Los Bajitos 19.101759 95.976463 42.78612 Platform emerged La Playita 18.558167 94.968333
Chopas 19.088364 95.968362 473.62927 Platform emerged Los Morritos 18.557333 94.975667
Blanca 19.086803 95.999618 41.32848 Platform emerged El Salado 18.549667 94.899833
Cabezo 19.074708 95.848202 1037.58564 Platform emerged Los Mulatos 18.552667 94.881833
Giote 19.065980 95.997718 3.45797 Fringing Barco Viejo 18.550000 94.872333
Rizo 19.063957 95.927766 184.40603 Platform emerged Guasinapan 18.548000 94.861167
La Palma 19.12627 95.96835 197.140441 Platform submerged Olapa 18.547500 94.851833
Los Sargazos 19.09851 95.94514 19.2172783 Platform submerged Perla del Golfo 18.525667 94.801833
Periferico 19.08431 95.93388 4.59033383 Platform submerged Zapotitlán 18.514000 94.792667
Terranova 19.18404 96.09553 6.52967079 Platform submerged Mezcalapa 18.468500 94.772000
Sochoapa 18.443500 94.763333
Punta Tecuanapa 18.421667 94.738667
Peña Hermosa 18.357333 94.688167
ways (Good, 1998), the concept itself refers to a particular feature: Punta Peña Hermosa 18.351667 94.674500
connectivity, i.e. communication between two or more entities. El Terrón 1 18.336833 94.658333
This “fuzzy” concept has been accepted by conservationists and El Terrón Poza 18.336667 94.654667
Punta San Juan 18.288167 94.620333
politicians precisely because of its adaptable definition (Van der
Jicacal 18.224333 94.608333
Windt and Swart, 2008). La Cuadrada 18.185333 94.573833
Under an environmental perspective, this connectivity may Palo Seco 18.171667 94.521667
refer to two components: can be related to physical characteristics
of the territory that provide connectivity in the landscape, linking
core habitats. It can also refer to landscape connectivity, considered
a biological attribute, which is the ability of the species (or species
assemblages) to disperse over a landscape (Baudry and Merriam,

Fig. 4. Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas. This group of 32 scattered coral formations has been proposed by the Federal Government as a Biosphere Reserve. Dots represent the coral
formations.
28 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32
Fig. 5. NMDS configuration obtained from the polychaete density in selected southern
GoM reefs: CBRS ¼ Campeche Bank Reef System, CIRS ¼ Cozumel Island Reef System,
VRS ¼ Veracruz Reef System. VRS includes Lobos (SALT) and Anegada de Adentro and
Anegada de Afuera reefs (SAV). (Modified from Granados-Barba et al., 2003).
1988). The second is the one that gives greater strength to the
concept.
In terrestrial ecosystems, the EC concept has been criticized
because of the difficulty to test connectivity between different
areas (Van der Windt and Swart, 2008). However, in marine eco-
systems connectivity is a key factor, especially for benthic organ-
isms (Carr et al., 2003). In fact, there are conspicuous physical
drivers that encourage connectivity, such as ocean currents (Brock
et al., 2012). In reef systems, hydrologic connectivity between their
linked environments (mangroves and sea grasses) is critical to
complete biological cycles.
RSGoM can be seen in the perspective of EC complementing this
concept with the criteria for the establishment of Marine Protected
Areas Networks (MPAN). These MPAN arise from the need to con-
nect not only interrelated environments, but to unite under com-
mon goals the different interests of the social sectors involved in its
use and management (Roberts et al., 2003).
Fig. 6. Hierarchical clustering of gorgonian species from South GoM and Caribbean
reefs. SALT reefs: Isla Lobos (IL), Tuxpan (TUX); SAV reefs: Veracruz (VER); ABC reefs:
Cayo Arenas (AREN), Cayo Arcas (ARC), Triángulos (TRIAN); Caribbean Reefs: Puerto
Morelos (PMOR). Modified from Jordán-Dahlgren (2002).
Fig. 7. Dendrogram that shows composition of scleractinian corals species and its
distribution in the Southern Gulf of Mexico. Numbers refers to species in Table 2. Here
are displayed only 26 of the 44 species of scleractinenan corals. The remaining 18
species are common to all systems. Black dots refer to species shared in each node.
White dots represent species shared by ABC and AT. AT ¼ Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas;
SALT ¼ Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan; SAV ¼ Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano;
ABC ¼ Banco de Campeche Reefs.
The MPAN are appropriate to address space issues of connec-
tivity (e.g. connect sites crucial to certain life stages of key species)
and habitat heterogeneity and spatial arrangement and composi-
tion of the constituent habitats, all of which contribute to the
ecosystem resilience.
Roberts et al. (2003) proposed several criteria for the selection of
MPAN, but the most important are: 1) “biogeographic representa-
tion” and 2) “Representation and habitat heterogeneity”, because
both seek to capture the full spectrum of diversity present in an
MPAN. The first one refers to the representativeness of the network
of areas to include all biogeographical regions in protected areas of
the MPAN, including the transition zones. The second seeks to
protect the full range of habitats present within a biogeographic
region. Our proposal is the implementation of an MPAN including
the reef systems off Veracruz State coast. This MPAN must include
the theoretical/best knowledge in order to have representation of
most habitats and ensure ecological connectivity.
Bellow we describe how these criteria are applied to the RSGoM.
Fig. 8. Types of coral reefs in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico according to its geo-
morphology. a) Fringing reefs. b) Emerged platform reefs. c) Submerged platform reefs.
 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32
4.1. Biogeographic representation
Regardless of their hierarchical level, a regional unit is charac-
terized by the presence of exclusive groups, whose limits are
defined by the overlap of the boundary lines of such groups.
However, not all species share the same geographic distribution,
making it difficult to place them in a rigid biogeographic region-
alization (Zunino and Zullini, 2004). This is the case of the RSGoM.
The RSGoM are located at Eastern Continental Shelf of Mexico,
which is within the Wider Caribbean biogeographic province
(Horta-Puga et al., 2007). This Biogeographic province is a vast re-
gion stretching from the South American Caribbean to the Gulf of
Mexico. Nevertheless, Eastern Continental Shelf of Mexico has its
own characteristics, both environmental and benthic species
composition, making it different to adjacent areas of the same
biogeographic province.
Some studies on the geographical distribution of benthic or-
ganisms in the southern Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, suggest
a separation of the biological communities of the Southwest Gulf of
Mexico with respect to the other areas of the same biogeographic
province. Granados-Barba et al. (2003), through an analysis of
density of coral reef polychaetes, found that the SAV (Anegada de
Adentro and Anegada de Afuera reefs) and SALT reefs (Isla Lobos)
differ from reefs of Mexican Caribbean and Yucatan platform
(Fig. 5). In addition, Jordán-Dahlgren (2002) differentiates gorgo-
nian coral reefs of Southwest Gulf of Mexico (Tuxpan and Veracruz)
from those in the Caribbean and Yucatan platform (Fig. 6).
For scleractinian corals, species composition of RSGoM differs from
the nearest reef systems, which are located at the Campeche Bank
(ABC, Fig.1), located in the Yucatan platform and having greater species
richness than RSGoM. Both share 39 of 44 species of hard corals (Fig. 7).
Probably, the low connectivity with Caribbean sea and the
different environmental conditions have originated RSGoM’s spe-
cial characteristics, resulting in endemic species in the SAV and
SALT, such as fish Elacatinus jarocho, Elacatinus redimiculus (Taylor
and Akins, 2007) and Hypoplectrus castroaguirrei (Del-Moral-
Flores et al., 2007). Other taxonomic groups with 11 exclusive
species for the SAV are stomatopod and decapod crustaceans
described by Winfield et al. (2009), Winfield et al. (2009, 2010;
Winfield and Ortiz (2012), and Ortiz et al. (2011). More research
is needed on the AT, but this area is likely to share these endemic
species, which could strengthen the connectivity within the bio-
logical corridor. This idea is reinforced by reports of the presence of
submerged reefs south of SALT (Martos et al., 2009) and north of
SAV, which would reduce the distance between Veracruz reef en-
vironments favoring the idea of an EC.
Differences between biota belonging to adjacent biogeographic
units can be determined by a combination of factors including
unique ecological conditions or barriers to dispersal (biotic or
physical, current or past) (Cox, 2001; Ruggiero and Ezcurra, 2003)
This higher connectivity among reefs of RSGoM and lower con-
nectivity with the Caribbean favor the idea of an biogeographic unit
that could be seen as an EC (Darlington, 1957).
4.2. Representation and habitat heterogeneity
RSGoM contains all possible types of coral reefs in the Gulf of
Mexico. Coral reefs can be classified into four types according to
their shape and proximity to the coast (Chávez et al., 2007): atolls,
platform, fringing and barrier. RSGoM has fringing reefs in the SAV
and the AT, and platform reefs at SALT and SAV. In the systems that
compose the RSGoM, there is a subdivision between platform reefs,
since platform reefs may emerge from the sea surface or be
completely submerged (Fig. 8). In addition to these major types of
reefs, in the AT are various patch reefs that grow near the coast.
29
4.3. Physical connectivity
A third issue on the creation of MPAN is the presence of strong
physical connectivity that could favor connectivity between
biological communities. In the case of the Southwestern GoM,
there is a remarked connectivity due to continental shelf currents
(Zavala-Hidalgo et al., 2003). These currents moves northward
from April to August and southward from September to March,
allowing the movement of water masses across all the reefs
systems of the CE.
5. Considerations for the integrated management of the
ecological corridor
In Mexico, one of the main tools used by the federal government
for the preservation of marine and coastal resources is the creation
of Marine Protected Areas (Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a). The General
Law on Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental Protection
(LGEEPA, Spanish acronym) defines protected areas as the key in-
strument in the exploitation of natural resources, and assign its
administration to the Ministry of Environment and Natural Re-
sources through the National Commission of Natural Protected
Areas. In the RSGoM, there are at least two reef systems that are
contained within a marine protected area. The first is the SALT,
located in the category of Flora and Fauna Protection Area. This MPA
is lacking a management program and does not have sufficient staff
to perform the necessary monitoring activities in the area. In the
case of PNSAV, has National Park status since 1992, but does not
have a management program. Currently the National Park is subject
to an intense judicial process where the citizens of the region have
sued federal authorities to protect the reef system against a port
expansion project. In the case of AT, there is a proposal to create a
Biosphere Reserve (CONANP, 2009), although to date no progress
has been made in protecting the area.
Besides these reef systems, there are some reefs that have not
been considered in any protection scheme, as is the case of the
submerged Blake reef (Fig. 2), which is located near the SALT but is
not included in the protected area.
Mexico lacks a legally defined scheme for managing networks of
protected areas. The closest instrument to this approach is defined
by LGEEPA as the National System of Protected Areas (NSPA). It is
the integration of Natural Protected Areas that are considered of
particular relevance to the country because of its biodiversity and
its ecological characteristics (LGEEPA, 2011). Nevertheless, the
NSPA does not explicitly consider the need to include environ-
mentally related areas together, or even mention the term
“ecological connectivity”. By contrast, in other countries like the
U.S., there are experiences on the establishment of MPAs networks,
as in the case of the State of California. After the enactment of the
Marine Life Protection Act, the MPAs in the region increased from 3
to approximately 16% of the State waters. This network of marine
protected areas represents most of marine habitats and is designed
to be ecologically-connected (Gleason et al., 2013).
From this perspective, the initiative to create the EC of the
RSGoM allows to integrate the term of connectivity within the
management of the MPA in the region. One of the main benefits is
that considers not only the polygons of protection; it also includes
the intermediate areas between them. This facilitates the protec-
tion of reefs that are not included in any protected areas, but are
equally important for the maintenance of the EC.
The apparent biogeographical ’isolation’ with the rest of the
Wider Caribbean reef systems, as well as a high physical connec-
tivity between CE systems, highlights the vulnerability of the
RSGoM. Threats like global warming have been decisive in the loss
of resilience of reef systems globally (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007),
30 L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32
a situation that may be exacerbated in systems with greater
isolation as RSGoM.
There are international initiatives that can be used as a frame-
work to develop MPAN management schemes in Mexico. It can be
seen either as financing mechanisms or as external regulators to
facilitate the implementation of the commitments made by Mexico
on MPAs. An example of this is the case of the Commission for
Environmental Cooperation (CEC) resulting from the signing of the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico,
the United States and Canada (1994). The Commission created the.
North American Marine Protected Areas Network (NAMPAN to
improve and strengthen the conservation of biodiversity in critical
marine habitats throughout North America MPA and facilitate the
exchange of information between experts and managers (www2.
cec.org/nampan).
While these initiatives could serve as a catalyst for the estab-
lishment of the Reef Corridor of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico, we
must emphasize the importance local governments can play in this
task. In Mexico, all marine ecosystems are under federal jurisdiction.
However, as seen in Fig. 1, the State that borders all the RSGoM is
Veracruz. Under the functional perspective of the coastal zone (Ray
and Hayden, 1992; Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2007, 2009a), Veracruz is by
definition the immediate catchment area (or planning zone, in terms
of Sorensen et al., [1992]) for all reef systems that form the EC. Thus
the role of the State and Municipal governments in urban areas is
relevant to the management of this MPAN. Therefore, it is necessary
that management of EC is supported by functional schemes to
overcome the jurisdictional limitations and facilitate the inclusion of
local governments and territories related with the EC.
The EC would enhance the integration of management initia-
tives already under way in the area (such as the presence of marine
protected areas and marine ordinances) and would recover the
concept of environmental connectivity as an essential element in
the functioning and management of these reef systems in the Gulf
of Mexico.
Finally, the approach proposed here, can be useful to highlight
the importance of the transition zones among reef systems
considering them as landscape elements that must be addressed as
they serve as a link between the sites. In addition, the EC proposal
can become the starting point for generating new approaches to the
study of these reef systems. Under this reasoning, the establish-
ment of this MPAN can become a valuable tool for the management
of all activities supported on the natural resources of the coastal
zone of the state of Veracruz and the Southwest of the Gulf of
Mexico.
Acknowledgments
We thank Patricia Arceo and Gerardo Rios for their help in
translating this paper. This research was supported by the projects:
“Bases para el Análisis y Síntesis de los Sistemas Costeros de Veracruz,
RASZCOV”; “Sistema Integral de Planeación Ambiental de la Zona
Costera Veracruzana” UV-ICMP (DGI 32720201023) and GM004
“Monitoreo del Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano” funded by CONABIO.
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