Williams, Kenneth R. - The Natural Calculator (1991)

THE
NATURAL
CALCULATOR
USING THE NATURAL PROCESSES OF THE MIND
FOR MENTAL CALCULATION
KENNETH R. WILLIAMS
INSPIRATION BOOKS
Published by Inspiration Books, 2009,
Kensglen, Nr Carsphairn, Castle Douglas, DG7 3TE, Scotland, U.K.
ISBN 978-1-902517-15-5
© K. R. Williams 1991
First published in 1991 by the Vedic Mathematics Research Group.
http://www.vedicmaths.org
PREFACE
This book sets out to show something of the fun, variety and potency of mental
mathematics. It also illustrates the system of Vedic Mathematics whose sixteen
formulae cover all of mathematics: all the various types of multiplication, for
example, can be classified under these headings.
The book deals mainly with multiplication, but includes addition, subtraction
and division. Multiplication is considered, especially by mental calculators, to
be the fundamental mental operation because unlike addition and subtraction it
reveals the properties of numbers. All the great mental calculators were able to
multiply large numbers together.
In the Vedic system only tables up to 5×5 are needed (although tables up to
10×10 is assumed here in chapters 1 and 3). It will be found however that the
mental calculator naturally acquires higher products through practice. Bidder,
by arranging shot in rectangles, taught himself the multiplication tables up to
10×10: “Beyond which I never went; it was all that I required”.
Although some chapters refer to and use methods of previous chapters it will be
possible for most people to read the book in any desired sequence. Algebraic
proofs of the various techniques are given at the end of the book.
It is hoped that some pleasure will be obtained from the variety and beauty of
the devices shown in this book and that it will encourage some to take up and
teach mental mathematics and the remarkable system of Vedic Mathematics (for
more on this system see the Introduction).
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION v
chapter
1 ON THE FLAG 1
CALCULATING FROM LEFT TO RIGHT 1
ADDITION FROM LEFT TO RIGHT 4
WRITING LEFT TO RIGHT CALCULATIONS 5
2 PROPORTIONATELY 7
MULTIPLICATION BY 4, 8, 16, 20, 40 ETC. 7
NUMBER SPLITTING 8
EXTENDING THE MULTIPLICATION TABLES 9
MULTIPLICATION BY 5, 50, 25 ETC. 9
MULTIPLICATION BY NUMBERS THAT END IN 5, 25, 75 11
3 BY ONE MORE THAN THE ONE BEFORE 13

SQUARING NUMBERS THAT END IN 5 14
MULTIPLYING NUMBERS WHOSE FIRST FIGURES ARE
THE SAME AND WHOSE LAST FIGURES ADD UP TO 10, 100 ETC. 15
4 THE FIRST BY THE FIRST AND THE LAST BY THE LAST 17

CHECK 1: THE FIRST BY THE FIRST 17
CHECK 2: THE LAST BY THE LAST 18
CHECK 3: THE DIGIT SUM CHECK 19
MULTIPLYING NUMBERS WHOSE LAST FIGURES ARE
THE SAME AND WHOSE FIRST FIGURES ADD UP TO 10 20
5 ALL FROM 9 AND THE LAST FROM 10 21

NUMBERS JUST BELOW A BASE 21
SUBTRACTION 24
NUMBERS ABOVE A BASE 26
ONE NUMBER ABOVE AND ONE NUMBER BELOW THE BASE 26
PROPORTIONATELY 27
NUMBERS NEAR DIFFERENT BASES 28
MULTIPLYING THREE NUMBERS SIMULTANEOUSLY 29
SQUARING NUMBERS NEAR A BASE 30
SQUARING NUMBERS NEAR 50 31
MULTIPLICATION BY NINES 31
ADDITION 32
SUBTRACTION 32
WRITING ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION SUMS 33
CONTENTS
6 VERTICALLY AND CROSSWISE 35

GENERAL MULTIPLICATION 35
USING THE VINCULUM 38
MULTIPLYING THREE-FIGURE NUMBERS 40
MOVING MULTIPLIER 42
THREE AND FOUR-FIGURE MULTIPLICATIONS 44
SQUARING 48
GROUPING 50
DIVISION: A) DIVISOR NEAR A BASE 51
B) GENERAL DIVISION 56
7 USING THE AVERAGE 61
8 BY ADDITION AND BY SUBTRACTION 65

SQUARES FROM SQUARES 65
PRODUCTS FROM PRODUCTS 67
9 BY MERE OBSERVATION 69
DISGUISES 70
ALGEBRAIC PROOFS 76
REFERENCES 77
ANSWERS 78
INTRODUCTION
We all make mental calculations from time to time, though we may not always
be aware of it. In deciding at exactly what moment and speed to venture across
a busy road, for example, our mind judges continuously the positions and
speeds of several vehicles and accurately finds the required gap in which to
move forward. If our mind can make such complex judgements as this it is
certainly able to manipulate a few figures. It is the cumbersome calculating
devices we have probably been taught, which require pencil and paper or
calculator to work out because of their difficulty, and a lack of encouragement
for mental calculation which have prevented us from becoming efficient mental
calculators.
This book demonstrates that this need not be so: mental calculation is easy and
to be preferred to pencil and paper or calculator, and has many advantages over
these calculating methods. This introduction describes these advantages and
presents the case for mental calculation.
Most people would probably agree that mathematics holds a special position
among subjects of study: that it possess qualities of absolute certainty and
precision which cannot be attributed to any other subject. On the other hand
however mathematics is seen as difficult and remote by most people: the same
people who are also aware of its special absolute qualities. This situation has
come about because mathematics education has not been effective enough in
bringing out the real nature of mathematics. As young students we glimpse the
beauty of mathematics but this is usually a passing phenomenon.
Though mathematics has applications at many levels it is primarily a mental

subject. This being so it is likely that lack of mental calculation is partly
responsible for the situation described above, and that a system of mental
mathematics could provide students with a lasting link with the realm of
mathematics and also engender a deeper understanding of the structure and
processes of mathematics, as well as helping to develop other important
personal qualities.
vi THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
IN FAVOUR OF MENTAL MATHEMATICS
The following points outline the benefits available from a mental approach to
mathematics.
1. Mental calculation sharpens the mind and increases mental agility and
intelligence. This will be evident to anyone who has practised or taught mental
calculation or who has seen its effects.
2. It enhances the precision of thought. Numbers and other mathematical

objects are unbiased, giving only one correct answer to which everyone will
agree: there is never a contradiction. This absolute precision is unique to
mathematics, so dealing intimately with numbers as we do in mental calculation
we cultivate fine and careful thinking.
3. Mental calculation leads naturally to the search for, and discernment of,
constancy and law, which are very necessary attributes in a swiftly changing
world. This point is expanded in the next section on mental algebra.
4. Our mind has the ability to retain several ideas at once so that they can be
compared, combined and so on. This facility is enhanced by mental calculation
as we practise holding the sum in the mind whilst operating with some of the
figures.
5. Mental calculation improves the memory. Memory depreciates if it is not

exercised. Short term, medium term and long term memory are all stimulated by
mental calculation.
6. Because numbers are absolutely dependable and reliable, calculation

promotes confidence. In particular, mental calculation creates confidence in
oneself and in ones capabilities. To solve a problem, perhaps a difficult one, by
mere mental arithmetic without having to rely on some artificial aid is a source
of great satisfaction and encouragement.
7. Mental calculation is a delight to the mind: the intrinsic qualities,

relationships and beauty of numbers and the way they create new numbers out
of themselves is a source of great enjoyment.
8. Through mental calculation one becomes familiar with numbers and

appreciates their various properties. This leads to a real understanding of
number.
INTRODUCTION vii
9. In calculating mentally the subtle properties of numbers and their

relationships are appreciated much more readily than if the calculation was
written down and thereby fixed. Thus mental calculation leads naturally to
innovation and to the invention of new methods, thereby developing the
student's natural creativity. This point is developed in the section on problem
solving.
10. Practical uses of mental calculation are many, since we all need to make
quick, on the spot, calculations from time to time.
Thus we see that mental calculation has so many advantages and really brings
mathematics to life as well as providing motivation and strengthening and
enlivening the mind. This is because numbers are mental concepts, they do not
exist on paper. Our mind operates very fast and has a variety of operational
properties. With proper training we can use these properties of the mind to our
advantage.
This is not to say that pencil and paper or calculating instruments are to be
totally avoided in mathematics: they certainly have their place, but mental
calculation should, it is suggested, be the primary method of calculation.
MENTAL ALGEBRA
In playing with numbers we find patterns. These patterns delight the mind
because they indicate that some deeper, more general law has been found. And
this means that we can use the law or pattern to our advantage. We may see that
the square numbers
1 4 9 16 25 . . . .
increase by odd numbers, for example. This pattern may be seen later as part of
a greater pattern. This process of generalising from more specific knowledge is
mental algebra.
It is well known that algebraists use symbols, but each symbol and each
algebraic statement expressed in symbols is just an idea: the letters are the
means to convey or store the idea. So the mental calculator can do much
advanced algebra, but by directly generalising from the numbers themselves: the
algebraic terminology is not necessary for this. Of course, this can usefully be
viii THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
combined with formal algebra: the laws discovered mentally can be formulated
in the usual algebraic way, and the students should be able to see an arithmetic
technique which they know in an algebraic identity. In other words they should
be able to translate between their mental generalisations and algebraic formulae.
In this way the algebraic symbols would come to life instead, as is often the
case nowadays, of the algebra being seen as totally alien and unintelligible.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving is considered by many educators to be the main aim of

mathematics. Mention has already been made of the effect of mental calculation
in developing innovative capabilities, and so this would appear to be an ideal
way to develop problem solving skills.
It is peculiar to arithmetic that once we have knowledge of how to count, we

could, unaided, construct the whole science. Many famous lightning calculators
have, in the past, developed remarkable talents of this type without any formal
mathematical training at all. Since also arithmetic develops naturally in an
extremely varied manner mental arithmetic offers enormous scope for many
delightful problems ranging from the very easy to the very difficult. Thus
problem solving has considerable scope and much to offer of educational value.
The vast creative potential and speed of the mind cannot be fully utilised
however if the emphasis is on mechanically recording the steps of a mental
process.
Problem solving seems to arise in the space between mathematical topics. When
one topic has been mastered this is the ideal time to relate it to other areas of
mathematics previously learnt. This also provides coherence and unity in
education. Even very young children enjoy the challenge of being thrown back
on their own initiative by being asked a question slightly different than the ones
they are familiar with or to relate their new understanding to knowledge
previously acquired. And since arithmetical problems can be extremely simple
it is possible to begin acquiring problem solving skills at an early age.
INTRODUCTION ix
THE CALCULATOR
Push-button calculators and computers are in widespread use nowadays and

play an important part in our lives. This will undoubtedly increase in the future
as programs become more sophisticated and the speed of the machines increases
and their size and price decrease. Unfortunately this has lead to a reliance on the
calculator for simple calculations: the student automatically reaches for his
calculator as soon as he sees an addition or multiplication has to be done, finds
13×3, writes down the answer and then realises that it was really obvious. Or
worse still, in multiplying one third by 3 the student finds 1 divided by 3, writes
down the answer, clears the display, enters 0.333, multiplies this by 3 and gets
0.999 (and maybe then gives the answer as 0.9). Other examples might be given
relating to lack of number sense but the point is that students who are
encouraged to discover for themselves the laws of number are very unlikely to
make such mistakes.
This reliance on the calculator, to do a job which our mind is perfectly able to
do, must lead also to a certain loss of dignity, and the opposite of the confidence
creating effect of mental calculation. And what do we do if the machine breaks
down or gets lost or the power source fails?
As calculators get more and more sophisticated they can do more and more
complicated jobs: drawing graphs, solving equations and differentiating and
integrating. Where will this end? Ultimately all mathematical processes which
the mind is capable of could be "taught" to the calculator. This demonstrates
that we do not practice only mathematics which the calculator cannot do but that
we practice mathematics for its ability to develop the mind.
MENTAL CALCULATION IN EDUCATION
The introduction of the calculator into schools was originally justified by saying
that the arithmetic processes of multiplication, division etc. were complex,
boring and time-consuming and that time saved could be used on other
mathematical activities. However, (apart from the dangers of short-circuiting the
foundations of mathematics) now, with the availability of Vedic Mathematics
(see next section) it is clear that all multiplications, divisions, square roots,
combined operations etc. can be found in one line using simple patterns, so that
mental mathematics with all its advantages can be introduced into schools and
become a major part of mathematics education. Not that we expect the children
x THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
to become calculating wizards (though some might) nor would we expect them
to retain the calculating powers which they do gain.
Those who have taught mental mathematics will know the fun and amusement
that it creates. When the student reaches for the calculator to find 13×3 when he
knows the answer it is the calculator that is wasting the time because if it were
not there he would put the answer straight down.
VEDIC MATHEMATICS
Vedic (pronounced Vaydik) Mathematics was reconstructed earlier this century

from ancient Indian texts called the Vedas. This reconstruction is the work of
Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji (1884-1960) whose book "Vedic Mathematics" is
currently available.1
The content of this book is taken from that book or has been derived from that
book or from the spirit of that book by the author.
Vedic Mathematics provides a coherent structure for mathematics: the Vedic

methods are beautifully interrelated and complementary. While modern
mathematics is a hotch-potch of unrelated techniques, bewildering in their
complexity, the Vedic system offers unifying and natural principles whose
effect is to transform mathematics into an easy and delightful activity. To take a
simple example, the general method of multiplication in the Vedic system
enables us to give the product of two numbers in a single line from right to left
or from left to right using a simple pattern. And this is easily reversed to provide
simple one-line division. By contrast the modern methods of multiplication and
division require many cumbersome steps and are far from being either simple or
complementary. Furthermore, the Vedic system offers many methods of
multiplication (as this book demonstrates), division etc. There are special
methods which may be used for special types of sum, and there are general
methods. This adds to the fun: instead of having just one method which must be
applied we have a choice, we apply whichever method we like or think is
easiest. It is the rigidity which has been erroneously ascribed to mathematics
which is in part responsible for the low regard in which mathematics is held by
many people. The Vedic system, with its mental approach and its variety
promotes flexibility, innovation and creativity and brings mathematics to life.
There is a certain amount of disagreement nowadays between those who believe
in the traditional teaching methods in which the children are taught by the
teacher and practice it, and modern practical methods of discovery. Both
INTRODUCTION xi
systems have their advantages. By taking a mental, and therefore a practical

approach to mathematics and by teaching unifying principles the Vedic system
reconciles these apparently opposing teaching styles.
The Vedic system rests on sixteen formulae (or Sutras) and some sub-formulae
(sub-Sutras). These formulae are given in word form such as "On the Flag" and
"Vertically and Crosswise". Being given in word form each of these formulae
has a wide range of application and Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji says that they
cover all branches of pure and applied mathematics. The Sanskrit word "Sutra"
means "thread" and it appears that these sixteen formulae and the sub-formulae
run like threads right through the whole of mathematics, giving a unification to
the subject, or rather, showing the unity that is already there. This wholeness
which is a feature of the Vedic system, and its use of pattern recognition,
activates the right hemisphere of the brain, thereby enriching the student's
practice of mathematics, instead of using only the analytical left hemisphere.
Careful study of these Vedic formulae shows that they may have deeper levels
of meaning than the purely mathematical, and this could explain how it might
be possible for them to have such a unifying effect in mathematics. It would not
be relevant to go into details here, but to give some idea we may just take "On
the Flag", the title of the first chapter of this book. It is a very common mental
activity to hold an idea "on one side" whilst we briefly think about something
else, then when we wish we can bring this idea back into our conscious mind.
This is a natural mental function. The memory button on a calculator has the
same function as do carry figures in a calculation. In fact all written
mathematics is "held" on the paper for us so that we do not have to remember it.
Other Sutras express other fundamental and natural functions such as
succession, reversal, balance etc. So these Sutras could represent natural
functions of mind, which we all use. If this were so the Vedic system would
necessarily be the most efficient, easiest and most enjoyable mathematical
system possible. Those who are familiar with the Vedic system will know that it
certainly does manifest these qualities, and Vedic Mathematics has been called
"Mathematics with Smiles" as a consequence. These formulae therefore also
provide us with a useful way of classifying the various mental calculation
techniques which are the subject of this book: each of the nine chapter titles is a
Vedic Sutra. We may also mention that the formulae may be combined and
applied consecutively or simultaneously.
xii THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
THE ART OF MENTAL CALCULATION
The mind operates extremely fast. Unfortunately most of us interfere with the
operation of our mind: we don't trust it, we want to see and check every step it
takes so that we can feel secure about the result it offers us. In insisting on
seeing and checking everything we cannot take full advantage of this super-fast
action. But it would appear that the deeper levels of activity are faster, more
efficient and require less effort. Some rapid mental calculators have spoken
about the mental activity they are aware of during calculation. G.P.Bidder, a
lightening calculator who spoke about his abilities at a special meeting of the
Institute of Civil Engineers in 1856 2 said:
I desire, as far as I can, to lay open my mind to you,

and to exhibit the rapid evolutions which it undergoes
in mental computation.
Furthermore these activities become increasingly automatic, effortless and

unconscious in time: Bidder describes multiplying 2-figure numbers together:
in what appears to be merely an instant of time; and

I can do any quantity of the same sort of calculation
without any labour; and can continue it for a long
period.
E.W.Scripture,3 a psychologist and one of the first to make a study of

calculating prodigies, refers to this unconscious activity: "after considerable
practice I was able on the sight of two figures to add or subtract them before
they attracted my full attention; in other words while they were yet in the field
of consciousness they aroused the proper association and the result entered the
focus of consciousness first".
F.D.Mitchell,4 who also made a study of mathematical prodigies, noted that "as
the process gradually becomes more and more familiar and automatic, many of
the intermediate steps of the computation may partly sink into the background
of consciousness, perhaps even disappearing altogether from the field of
attention".
The great mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss was also a rapid mental
calculator who was aware of, and also described, the unconscious but reliable
process of calculation.
INTRODUCTION xiii
Truman Henry Safford was able, like many other rapid mental calculators, to
cast his eye over long fences of 147 or 274 posts and give their number, and
Jedediah Buxton, in addition to his other extraordinary abilities in mental

computation could accurately estimate large areas of land by walking over
them.
Professor Aitken, a fairly recent lightning calculator, described to the Society of

Engineers in 19545 (in a talk entitled "The Art of Mental Calculation") the
mental activities he was aware of during calculations:
but mostly it was as though they (the numbers) were

hidden under some medium, though being moved about
with decisive exactness in regard to order and ranging.....
I have noticed also at times that the mind has anticipated
the will; I have had an answer before I even wished to do
the calculation; I have checked it, and am always surprised
that it is correct. This, I suppose (but the terminology
may not be right), is the subconscious in action; I think it
can be in action at different levels; and I believe that each
of these levels has its own velocity, different from that of
our ordinary waking time, in which our processes of
thought are rather tardy.
These descriptions refer to activity at different levels of consciousness, and to

the increased accuracy at deeper levels. We have all probably experienced
simultaneous activities in our mind, but at different levels.
The art of mental calculation lies in using the natural propensities of the mind,
or rather in allowing the mind to operate naturally. And it seems that the most
natural activity is also the fastest, most accurate and most efficient.
Our mind can be programmed like a computer. We have all developed highly
useful internal programmes which we can activate for walking, tying shoe laces,
brushing teeth and so on: activities which were difficult to learn at first but
which gradually became automatic. Our mind has assimilated each sequence of
actions as a whole and assigned this to an unconscious area from which it may
be recalled at will. Consequently we can, for example, walk, bounce a ball and
carry on a conversation all at the same time. If we did not have this faculty we
would be in serious trouble. By assimilating simple and pleasing mathematical
techniques our mind can give us the result whenever we desire to use the
technique: no force is necessary, only quiet observation.
xiv THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
Suppose you know the beautiful and simple "Vertical and Crosswise"
multiplication method described in chapter 6, by which any numbers can be
multiplied together in one line. Suppose that you are familiar with this and that
you have two 2-figure numbers to multiply. The next step would be to start the
calculation and most of us would jump in and start working. However, if you do
not allow your mind to start acting that way you may find that you have the
answer almost immediately. You may or may not see the "calculation" that
preceded it. And this is not surprising: our mind has assimilated the complex
techniques required for reading, articulating ideas into speech etc. so it can
certainly apply the simple Vertical and Crosswise pattern to multiply the
numbers and just give us the answer. Everyone is potentially a lightning
calculator. Our problem is, of course, that we interfere: we want to DO the sum
because this is what we have been taught. Perhaps any child who can acquire
the skills of speech and writing, if placed in an environment with efficient
mental calculators would become an efficient mental calculator. There is
nothing really unusual about this, the ability to calculate effortlessly and its
consequent advantages (noted earlier) could easily be developed in our
educational system.
THE UNIFIED FIELD
Let us take this one step further. In considering the shorter time interval
between problem and solution at deeper levels of consciousness we may
consider whether there is an ultimate level, at which presumably, results are
instantaneous.
Theoretical physicists have been trying to reduce all the various forces of nature
to a single "unified field", which unites them all. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi,
founder of the Transcendental Meditation programme has offered the ingenious
postulate that since the unified field is necessarily the ultimate level of existence
it can be experienced subjectively by bringing ones awareness to its deepest
level. This is achieved by Transcendental Meditation. Thus the ultimate reality
which scientists arrive at objectively through theory and experiment, can also be
directly experienced.
And we see a similar thing in calculation: that which can be solved by

computer, pencil and paper etc. can also be solved directly, by the natural
operation of the mind. Calculation by pencil and paper or calculator is the
objective, external method, mental calculation is the subjective, internal method.
INTRODUCTION xv
Mental calculation can be carried out at different levels: we can rigidly apply
the steps mentally which we would expect to write down, or in a relaxed state
we can allow the mind to operate naturally, this state being far more enjoyable,
accurate and efficient. Perhaps at the ultimate level problem and solution would
coincide. Our progress toward more and more efficient computation therefore
depends on our ability to operate from deeper levels of our consciousness.
A considerable body of research (over 500 studies) shows that the practice of
Transcendental Meditation brings the mind to a relaxed but alert state and also
that by familiarising the mind with the process of integration through this
practice creative insight is enhanced and deeper understanding is acquired.6
TEACHING MENTAL MATHEMATICS
Some rapid mental calculators and educators have been aware of the possibility
and advantages of teaching mental mathematics.
I have, for many years, entertained a strong conviction

that mental arithmetic can be taught, as easily, if not
with greater facility, than ordinary arithmetic, and that
it may be rendered to more useful purposes, than that
of teaching by rule; that it may be taught in such a way
as to strengthen the reasoning powers of the youthful
mind; so to enlarge it, as to ennoble it and render it
capable of embracing all knowledge . . .
These remarks by Bidder were followed later in his talk by specific teaching
suggestions: that numbers should be taught before symbols, first counting, then
arranging marbles into rectangles and so on. According to Scripture "Fuller,
Ampère, Bidder, Mondeux, Buxton, Gauss, Whately, Colburn and Safford (all
rapid mental calculators) learned numbers and their values before figures, just
as a child learns words and their meanings long before he can read". Thus the
child would see the properties of numbers first hand. Bidder gives several other
examples in geometry and arithmetic, his message being direct experience so
that discovery invites further investigation, and that proof by observation should
come first.
xvi THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
Bidder gave his talk in 1856 but his suggestions which revolve around direct
experience based on personal observation and experimentation sound very
modern.
However modern educators have not yet fully taken up his idea about teaching
mental arithmetic, and his suggestion to teach numbers before numerals is very
interesting. Do we teach the symbols which represent numbers too early,
thereby abstracting the number concept before a real appreciation of the
numbers themselves is crystallised?
In Vedic Mathematics we use the natural properties of numbers to our

advantage. It is nice to have a simple general method for, say, multiplication
but, as in everyday life every problem is unique, so every multiplication
problem is unique and suggests its own unique solution. By using the natural
properties of numbers we are taking the intelligent and realistic approach to
mathematics and thereby acquire the same attitude to everyday problems.
The capacity of the young mind is often underestimated; children have great
clarity of mind and ability to hold and remember. They enjoy using these
faculties and respond when asked during a lesson to practice what they have
been learning without the aid of pencil, paper etc.
Mental mathematics is very easy to introduce into lessons: a mental arithmetic

test of 10 or 20 sums at the beginning of a lesson settles a class, brings their
mind into the realm of mathematics, and the challenge of solving a problem by
mere mental arithmetic is very attractive to children (and adults too). The sums
should cover as wide a range (some may be geometrical) as possible. These
mental arithmetic sums and problems will naturally evolve, from test to test- the
pupils will not want to hear the same kind of problem once they have mastered
it, and this will naturally lead the teacher to give harder problems of the same
type, to invent variations and to enter new areas of mathematics. Later in a
lesson, when pupils may be working on paper, they could be challenged to give
some answers mentally, and sums of this type could then be introduced into
later mental tests.
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This book sets out to show something of the fun, variety and potency of mental
mathematics. It also illustrates the system of Vedic Mathematics. If the sixteen
INTRODUCTION xvii
formulae of Vedic Mathematics cover all of mathematics, all the various types
of multiplication (for example) can be classified under these headings. The book
deals mainly with multiplication but includes some addition, subtraction and
division. Multiplication is considered, especially by mental calculators, to be the
fundamental mental operation because unlike addition and subtraction it reveals
the properties of numbers. All the great mental calculators were able to multiply
large numbers together.
In the Vedic system only tables up to 5×5 are needed (although tables up to
10×10 is assumed here in chapters 1 to 3). It will be found however that the
mental calculator naturally acquires higher products through practice. Bidder,
by arranging shot in rectangles, taught himself the multiplication tables up to
10×10: "Beyond which I never went; it was all that I required".
Although some chapters refer to and use methods from previous chapters it will
be possible for most people to read the book in any desired sequence. Algebraic
proofs of the various techniques are given at the end of the book.
It is hoped that some pleasure will be obtained from the variety and beauty of
the devices shown in this book and that it will encourage some to take up and
teach mental mathematics and the remarkable system of Vedic Mathematics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Ulf Linér for his encouragement during the writing of this
book and for his many helpful suggestions. The quotations from Professor
Aitken's address in the Introduction are with the kind permission of the Society
of Engineers (see Reference 5), and the quotations at the beginning of the
chapters are mainly from E.W.Scripture and F.D.Mitchell (References 3 and 4).
Ten-year old Truman Henry Safford was asked:
"multiply in your head 365,365,365,365,365,365
by 365,365,365,365,365,365.
He flew around the room like a top, pulled his
pantaloons over the top of his boots, bit his hand,
rolled his eyes in their sockets, sometimes smiling
and talking, and then seeming to be in an agony,
until, in no more than one minute, said he,
133,491,850,208,566,925,016,658,299,941,583,225!"
Truman Henry Safford was born in America in 1836. He was a

precocious child who took an interest in all subjects but
especially mathematics and astronomy. He became a professor
of astronomy in 1876.
CHAPTER 1
ON THE FLAG
Our mind has the capability to mark a figure, number or thought so that it stands
out. We use this facility very frequently. In mental calculation we would like to
hold the first part of the answer in mind and build it up step by step, from left to
right, until it is complete. The technique introduced in this chapter for mental
multiplication and addition is used in later chapters and is developed into the
general multiplication method in chapter six.
CALCULATING FROM LEFT TO RIGHT
Since the figures in a number are normally spoken, written and read from left to
right it is easier to calculate from left to right also. And since the usual methods
of multiplication, addition and subtraction work from right to left it will be
necessary for us to learn the alternative strategy of calculating from left to right.
Once this is mastered however we will find that calculating from the left is
easier and more natural. In the Vedic system all arithmetical operations can be
carried out from left to right and this has important consequences which are
briefly described at the end of this chapter and chapter six.
2 THE NATURAL CALCULATOR
1 Suppose we want to multiply 234 by 2: 234

2 ×
468
2 Now if we had 237 × 2: 237

2 ×
474
The products we get when we multiply 2,3,7 each by 2 (from left to

right) are 4,6,14 , and here the 6 and the 1 are merged together as

indicated by the curved line, to give 474 as the answer.
The 3 mental steps carried out, corresponding to multiplying each of

the 3 figures by 2 are:
step 1 4
step 2 4,6 = 46
step 3 46,14 = 474.

This way of describing the steps in a sum will be used throughout
this and some later chapters.
The first part of the answer is held in the mind (On the Flag) and is built up digit
by digit until the answer is complete.
In summary: if a single figure is to be combined with what is in memory (as

in step 2 above) it is simply tagged on the end; if a double figure is to be
combined (as in step 3 above) the left-hand digit is added to the number in
memory and the right-hand digit is then tagged on the end. It is really very
simple.
3 For 236 × 7: 236 The mental steps are:

7 × 14
1652 14, 21 = 161

161,4 2 = 1652

1. ON THE FLAG 3
4 4321 × 6 = 25926 The mental steps are: 24

24,18 = 258

258,12 = 2592

2592,6 = 25926
5 In multiplying 56 by 7: we get 35 (5×7), then 42 (6×7).
The 4 here is then added to the 35 to give 39 and the 2 is tagged

on the end to give 392 as the answer.
You will find this simple technique easy and efficient, but you will need to
practice it. The following exercise will help to establish the method.
After some practice with the sum in front of you you may like to try solving it
after only a brief look at the sum.
Practice A
1. 2 7 2. 7 2 3. 2 6 4. 7 6 5. 7 8
3 × 7 × 6 × 6 × 9 ×
6. 6 4 2 7. 2 5 6 8. 1 0 5 9 9. 7 4 1 10. 2 2 3
4 × 3 × 7 × 3 × 9 ×
11. Find 321 × 21 (a) by multiplying by 3 and then by 7,

(b) by multiplying 3,2,1 each by 21.
With practice you will find that the sums get easier. You will also find that your
memory is strengthened and your mental agility is increased. But do not strain
your mind, this will produce an adverse effect; the least force used in solving
the sums the better.
ADDITION FROM LEFT

LEFTTO
TORIGHT
RIGHT
This is just the same as multiplying from left to right.
6 Add 187 and 444.
We add up in each column. from left to right, and merge the totals
together:
1 8 7 The mental steps are: 5
4 4 4 + 5,12 = 62
6 3 1
62,11 = 631

7 If we have to add the numbers 45 and 78, we may think of the
numbers one below the other. The total in the first column is 11, and
the second column totals 13. The 1 in the 13 is then combined with
the 11 to give 12 and the 3 is tagged on to this: 123. (11,13 = 123)

Addition of numbers is in frequent demand and this method will be found easy
and fast once we have formed the habit of calculating from left to right through
practice.
Practice B
1. 5 6 2. 8 8 3. 4 5 4. 5 4 5. 3 9
6 7 + 3 3 + 6 7 + 6 4 + 4 9 +
6. 3 6 3 7. 8 1 9 8. 7 7 7 9. 7 3 7 10. 3 4 5
4 5 6 + 9 1 8 + 4 4 4 + 1 3 9 + 6 7 8 +
This can of course be extended to the addition of longer numbers or to adding

three or more numbers together, but since we are mostly unaccustomed to
holding many figures in the head at once we will not take this any further here.
Subtraction from left to right and another addition device will be found in
Chapter 5.
1. ON THE FLAG 5
WRITING LEFT TO RIGHT CALCULATIONS
For those interested in calculations done on paper, rather than mentally, the
following procedure is probably the best.
8 8 7 First we multiply the 8 by 4 to get 32.

4 × The 3 is written in the answer and the 2 is put
2
On the Flag in the next column.
3 4 8 Then 7×4 = 28, and the flagged 2 is combined with
this 28 to give 48 (i.e. the flagged 2 counts as 20)
and 48 is put down to complete the answer.
9 8 7 6 1 4
3 ×
4 1 8 3
2 6 2 8 4 2
Starting on the left 8×3 = 24: we put the 2 down as the first figure
of the answer, and put the 4 On the Flag in the next column.
Then 7×3 = 21: 21 + flagged 4 (as 40) = 61. Put down 6, flag 1.
6×3 = 18: 18 + flagged 1 (as 10) = 28. Put down 2, flag 8.
1×3 = 3: 3 + flagged 8 (as 80) = 83. Put down 8, flag 3.
4×3 = 12: 12 + flagged 3 (as 30) = 42. Put down 42.
Alternatively the flagged numbers can be committed to memory rather than

written down.
10 5 6 7 8 In this addition sum we first get 5 + 2 = 7 and

2 4 6 8 + put down 0 in the answer and flag the 7. (The 0
7 0 3
can of course be left out).
0 8 1 4 6 6+4=10: 10+flagged 7=80. Put 8, flag 0.
7+6=13: 13+ flagged 0=13. Put 1, flag 3.
8+8=16: 16+ flagged 3=46. Put down 46.
Practice C
1. 4 5 6 2. 2 2 8 3. 5 3 1 4. 2 3 4 5. 9 5 9 6. 8 6 3 1
3 × 6× 6× 7 × 9× 4×
7. 4 9 8. 8 6 3 9. 9 5 9 10. 1 8 2 11. 4 5 6 7 12. 7 7 7 7

86+ 368 + 123+ 777+ 7777+ 2426 +
It has already been pointed out that calculating from left to right is easier and
more natural as we write and pronounce numbers from the left. This makes
mental calculations much simpler. It also means that we obtain the most
significant figures in a calculation first: if we are multiplying a 6-figure number
and we only want the first 3 figures of the answer it is a waste of time and effort
to calculate the whole sum, which we would have to do in calculating the usual
way from right to left. Other applications of this and an outline of more
advanced applications in trigonometry etc. will be found in Chapter 6.
Asked for the compound interest on £4,444 for 4,444
days at 4.5% per annum, Bidder, aged ten, gave the
answer, £2,434 16s 5.25d in two minutes.
When he was twelve he was asked "if a pendulum clock
vibrates the distance of 9.75 inches in a second of time,
how many inches will it vibrate in 7 years, 14 days, 2
hours, 1 minute, 56 seconds, each year being 365 days,
5 hours, 48 minutes, 55 seconds?"
He gave the answer, 2,165,625,744.75 inches, in less
than 1 minute.
George Parker Bidder (1806-1878) was the son of a stonemason of

Devonshire, England. An elder brother taught him to count, this being
the only formal instruction in arithmetic he ever received. He
later became one of the most prominent civil engineers of his time.
CHAPTER 2
PRPORTIONATELY
Proportion is a natural and easy concept which is fundamental to mathematics.

It therefore offers some simple but very effective devices which we will be
using throughout subsequent chapters. With Proportion we will also be able to
extend considerably all the various formulas to come. The advantage of splitting
numbers into convenient sections is also illustrated in this chapter.
MULTIPLICATION BY 4, 8, 16, 20, 40 ETC.
Doubling numbers is very easy, so in multiplying a number, by say, 4 we

simply double the number twice.
1 If for example we want 53×4, we double 53 to 106 and double it

again to 212. So 53 × 4 = 212
2 Also, for 225 × 4: twice 225 is 450, and twice 450 is 900.
So 225 × 4 = 900
Of course we can double more than twice. For multiplication by 8 we would

double 3 times:
3 For 26 × 8 we get 52, 104, 208. So 26 × 8 = 208
And for multiplication by 16 we can double 4 times.
4 For 76 × 16 we get 152, 304, 608, 1216.

So 76 × 16 = 1216
In doubling 76 we double the 7 first, as discussed in the previous

chapter: 14,12 = 152.

NUMBER SPLITTING
In doubling 152 above you may find it easiest to double 15 to 30 and 2 to 4, and
get 304, thereby thinking of the number in two convenient parts rather than
three: 152 × 2 = 15/2 × 2 = 304. This number splitting is very effective and will
be in frequent use.
5 Multiplying by 40, 800 etc is simply a matter of doubling the

appropriate number of times and adding the appropriate number of
noughts: 17 × 40? think 17, 34, 68, 680.
Practice A
1. 27 × 4 2. 37 × 4 3. 167 × 4 4. 57 × 4 5. 72 × 4
6. 44 × 4 7. 29 × 4 8. 77 × 4 9. 777 × 4 10. 42 × 8
11. 67 × 8 12. 159 × 8 13. 39 × 16 14. 28 × 16 15. 63 × 8
8
2. PROPORTIONATELY 9
EXTENDING THE MULTIPLICATION TABLES
6 Suppose we want 14 × 18. You may not know your 14 or 18 times

tables, but you probably know that 7×9 = 63, and since 14 and 18 are
double of 7 and 9 we can now simply double 63 twice:
126, 252. So 14 × 18 = 252
7 Similarly for 14×16, as 7×8=56

therefore 14 × 16 = 224 (56 doubled twice)
8 For 14 × 7. Since 7×7=49, 14 ×7 = 98
9 For 17 × 14 you can either multiply 17 by 7 and double the result,

or find 16 14's and add another 14.
In either case 17 × 14 = 238
Practice B
1. 16 × 7 2. 18 × 6 3. 24 × 7 4. 22 × 8 5. 16 × 18
6. 22 × 14 7. 28 × 16 8. 13 × 18 9. 16 × 21 10. 22 × 22
MULTIPLICATION BY 5, 50, 25 ETC.
Halving numbers is also very easy, so rather than multiply by 5 we can put a 0
onto the number and halve it, because 5 is half of 10.
10 So for 44 × 5 we find half of 440 which is 220 so 44 × 5 = 220
11 Similarly, 68 × 5 = half of 680 = 340
12 87 × 5 = half of 870 = 435
13 452 × 5 = half of 4520 = 2260
14 27 × 50 = half of 2700 = 1350

Since the halving of even numbers is to be preferred to the halving of

odd numbers we may think of 2700 in this last example split as 2/70/0
so that 2 and 70 get halved to 1 and 35. In the example before that we
think that half of 4/52/0 = 2/26/0.
For multiplication by 25 we multiply by 100 and halve twice, as 25 is half of

half of 100.
15 So for 82 × 25, half of 8200 is 4100, and half of 4100 is 2050
16 For 181 × 25, half of 18100 is 9050 (think of 18100 as 18/10/0)

half of 9050 is 4525 (split 9050 into 90/50).
We may note here the use of the Vedic formula Transpose and Apply in using
division to do a multiplication sum. We can also transpose the devices shown in
this chapter to obtain easy methods of division by numbers like 4, 8, 25, 35 etc.
For example to divide a number by 5 we double the number and divide by 10:
17 27 ÷ 5 = 54 ÷ 10 = 5.4
Practice C
1. 42 × 5 2. 36 × 5 3. 56 × 5 4. 61 × 5 5. 326 × 5
6. 153 × 5 7. 187 × 5 8. 618 × 5 9. 309 × 5 10. 2468 × 5
11. 432 × 5 12. 216 × 50 13. 72 × 25 14. 42 × 25 15. 83 × 25
16. 281 × 25
2. PROPORTIONATELY 11
MULTIPLICATION BY NUMBERS THAT END IN 5, 25, 75
18 Consider the sum 46 × 35. As it stands this is a 2-figure number

multiplied by another 2-figure number.
But 46 × 35 = 23 × 70 (by halving the first number and doubling the

second), and this is effectively multiplication by 7, instead of by 35.
Furthermore this has given us 23 to multiply instead of 46.

So 46 × 35 = 23 × 70 = 1610 (23 × 7 is found from left to right, as
described in Chapter 1).
19 Similarly, 66 × 15 = 33 × 30 = 990
20 And 124 × 45 = 62 × 90 = 5580
Multiplication by numbers ending in 25 or 75 can be given at least two

applications of this procedure:
21 448 × 175 = 224 × 350 = 112 × 700 = 78400
In these examples the first number has been even. But even if the first number is
odd it is still easier to multiply by twice the second number and then halve the
result.
22 For example, for 23 × 15 we find 23 × 30 = 690,

and half of 690 is 345
23 Similarly for 41 × 35: 41 × 70 = 2870

so 41 × 35 = 1435 an amusing result since the answer is a
slight rearrangement of the figures in the sum.
Practice D
1. 18 × 15 2. 82 × 35 3. 58 × 15 4. 34 × 55 5. £3.50 × 22
6. 16 × 4½ 7. 27 × 15 8. 44 × 225 9. 32 × 325 10. 244 × 175
11. 35 × 15 12. 28 × 4½
"I proposed to him (Buxton) the following random
question: In a body whose 3 sides are 23,145,789 yards,
5,642,732 yards, and 54,965 yards, how many cubical
eighths of an inch? After once naming the several figures
distinctly, one after another, in order to assure himself of
the several dimensions and fix them in his mind, without
more ado he fell to work amidst more than 100 of his
fellow laborers, and after leaving him about 5 hours, on
some necessary concerns (in which time I calculated it with
my pen) at my return, he told me he was ready: upon which,
taking out my pocket book and pencil, to note down his
answer, he asked which end I would begin at, for he would
direct me either way.... I chose the regular method........ and
in a line of 28 figures, he made no hesitation nor the least
mistake." Buxton also once found the amount obtained by
doubling a farthing 140 times: his answer consisted of a
39-figure number for the pounds plus 2s 6d. Asked to
multiply this 39-figure by itself he gave the answer after 2
months having calculated it from time to time over that period.
Jedediah Buxton was born in Derbyshire, England in 1702 and died there
in 1772. Though his father was a schoolmaster he seems to have remained
illiterate all his life and his achievements in mental calculation were the
results of his own inventions. His memory, as is obvious from the
examples above, was extraordinary, as also was his ability to measure
area: "He will stride over a piece of land or a field, and tell you the
contents of it, almost as exact as if you measured it by the chain..... He
measured in this manner the whole lordship of Elmton, of some thousand
acres."
CHAPTER 3
BY ONE MORE THAN THE ONE BEFORE
Here we see a special type of multiplication which is extremely fast and which
occurs quite frequently in our calculations, especially when used in conjunction
with the Proportionately formula from the previous chapter.
SQUARING NUMBERS THAT END IN 5
Squaring is multiplication in which a number is multiplied by itself:

so 75 × 75 is called "75 squared" and is written 75².
The formula By One More Than the One Before provides a beautifully simple
way of squaring numbers that end in 5.
In the case of 75², we simply multiply the 7 (the number before the 5) by the
next number up, 8. This gives us 56 as the first part of the answer, and the last
part is simply 25 (5²).
1 So 75² = 56/25 where 56=7×8, 25=5².
2 Similarly 65² = 4225 42=6×7, 25=5².
3 And 25² = 625 where 6=2×3.
4 Also since 4½= 4.5, the same method applies to squaring numbers
ending in ½. So 4½² = 20¼, where 20 = 4×5 and ¼=½².
The method can be applied to numbers of any size:
5 305² = 93025 where 930 = 30×31.
Even for large numbers like, say, 635², it is still easier to multiply 63 by 64 and
put 25 on the end than to multiply 635 by 635.
Practice A Square the following numbers
1. 55 2. 15 3. 8½ 4. 95 5. 105
6. 195 7. 155 8. 245 9. 35 10. 20½
11. 8005 12. Find 35 × 175

3. BY ONE MORE THAN THE ONE BEFORE 15
MULTIPLYING BY NUMBERS WHOSE FIRST FIGURES ARE THE SAME

AND WHOSE LAST FIGURES ADD UP TO 10, 100 ETC.
6 Suppose we want to find 43 × 47 in which both numbers begin with 4

and the last figures (3 and 7) add up to 10.
The method is just the same as in the previous section: multiply 4 by

the number One More: 4 × 5 = 20.
Then simply multiply the last figures together: 3 × 7 = 21.
So 43 × 47 = 2021 (20 = 4×5, 21 = 3×7)
7 Similarly 62 × 68 = 4216 (42 = 6×7, 16 = 2×8)
8 93 × 39 may not look like it comes under this particular type of sum,
but remembering the Proportionately formula from the previous
chapter we notice that 93 = 3×31, and 31×39 does come under this
type:
31 × 39 = 1209 (we put 09 as we need double figures here)
so 93 × 39 = 3627 (multiply 1209 by 3)
The thing to notice is that the 39 needs a 31 for the method to work
here: and then we spot that 93 is 3×31.
9 204 × 206: here both numbers start with 20, and 4 + 6 = 10,
so the method applies here:
204 × 206 = 42024 (420 = 20×21, 24 = 4×6)

10 Finally, consider 397 × 303.
Only the 3 at the beginning of each number is the same, but the rest of
the numbers (97 and 03) add up to 100.
So again the method applies, but this time we must expect to have
four figures on the right-hand side:
397 × 303 = 120291 (12 = 3×4, 0291 = 97×3)
Practice B
1. 73 × 77 2. 58 × 52 3. 81 × 89 4. 104 × 106
5. 297 × 293 6. 303 × 307 7. 64 × 38 8. 88 × 46
9. 33 × 74 10. 66 × 28 11. 36 × 78 12. 46 × 54
13. 298 × 202 14. 391 × 309 15. 795 × 705 16. 401 × 499
17. 802 × 499 18. 481 × 42

Shakuntala Devi was asked to find the 23rd root of a
201 digit number. She found the answer in 50
seconds. After a lengthy program was written and
13,000 instructions were fed into a computer the
machine gave the same answer, but it took a full
minute.
Shakuntala Devi refers to her calculating powers as her "God-given

gift". She lives in Calcutta and often travels, giving demonstrations
of the talents.
CHAPTER 4
THE FIRST BY THE FIRST

AND THE LAST BY THE LAST
This formula provides us with two very simple and very quick checks on our
calculations and another special type of multiplication. A third checking device
is also shown in this chapter.
CHECK 1: THE FIRST BY THE FIRST
1 32 × 41 is approximately 1200
by multiplying the first figure of each number together we find that

32 × 41 is approximately 30 × 40, which is 1200.
We also know that it will be a little over 1200 because 32 and 41
are both over 30 and 40.
2 641 × 82 is approximately 50,000
since 600 × 80 = 48,000 and we know the answer will be more than
this we can say the answer is about 50,000.
3 39 × 61 is approximately 2400
here we can think of 39 as 41 (that is 40 – 1) so that the first by the

first gives 40 × 60 = 2400.
4 383 × 887 is approximately 300,000
400 × 900 = 360,000 and the answer must be below this because both
400 and 900 are above the original numbers, so we can say 300,000.
Thus we see that The First by the First gives us the first figure of the answer;
and the number of figures in the answer is also evident.
CHECK 2: THE LAST BY THE LAST
5 72 × 83 ends in 6
by multiplying the last figure of each number together we get the

last figure of the answer: 2 × 3 = 6.
6 383 × 887 ends in 1
since 3 × 7 = 21, which ends with a 1.
7 So if we are finding 33 × 8 by doubling 33 three times, and we

arrive at 132 but we lose track of how many times we have doubled,
we note that the last figure of 33 × 8 must be 4 and that 132 cannot
therefore be the answer. But doubling once more to 264 we are now
confident that we have the correct answer.
Practice A
Which of the following sums are correct, judging by the first and last figures?
1. 627 × 762 = 477774 2. 715 × 735 = 525525 3. 54 × 64 = 3456
4. 84 × 481 = 40404 5. 593 × 935 = 554455 6. 592 × 792 = 468864
7. 726 × 926 = 672267 8. 462 × 962 = 444444 9. 741 × 777 = 575757

4. THE FIRST BY THE FIRST AND THE LAST BY THE LAST 19
Practice A continued:
10. 408 × 842 = 343536 11. 733 × 744 = 545352 12. 37 × 367 = 13579
13. 223 × 443 = 98789 14. 538 × 539 = 889982
15. 265347² = 70409030409
CHECK 3: THE DIGIT SUM CHECK
This is another checking device which can be very useful and which comes
under the Vedic formula The Product of the Sum is the Sum of the Products.
Every number, no matter how long, can be reduced to a single figure, called its
digit sum, by adding the digits in the number and then adding again if
necessary.
So for 43 the digit sum is 7 since 4+3 = 7.

Also for 47: 47 = 11 = 2.
And 876 = 21 = 3.
To check a multiplication sum the above Vedic formula reads: The Product of
the Digit Sums is the Digit Sum of the Products. So if we have the sum:
8 74 × 76 = 5624
we reduce 74, 76 and 5624 to their digit sums: 74 = 11 = 2,

76 = 13 = 4,
5624 = 17 = 8.
Then replacing the original sum with these digit sums we get
2×4 = 8, which is true, and therefore supports our answer, 5624.
9 Similarly 24 × 26 = 624 becomes 6 × 8 = 3.

This is also true in digit sums because 6 × 8 = 48 = 12 = 3.
10 This device can also be used for other types of sum.
To check 88 + 77 = 165 for example, the sum becomes 7+5 = 3 in

digit sums, which is correct.
This digit sum check does not detect certain errors however: if we wrote
88+77 = 156 the digit sum check would be the same as above even though the
answer is wrong. However in this case The Last by the Last tells us that the
answer certainly is wrong since it must end with 5.
MULTIPLYING NUMBERS WHOSE LAST FIGURES ARE THE SAME AND

WHOSE FIRST DIGITS ADD UP TO 10
This complements the last multiplication type in the previous chapter in which
the first figures are the same and the last add up to 10.
11 27 × 87 = 23/49
The conditions are satisfied here as 2 + 8 = 10

and both numbers end in 7.
So we multiply the first figure of each number together and add the
last figure: 2 × 8 = 16, 16 + 7 = 23 which is the first part of the
answer.
Multiplying the last figures together: 7×7 = 49: which is the last
part of the answer.
12 Similarly 69 × 49 = 3381
in which 33 = 6×4 + 9, and 81 = 9×9.
Practice B
1. 38 × 78 2. 26 × 86 3. 91 × 11 4. 59 × 59 5. 63 × 43
6. 24 × 84 7. 88 × 28 8. 29 × 89 9. 97 × 17 10. 64 × 44
11. Can you find out how to extend the method to the following two cases?
a) multiplying numbers in which the first figures add up to 10

and the last two figures are the same: e.g. 212 × 812,
b) multiplying numbers in which the first two figures add up to 100

and the last figures are the same: e.g. 987 × 027.
Wallis wrote in a letter in 1669: "In a dark night in bed,
without pen, ink or paper or anything equivalent, I did
by memory extract the square root of 3,00000,00000,
00000,00000,00000,00000,00000,00000 which I found
to be 1,73205,08075,68077,29353, feré, and did the next
day commit to writing." "February 18th 1670, Joannes
Georgius Pelshower giving me a visit, and desiring an
example of the like, I did that night propose to myself
in the dark without help to my memory a number in 53
places: 2468135791011121411131516182017192122
242628302325272931 of which I extracted the square
root in 27 places: 157103016871482805817152171
proxima."
John Wallis (1616-1703) was a brilliant mathematician and a

contemporary of Isaac Newton. In addition to his works on pure
mathematics he also wrote on astronomy, the tides, the laws of
motion, botany, physiology, music, geology etc.
CHAPTER 5
ALL FROM 9 AND THE LAST FROM 10
This chapter shows a surprisingly easy way of multiplying numbers near a base,
near different bases, or near multiples of a base, and has a considerable range.
The use of negative numbers which can enormously simplify calculations is
introduced, and applications in addition and subtraction are also included.
NUMBERS JUST BELOW A BASE
In the conventional system of mathematics a sum like 88 × 98

is considered especially difficult because of the large figures, 8 and 9.
But since the numbers 88 and 98 are close to the base of 100 we may think that
there ought to be an easy way to find such a product.
In the Vedic system this kind of sum is extremely easy however.

We simply note that both numbers are close to 100, and that 88 is 12 below 100,
and 98 is 2 below 100, and we just give the answer:
-12 -2
1 88 × 98 = 86/24
The deficiencies (12 and 2) have been written above the numbers (on
the flag), the minus signs indicating that the numbers are below 100.
The answer 8624 is in two parts: 86 and 24.

The 86 is found by taking one of the deficiencies from the other
number. That is:
88 – 2 = 86 or 98 – 12 = 86 (whichever you like),
and the 24 is simply the product of the deficiencies: 12 × 2 = 24.

It could hardly be easier.
2 Similarly -7 -4
93 × 96 = 89/28
The differences from 100 are 7 and 4,

93 – 4 = 89 or 96 – 7 = 89,
and 7 × 4 = 28.
3 Also -2 -3
98 × 97 = 9506
Note the zero inserted here: the numbers being multiplied are near to
100, so two digits are required on the right, as in the other examples.
1
4 89 × 89 = 7 8 2 1 = 7921
Here the numbers are each 11 below 100, and 11 × 11 = 121, a
3-figure number. The hundreds digit of this is therefore carried over
to the left.
So the most efficient mental procedure is to take one number and subtract the
other deficiency from it. Then multiply the deficiencies together, mentally
adjusting the first part of the answer if there is a carry figure.
5. ALL FROM 9 AND THE LAST FROM 10 23
Practice A
1. 94 × 94 2. 97 × 89 3. 87 × 99 4. 87 × 98 5. 87 × 95
6. 88 × 96 7. 88 × 88 8. 97 × 56 9. 96 × 67 10. 99 × 94
11. 96 × 98 12. 97 × 33 13. 49 × 196 14. 96 × 66 15. 79 × 84
16. Find 92 × 196 by

a) thinking of 196 as 1/96,
b) using Proportionately and All From 9 and the Last From 10,
c) using Proportionately and By One More than the One Before
5 568 × 998 = 566864
We see here that the numbers 568 and 998 are conveniently close to
to 1000, so we allow 3 figures on the right.
The differences of the numbers from 1000 are 432 and 2.
The method is just the same:

568 – 2 = 566,
432 × 2 = 864.
However in the case of 568 here the deficiency is not so obvious as in the
previous examples, and this is exactly where the Sutra of the present chapter
comes in.
If All From 9 and the Last From 10 is applied to the digits of 568 we get 432:
we take the 5 from 9 and get 4,

we take the 6 from 9 and get 3,
and we take the 8 from 10 and get 2.
This formula gives the deficiency of any number from the next highest base.
It could have been applied in the previous examples too: for 88, in the first
example, we take the first 8 from 9 to get 1, and the last from 10 to get 2. This
gives the deficiency of 12 below the base of 100. For 98 we get 02, or just 2.
SUBTRACTION
Thus All From 9 and the Last From 10 provides us also with a very effective
method of subtraction from a base number:
1000 – 587 = 413,
10000 – 785 = 10000 – 0785 = 9215, and so on.
Also 7000 – 111 = 6889, the 7 is reduced to a 6 because 111 is to be taken from
one of the 7 thousands, so only 6 thousands are left, and the Sutra is applied to
111 to get 889.
Thus frequent subtraction problems involving money etc are quickly solved by
this method:
for example £70.00 – £1.11 = £68.89.
We may also write 7000 – 111 = 7111 in which we put a bar (called a
"vinculum") over the 111 to show that it is negative.
This subtraction method is completely general, covering all types of subtraction:
7654 – 1928 = 6334 (since 7–1=6, 6–9= 3 , 5–2=3, 4–8= 4 )
and 6334 = 63/ 34 = 5726 (since 60–3=57, 30–4=26).
We will see subtractions like this coming up in some of the later multiplication
devices.
Practice B
1. 1000 – 678 2. 1000 – 405 3. 10,000 – 8048 4. 100 – 54
5. 1000 – 917 6. £100 – £89.34 7. 10,000 – 99 8. £10 – £3.63
9. 2000 – 777 10. £50 – £12.34 11. 4567 – 1919 12. 12345 – 5161
6 58776 × 99998 = 58774/82448
58776 – 2 = 58774, and the formula gives the deficiencies 41224, 2

which are multiplied together to get 82448.
7 Similarly 857 × 994 = 851858
where 851 = 857 – 6, and 858 = 143 × 6.
8 7 × 8 = 56
Multiplication tables above 5 × 5 are not essential in the Vedic

system.
Here the deficiencies are 3 and 2 as we take 7 and 8 from 10 (...Last

from 10):
7 – 2 = 5 and 3 × 2 = 6, therefore 7 × 8 = 56.
Practice C
1. 667 × 998 2. 768 × 997 3. 989 × 998 4. 885 × 997
5. 883 × 998 6. 467 × 998 7. 891 × 989 8. 8888 × 9996
9. 6999 × 9997 10. 90909 × 99994 11. 78989 × 99997 12. 9876 × 9989
Division by numbers near a base (above or below the base) includes the use of
the Sutra Vertically and Crosswise as well as the Sutra of the present chapter.
It is therefore shown at the end of the next chapter.
We now extend this simple multiplication technique in several different

directions.
NUMBERS ABOVE A BASE
First let us suppose that the numbers being multiplied are both above a base,
rather than below it.
9 103 × 104 = 10712
This is even easier than the previous examples, but the method is just
the same. The deficiencies are +3 and +4: positive now because the
numbers are above the base.
103 + 4 = 107 or 104 + 3 = 107, and 4 × 3 = 12.
10 12 × 13 = 156 (12+3=15, 2×3=6)
11 1234 × 1003 = 1237702 (1234+3=1237, 234×3=702)
12 10021 × 10002 = 100230042 (10021+2=10023, 0021×2=0042)
Practice D
1. 133 × 103 2. 107 × 108 3. 171 × 101 4. 102 x 104
5. 125 × 105 6. 14 × 12 7. 18 × 13 8. 1222 × 1003
9. 1051 × 1007 10. 15111 × 10003 11. 203 × 103 12. 1034 × 1036
ONE NUMBER ABOVE AND ONE NUMBER BELOW THE BASE
13 124 × 98 = 12248 = 12152
Here the base is 100 and the deficiencies from 100 are +24 and –2.
Applying the usual procedure we find 124 – 2 = 122

or 98 + 24 = 122.
So 122 is the left-hand part of the answer.
Then multiplying the deficiencies we get –48, written 48 (since a
plus times a minus gives a minus). This gives the answer as 12248 .
To remove the negative portion of the answer we just take 48 from

one of the hundreds in the hundreds column. This simply means
reducing the hundreds column by 1 and applying All From 9 and the
Last From 10 to 48. Thus 122 becomes 121 and 48 becomes 52.
So 122 48 = 12152.
14 1003 × 987 = 990/ 039 = 989/961
Similarly, we first get 1003–13 = 990 or 987+3 = 990,

and +3 × –13 = 039 (3 figures required here as the base is 1000).
Then 990 is reduced by 1 to 989, and applying the formula to 039
gives 961.
1
15 121 × 91 = 112/ 89 = 110/11
Here we have a minus one to carry over to the left so that the 112 is
reduced by 2 altogether.
Practice E
1. 104 × 91 2. 94 × 109 3. 103 × 98 4. 92 × 112
5. 91 × 111 6. 106 × 89 7. 91 × 103 8. 91 × 107
9. 91 × 105 10. 991 × 1005 11. 987 × 1006 12. 992 × 1111
PROPORTIONATELY
Here we bring in the formula from Chapter 2.
16 213 × 203 = 2 × 216/39 = 43239
We observe here that the numbers are not near any of bases used
before: 10, 100, 1000 etc. But they are close to 200, with
deficiencies of 13 and 3.
The usual procedure gives us 216/39 (213+3=216, 13×3=39).
Now since our base is 200 which is 100×2 we multiply only the left-
hand part of the answer by 2 to get 43239.
17 29 × 28 = 3×27/2 = 812
The base is 30 (3×10), and the deficiencies are –1 and –2.

29–2 = 27, 1×2 = 2 and 3×27 = 81.
18 311 × 298 = 3 × 309 / 22 = 926/78
Here the numbers are above and below 300: we multiply the left-hand
side by 3 before deducting 1 to deal with the negative right-hand
portion.
Thus the Proportionately formula extends considerably the range of the method.
The only additional step being the multiplication of the left-hand part of the
answer. One further application of this formula may also be noted:
19 88 × 49 = 12 (88×98) = 1
2 (8624) = 4312
Practice F
1. 41 × 42 2. 204 × 207 3. 321 × 303 4. 203 × 208
5. 902 × 909 6. 48 × 47 7. 188 × 196 8. 199 × 198
9. 189 × 194 10. 197 × 211 11. 333 × 298 12. 5003 × 5108
13. 63 × 58 14. 23 × 24 15. 84 × 77 16. 84 × 94
NUMBERS NEAR DIFFERENT BASES
20 9998 × 94 = 9398/12
The bases here are 10,000 and 100 and the deficiencies are –2 and –6.
The answer is in two parts: 9398 and 12.
In subtracting the deficiency 6 from the first number, imagine the
numbers are under each other: 9998
94
and subtract the 6 in the column indicated by the last figure of the
smaller number, that is, the second column from the left here.
So 9998 becomes 9398.
Then multiply the deficiencies together: 2×6 = 12.
Note that the number of figures in the right-hand part of the answer corresponds
to the base of the lower number (94 is near 100, therefore there are 2 figures on
the right).
21 10007 × 1003 = 10037021
Lining the numbers up: 10007

1003 we see that the deficiency 3 is
added in the 4th column, giving 10037.
The product of the deficiencies is 7×3=21, but as the base of the
smaller number is 1000 we need 3 figures on the right, so we put 021.
22 1032 × 98 = 1012 / 64 = 101136
Note here that because 98 = 102 the deficiency 2 is deducted from the
3 to give 1012 on the left.
Practice G
1. 97 × 993 2. 92 × 989 3. 9988 × 98 4. 9996 × 988
5. 103 × 1015 6. 106 × 1012 7. 10034 × 102 8. 1122 × 104
9. 98 × 1017 10. 95 × 1007 11. 1998 × 189 12. 1991 × 191
MULTIPLYING THREE NUMBERS SIMULTANEOUSLY
23 98 × 97 × 96 = 91/26/ 24 = 912576
These numbers are all close to 100, their deficiencies being 2, 3, 4.

The answer is in 3 parts as indicated by the oblique lines.
First take one number and take both of the other deficiencies from it.
For example 98–3–4 = 91. This is the first part of the answer.
Then multiply the deficiencies together in pairs and add the results
up:
2×3 + 2×4 + 3×4 = 6+8+12 = 26.
This is the middle part of the answer.
Finally just multiply all 3 deficiencies together: 2 × 3 × 4 = 24.

We write 24 because the deficiencies are actually negative.
The 24 is then removed as in examples 13 and 14 earlier.
24 1022 × 1002 × 1003 = 1027/116/132
1022+2+3 = 1027, 22×2 + 22×3 + 2×3 = 116, 22×2×3 = 132.
Practice H
1. 111 × 102 × 103 2. 104 × 104 × 102 3. 99 × 98 × 97
4. 99 × 98 × 94 5. 1021 × 1002 × 1003 6. 106 × 104 × 98
7. What would you say are the first four figures of

1006 × 1007 × 1008 × 1009?
SQUARING NUMBERS NEAR A BASE
This is an especially easy case under the present formula, which is described by
the sub-formula Reduce (or increase) by the Deficiency and also set up the
square.
25 962 = 92/16
96 is 4 below 100, so we reduce 96 by 4, which gives us the first

part of the answer. The last part is just 4²=16 as the formula says.
26 10062 = 1012/036
Here 1006 is increased by 6 to 1012, and 62 = 36: but with a base

of 1000 we need 3 figures on the right, so we put 036.
27 3042 = 3×308/16 = 92416
This is the same but because our base is 300 the left-hand part of the
answer is multiplied by 3.
Note the following alternative method: if we look at the number split so that
3042 = 9/24/16, then we may see that 9 = 3 2,
24 = twice 3 × 4, and 16 = 42.
SQUARING NUMBERS NEAR 50
It is worth noting this case, which also comes under the above formula.
28 542 = 29/16
Since 502 = 2500 and we have 542, which is 4 more,

we have 25 + 4 = 29,
and 42 = 16.
29 482 = 2304
25 – 2 = 23 (25, as before, minus the deficiency, 2)

22 = 4 (the deficiency squared)
Practice I Square the following:
1. 98 2. 91 3. 88 4. 106 5. 109 6. 111
7. 13 8. 1011 9. 1002 10. 987 11. 99898 12. 212
13. 53 14. 46 15. 61
MULTIPLICATION BY NINES
The Vedic formula By One Less Than the One Before, which is the converse of
the formula of the previous chapter, comes in here in combination with All
From 9 and the Last From 10.
30 763 × 999 = 762/237
The number being multiplied by 9's is first reduced by 1:763–1 = 762,

then All From 9 and the Last From 10 is applied to 763 to get 237.
31 1867 × 99999 = 1866/98133
Here, as 1867 has 4 figures, and 99999 has 5 figures, we suppose

1867 to be 01867. This is reduced by 1 to give 1866,
and applying All From 9.... to 01867 gives 98133.
Practice J
1. 89 × 99 2. 82 × 99 3. 19 × 99 4. 45 × 99
5. 778 × 999 6. 79 × 999 7. 124 × 9999 8. 8989 × 99999
ADDITION
32 77 + 19 = 96
If asked to add 19 to a number we would probably add 20 and take

one away, because 19 = 20–1.
33 365 + 177 = 542
In adding 177 we might add 200 and subtract 23.

Note that we get 23 by applying All From 9... to 77.
Practice K
1. 67 + 19 2. 86 + 29 3. 115 + 38 4. 154 + 399
5. 355 + 197 6. 552 + 188
SUBTRACTION
34 77 – 19 = 58
Similarly here, the natural thing to do is to subtract 20 and add 1 back

on.
35 5040 – 1688 = 3352
We subtract 2000 and add 312: the All From 9... value of 688.
36 7222 – 333 = 7000 – 111 = 6889
Here the natural thing to do is probably to observe that we can easily

subtract 222 of the 333, leaving 111 to be subtracted from 7000.
This last step also involves All From 9... as discussed at the end of
Example 5.
Practice L
1. 740 – 19 2. 721 – 399 3. 322 – 188
4. 134 – 29 5. 105 – 38
WRITING ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION SUMS
Earlier in this chapter we made use of negative numbers. We have written 14

for –48, for example. This bar on the top of a number is called a vinculum. The
use of this vinculum enormously simplifies many calculations.
Below we give, without explanations , the equivalent written forms of examples
32 to 36.
32. 7 7 33. 3 6 5 34. 7 7 35. 5 0 4 0 36. 7 2 2 2

21 + 223 + 21 – 2 313 – 333–
96 542 58 3352 71 1 1
6889
The next exercise contains a mixture of most of the multiplication types

described in this chapter.
Practice M
1. 889 × 998 2. 102 × 109 3. 1111 × 1008 4. 92 × 89
5. 96 × 103 6. 96 × 81 7. 96 × 988 8. 92 × 1009
9. 206 × 208 10. 191 × 211 11. 111 × 92 12. 64 × 99
13. 1072 14. 105 × 107 15. 37 × 999 16. 111 × 1012
17. 992 18. 109 × 91 19. 97 × 103 20. 10103 × 10104
In the following exercise multiplication types from the first four chapters are
also included, in the order in which they appear in the book. This is to help you
select the most appropriate method for each sum.
Practice N
1. 654 × 3 2. 86 × 98 3. 91 × 92 4. 73 × 4
5. 7 × 22 6. 16 × 24 7. 798 × 997 8. 8899 × 9993
9. 86 × 5 10. 84 × 25 11. 103 × 109 12. 123 × 96
13. 35 × 64 14. 24 × 325 15. 203 × 209 16. 188 × 197
17. 852 18. 71 × 79 19. 32 × 33 20. 2004 × 2017
21. 9997 × 98 22. 1023 × 102 23. 84 × 86 24. 28 × 54
25. 303 × 307 26. 298 × 202 27. 932 28. 10112
29. 4032 30. 512 31. 472 32. 37 × 77
33. 81 × 21 34. 878 × 999 35. 73 × 9999

He (Dase) multiplied together mentally two 8-figure
numbers in 54 seconds, two 20-figure numbers in 6
minutes, two 40-figure numbers in 40 minutes, and
two 100-figure numbers in 8 hours; he could extract
the square root of a 60-figure number in an "incredibly
short time," and the square root of a 100-figure
number in 52 minutes.
Johann Dase (1824-1861) was born in Hamburg and began public

exhibitions of his talents when he was 15. Dase could also count
objects with the greatest rapidity. With a single glance he could
give the number (up to thirty or thereabouts) of peas in a handful
scattered on a table; and the ease and speed with which he could
count the number of sheep in a herd, of books in a case, or the
like, never failed to amaze the beholder.
CHAPTER 6
VERTICALLY AND CROSSWISE
We come now to the general method of multiplication by which any two

numbers, no matter how long, can be multiplied together by means of a simple
pattern.
We will see a number of variations of this including squaring and the reverse
process of division.
GENERAL MULTIPLICATION
This Vertically and Crosswise formula develops the left to right method of
multiplication described in chapter 1 for multiplication by a single figure, and is
surely the most efficient general method of multiplication possible,
In this chapter we will put the numbers being multiplied one below the other.
1 2 1
2 3 ×
483
There are 3 steps: 2 1

A. multiply vertically in the left-hand |
column: 2 × 2 = 4, 2 3 ×
so 4 is the first figure of the answer. 4
B. multiply crosswise and add: 2 1

2 × 3 = 6, ×
1 × 2 = 2, 6 + 2 = 8, 2 3 ×
so 8 is the middle figure of the answer. 4 8
C. multiply vertically in the right-hand 2 1

column: 1 × 3 = 3, |
3 is the last figure of the answer. 2 3 ×
4 83
2 1 4
2 1 ×
29 4
A. vertically on the left: 1×2 = 2,

B. crosswise: 1×1 = 1, 4×2 = 8 and 1+8 = 9,
C. vertically on the right: 4×1 = 4.
This is of course very easy and straightforward, and we should now practice this
vertical and crosswise pattern to establish the method.
Practice A
1. 2 2 2. 2 1 3. 2 1 4. 2 2 5. 6 1 6. 3 2 7. 3 1 8. 1 3
31× 31× 22× 13× 31× 21× 31× 13×
6. VERTICALLY AND CROSSWISE 37
The previous examples involved no carry figures, so let us consider this next.
3 2 3
4 1 ×
943
The 3 steps give us: 2×4 = 8,

2×1 + 3×4 = 14,
3×1 = 3.
In building up the answer mentally from the left we combine these

numbers as we did in chapter 1.
The mental steps are: 8

8,14 = 94 ( the 1 is carried over to the left)

94,3 = 943
4 2 3 The steps are: 6

3 4 × 6,17 = 77

782 77,12 = 782

5 3 3 The steps are: 12
4 4 12,2 4 = 144

1452 144,12 = 1452

We can now multiply any two 2-figure numbers together in one line. With
practice we will find that we can multiply the numbers mentally.
Practice B
Multiply the following:
1. 2 1 2. 2 3 3. 2 4 4. 2 2 5. 2 2 6. 3 1
4 7 4 3 2 9 2 8 5 3 3 6
continued . .
Practice B continued
7. 2 2 8. 3 1 9. 4 4 10. 3 3 11. 3 3 12. 3 4

5 6 7 2 5 3 8 4 6 9 4 2
13. 3 3 14. 2 2 15. 3 4 16. 5 1 17. 3 5 18. 5 5

3 4 5 2 6 6 5 4 6 7 5 9
19. 5 4 20. 5 5 21. 4 4 22. 4 5 23. 4 8 24. 3 4

6 4 6 3 8 1 8 1 7 2 1 9
25. 3 8 26. Can you see how this method simplifies when
8 8 a) both numbers end in a 1,
b) the last figures of the numbers, or the first figures,
or both figures of one number, are the same?
You may have found in this exercise that you prefer to start with the crosswise
multiplications, and put the left and right vertical multiplications on afterwards.
This method also works perfectly for algebraic multiplications (and divisions).
Explanation It is easy to understand how this method works. The vertical

product on the right multiplies units by units and so gives the number of units in
the answer. The crosswise operation multiplies tens by units and units by tens
and so gives the number of tens in the answer. And the vertical product on the
left multiplies tens by tens and gives the number of hundreds in the answer.
USING THE VINCULUM
We now consider again the helpful vinculum. This was described in the last
chapter and simplifies calculations by removing large digits like 6, 7, 8 and 9.
6 29 × 34: 3 1
3 4 ×
9 9 4 = 986
We write 29 as 31 in order to remove the large digit, 9.

Then the 3 steps are: 3 × 3 = 9, 3 × 4 + 1×3=12-3=9, 1×4= 4 .
The 4 may then be removed as shown in the previous chapter
(99 4 = 990 – 4 = 986).
Of course the use of the vinculum is optional but it does remove the large digits,
and the plus and minus numbers tend to cancel each other out.
7 49 × 58 5 1
6 2 × The steps are 30
2842 30,16 = 316 = 284

284,2 = 2842
8 28 × 42: 3 2 The steps are 12

4 2× 12, 2 = 12 2
1176 12 2 , 4 = 12 24 = 1176
At which point to remove the vinculums is a matter of judgement, the answer

being the same of course whatever method is decided upon.
Practice C
1. 1 9 2. 5 9 3. 2 8 4. 2 9 5. 4 8
2 4 2 3 3 1 2 4 5 1
6. 1 9 7. 3 8 8. 1 8 9. 3 9 10. 3 8
4 9 3 8 3 7 5 7 6 2
11. Can you prove the By One More than the One Before method from
chapter 3 for finding products like 34 × 36 and 452, using Vertically and
Crosswise?
MULTIPLYING THREE-FIGURE NUMBERS
9 1 2 3 The Vertically and Crosswise formula can be

1 3 2 × extended to deal with this, but in fact the
1 6 2 3 6 previous vertical/crosswise/vertical pattern
can be used on this sum also.
We can split the numbers up into 12/3 and 13/2, treating the 12 and
13 as if they were single figures.:
12 3 vertically 12×13 = 156,

13 2 crosswise 12×2 + 3×13 = 63,
162 3 6 vertically 3×2 = 6.
Combining these mentally we get: 156

156,63 = 1623

1623,6 = 16236
Practice D
1. 1 1 2 2. 1 2 3 3. 1 2 3 4. 1 1 2 5. 4 2 1
2 0 3 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 2 2
10 304 × 412
Here we may decide to partition after the first figure: 3/04 × 4/12.
3 04 When we split the numbers so that there are pairs of

4 12 digits on the right the answer appears two digits at a
12 52 48 time.
The 3 steps of the pattern are: 3×4 = 12,

3×12 + 4×4 = 52,
4×12 = 48.
These give the 3 pairs of figures in the answer.

11 1201 × 1312
Here we can split the numbers halfway:
12 01 The pattern gives: 12×13 = 156

13 12 12×12 + 1×13 = 157,
157 57 12 1×12 = 12
The mental steps are: 156,157 = 15757

15757,12 = 1575712
(working 2 digits at a time)
12 312 × 1011
3 12 We have: 30,153 = 3153

10 11 × 3153,132 = 315432

31 54 32
13 198 × 303 Here we can apply the vinculum.
2 02 treating the sum as 2/ 02 × 3/03

3 03
6 00 06 = 59994
20 2
or 30 3 × treating the sum as 20/ 2 × 30/3
600 0 6 = 59994
Given a choice about how to split the numbers, as in the last example, it is
generally best to mark off two figures on the right and then work with pairs of
figures. This way we tend to avoid the carry figures.
Practice E
1. 2 1 1 2. 3 0 7 3. 2 0 3 4. 2 1 1 5. 5 0 4
304 407 432 311 504
continued
6. 5 0 1 7. 7 1 2 8. 7 0 3 9. 1 2 1 1 10. 1 2 1 2
501 112 211 211 112
11. 1 0 1 1 12. 2 1 1 2 13. 1 2 0 3 14. 3 0 1 2

211 303 1311 2012
15. Try number 14 again, but using groups of 3 digits.
MOVING MULTIPLIER
In multiplying a long number by a single figure, for example 4321 × 2, we

multiply each of the figures in the long number by the single figure. We may
think of the 2 moving along the row, multiplying each figure vertically by 2 as it
goes.
14 4321 × 32
4 3 2 1 Similarly here we put 32 first of all at the extreme left.

3 2 Then vertically on the left, 4 × 3 = 12.
And crosswise, 4×2 + 3×3 = 17.
4 3 2 1 Then move the 32 along and multiply crosswise:

3 2 3×2 + 2×3 = 12.
4 3 2 1 Moving the 32 once again:

3 2 multiply crosswise, 2×2 + 1×3 = 7.
Finally the vertical product on the right is 1×2 = 2.
These 5 (underlined) results: 12,17,12,7,2 are combined mentally, as

they are obtained, in the usual way:
12,17 = 137

137,12 = 1382

1382,7,2 = 138272
So we multiply crosswise in every position, but we multiply vertically also at

the very beginning and at the very end.
15 31013 × 21
Here the 21 takes the positions:
3 1 0 1 3 3 1 0 1 3 3 1 0 1 3 3 1 0 1 3
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
The 6 mental steps give: 6,5,1,2,7,3

so the answer is 651273.
You may find with practice that your mind simplifies this procedure further by
adding, in this example, twice each digit to the digit before. And this indicates a
very easy way of multiplying by 11 and by 9:
16 3213 × 11 = 35343
Suppose that there is a zero on each end of the number, and starting
on the left, add to each figure the figure before it.
17 3927 × 9 = 36757 = 35343
Put a zero on each end of the number, and starting on the left subtract
from each figure the figure before it: 3–0, 9–3, 2–9, 7–2, 0–7.
Practice F
1. 3 2 1 2. 3 2 1 3. 4 2 1 4. 3 2 1 5. 1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3 2 2 4 1 2 1
6. 1 3 3 1 7. 1 3 1 3 8. 1 1 2 2 1 9. 17 × 11 10. 123 × 11
2 2 3 1 2 2
11. 17 × 9 12. 123 × 9
In fact this vertical/crosswise/vertical pattern can be used to find the product of

any two numbers. However, we now move on to see how the pattern itself can
be extended.
THREE AND FOUR-FIGURE MULTIPLICATIONS
18 5 0 4
3 2 1
1 6 1 7 8 4
The pattern now becomes: 5 0 4

|
A Vertically on the left, 5×3 = 15. 3 2 1
1 5
B Then crosswise on the left, 5 0 4
5×2 + 0×3 = 10. ×
Combining the 15 and 10: 3 2 1
15,10 = 160. 1 6 0

C Next we take 3 products and add them up, 5 0 4
5×1 + 0×2 + 4×3 = 17. And 160,17 = 1617.

(actually we are gathering up the hundreds 3 2 1
by multiplying hundreds by units, tens by 1 6 1 7
tens and units by hundreds)
D Next we multiply crosswise 5 0 4

on the right, ×
0×1 + 4×2 = 8: 1617,8 = 16178. 3 2 1
1 6 1 7 8
E Finally, vertically on the right, 5 4 0

4×1 = 4: 16178,4 = 161784. |
3 2 1
1 6 1 7 8 4
Note the symmetry in the 5 steps:
first there is 1 product, then 2, then 3, then 2, then 1.
We may summarise these steps as follows:
A B C D E
Note also the dot which moves through the middle of the sum from left to right.
19 3 2 1
3 2 1 × The 5 results are 9,12,10,4,1
103041 The mental steps are 9
9,12 = 102

102,10 = 1030

1030,4,1 = 103041
20 123 × 45
This can be done with the moving multiplier (see Example 14) or by
the smaller vertical and crosswise pattern, treating 12 in 123 as a
single digit (see Example 9). Alternatively, we can put 045 for 45 and
use the latest method:
1 2 3
0 4 5 For the 5 steps we get 0,4,13,22,15.
5 5 3 5 Mentally we think 4; 53; 552; 5535
Practice G
1. 1 2 1 2. 1 3 1 3. 1 2 1 4. 3 1 3 5. 2 1 2 6. 1 2 3
1 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 3 2 1
7. 2 1 2 8. 2 2 2 9. 2 4 6 10. 1 0 5 11. 1 0 6 12. 5 1 5

4 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 0 7 2 2 2 5 5 5
13. 4 4 4 14. 3 2 1 15. 1 2 3 16. 1 2 4 17. 1 3 7 18. 1 3 1

7 7 7 3 2 1 2 7 1 3 5 6 8 0 3 7 7 1
You may find that you prefer to build up the answer as each product is found
(rather than at each step), so that in number 16, for example, where the products
are 3,5,6,6,10,12,12,20,24 the answer is built up: 3;35;41;416;426;438;4392;
4412;44144. (The order in which the products are taken at each step can be
chosen to give the simplest possible route to the answer.)
Once the vertical and crosswise method is understood it can be extended to

multiply numbers of any size. We here extend the pattern one stage further, and
multiply two 4-figure numbers.
21 3 2 0 1
4 3 0 2 ×
1 3 7 7 0 7 0 2
The 7 steps are illustrated as follows:
A B C D E F G
We get: A. 3×4 = 12
B. 3×3 + 2×4 = 17
C. 3×0 + 2×3 + 0×4 = 6
D. 3×2 + 2×0 + 0×3 + 1×4 = 10
E. 2×2 + 0×0 + 1×3 = 7
F. 0×2 + 1×0 = 0
G. 1×2 = 2
The mental steps are therefore 12,17 = 137

137,6 = 1376
137 6,10 = 13770

13770,7,0,2 = 13770702
We now have a considerable variety of multiplication methods at our disposal,

and in the following exercise select whatever method seems appropriate.
Remember in particular proportion, grouping of digits, and the All From 9...
method when the numbers are near base numbers.
Experimenting with the different methods will show which ones are best suited
to particular situations. If you think of another method whilst doing one sum it
is usually the best policy to stick with the one you started.
Practice H
1. 51 × 15 2. 21 × 27 3. 47 × 67 4. 97 × 79
5. 33 × 64 6. 33 × 67 7. 32 × 66 8. 812 × 26
9. 121 × 404 10. 131 × 303 11. 92 × 131 12. 25 × 152
13. 76 × 19 14. 1414 × 1104 15. 35 × 35 16. 351 × 352
17. 117 × 106 18. 118 × 255 19. 996 × 96 20. 389 × 396
21. 121 × 384 22. 222 × 321 23. 94 × 106 24. 3113 × 1233
25. 2301 × 2107
Did you think of...
in number 3: The First by the First. . . as in Example 11, Chapter 4,

in number 4: All From 9. . . as in Example 1, Chapter 5,
in number 5: Proportionately and By 1 More . . . as in Example 8, Chapter 3,
in number 6: using the answer of the previous sum,
in numbers 9,10,14: splitting the number as in Example 10 of this chapter,
in number 12: Proportionately as in Example 14, Chapter 2,
in number 15: By 1 More . . . as in Example 1, Chapter 3,
in number 16: splitting the numbers into 35/1, 35/2 and using the previous
answer,
in number 18: Proportionately (halve the first number and double the second),
in number 19: All From 9 . . . as in Example 20, Chapter 5,
in number 20: using 400 as base like Example 16, Chapter 5?
The general multiplication method described in this chapter can easily be

reversed to provide a simple one-line method of division, shown at the end of
this chapter.
This is in marked contrast to the conventional methods of multiplication and
division which bear no relationship to each other, and which are both horribly
cumbersome.
SQUARING
The Vertically and Crosswise formula simplifies nicely when the numbers being
multiplied are the same, and gives us a very easy method for squaring numbers.
We will use the term "Duplex", D, to denote:
for 1 figure D is its square, e.g. D(4) = 42=16;

for 2 figures D is twice their product, e.g. D(43) = 2×4×3 = 24;
for 3 figures D is twice the product of the outer pair + the square of the middle
digit, e.g. D(137) = 2×1×7 + 32 = 23;
for 4 figures D is twice the product of the outer pair + twice the product of the
inner pair, e.g. D(1034) = 2×1×4 + 2×0×3 = 8;
D(10345) = 2×1×5 + 2×0×4 + 32 = 19;
and so on.
The square of any number is just the total of its Duplexes, combined in the way
we have been doing in Chapter 1 and in this chapter.
22 432 = 1849
D(4) = 16, D(43) = 24, D(3) = 9,

combining these three results in the usual way we get: 16
16,24 = 184

184,9 = 1849
23 642 = 4096
D(6) = 36, D(64) = 48, D(4) = 16. So mentally 36,48 = 408

408,16 = 4096

Practice I Square the following:
1. 31 2. 14 3. 41 4. 26 5. 66 6. 81 7. 91
8. 56 9. 63 10. 77
Can you also find:
11. 123 × 23 12. 231 × 23 ?

24 3412 = 116281
Here we have a 3-figure number:
D(3) = 9, D(34) = 24, D(341) = 22, D(41) = 8, D(1) = 1.
Mentally 9,2 4 = 114

114,22 = 1162

1162,8,1 = 116281
25 43322 = 18766224
D(4) = 16, D(43) = 24, D(433) = 33, D(4332) = 34,

D(332) = 21, D(32) = 12, D(2) = 4.
Mentally 16,24 = 184

184,33 = 1873

1873,34 = 18764

18764,21 = 187661

187661,12 = 1876622

1876622,4 = 18766224
26 210342 = 442429156
D(2) = 4, D(21) = 4, D(210) = 1, D(2103) = 12, D(21034) = 22,

D(1034) = 8, D(034) = 9, D(34) = 24, D(4) = 16.
Practice J Square
1. 212 2. 131 3. 204 4. 513 5. 263 6. 264
7. 313 8. 217 9. 3103 10. 2132 11. 1414 12. 4144

GROUPING
The grouping of digits is also available for squaring.
27 1232 = 15129
Here we may think of 123 as 12/3, as if it were a 2-figure number:
D(12) = 144, D(12/3) = 72, D(3) = 9.
Combining these: 144,7 2 = 1512

1512,9 = 15129
Alternatively, had we known that 232 = 529 we might have preferred

to see 123 as 1/23. Then D(1) = 1, D(1/23) = 46, D(23) = 529 so
that we combine 1, 46,529 in groups of 2. This gives 15129 again.

28 3122 = 97344
If we think of 312 as 3/12 we must work with pairs of digits:
D(3) = 9, D(3/12) = 72, D(12) = 144.
Combining: 9,72 = 972

97 2,144 = 97344

29 2352 = 55225
There are several ways of doing this, but suppose we decide to split
the number into 2/35:
D(2) = 4, D(2/35) = 140, D(35) = 1225: 4,140 = 540

5 40, 12 25 = 55225

30 1922 = 2122 = 4, 4 ,9, 4 ,4 = 4 4 9 4 4 = 4 4 /9 4 /4 = 36864
Seeing the large digit, 9, suggests using the vinculum.

Practice K Square:
1. 211 2. 412 3. 116 4. 121 5. 109 6. 149
7. 194 8. 482 9. 1112 10. 2012 11. 83 12. 46
13. 603 14. 306 15. 573 16. 673 17. 173 18. 369
19. 361 20. 351 21. 2202 22. 484 23. 223 24. 5223
25. 625
DIVISION
In division too there are a variety of Vedic methods. We will look at two of
them here; first division by numbers near to a base and then the general division
method.
A) DIVISOR NEAR A BASE
31 1232 ÷ 9 = 136 remainder 8
The first figure of the answer is 1, the first figure of 1232.

This first figure, 1, is then added to the second figure of 1232 to give
3 as the second figure of the answer.
This second figure, 3, is then added to the third figure of 1232 to give
6 as the third figure of the answer.
This third figure, 6, is then added to the last figure of 1232 to give the
remainder 8.
Thus each answer figure, once obtained, is used to get the next
answer figure.
You may prefer to write or think of the sum as set out below:
9) 1 2 3 / 2
136/8
This is how we divide by 9 in the Vedic system.

32 9) 2 1 3 0 / 4
2 3 6 6 /10 bring down 2,
2 + 1 = 3,
3 + 3 = 6,
6 + 0 = 6,
6 + 4 = 10.
Here we see that the remainder contains another 9, so the answer is

in fact 2367 remainder 1. And exactly the same process can be used
to divide the remainder, 10, by 9:
9) 1 / 0
1/1 So 21304 ÷ 9 = 2367 rem 1.
33 9) 3 1 7 / 2
3 4 11 / 13 = 352 remainder 4
Here the first 1 in the 11 has to be carried over to the 4, and the
remainder 13 provides an extra 9, bringing the 351 to 352.
However, to avoid the build up of large numbers like 11 and 13 here

we may simply anticipate, when we get to the 4 in the second column,
that it will have to be a 5 because otherwise the next step would give
11. So we put down 5:
9) 3 1 7 / 2
352/4
then adding 5 to 7 we get 12 but we put down only the 2 as the 1 has
already been carried over. Finally 2 + 2 = 4.
34 8) 1 1 / 1
13/7
Dividing by 8 is just the same except that we double the answer digit
before adding it to the next figure in the number being divided:
bring down 1,
double this 1 plus the next 1 is 3,
double this 3 plus the last 1 gives 7.
In fact this doubling arises because 8 is 2 below the base of 10: dividing by 7
would mean trebling at each step. We see here the Vedic formula All From 9
and the Last From 10 at work.
1 2
35 88) 2 / 3 5
2 / 5 9 I.e. 235 ÷ 88 = 2 remainder 59.
Here we note that 88 is close to 100 and 12 below it.

We therefore mark off two spaces on the right for a 2-figure
remainder and bring down the initial 2 into the answer.
Multiply this by the first figure of the deficiency 12, (2×1 = 2), and
add this to the 3 in the number being divided to get 5 as the first
figure of the remainder.
The 2 in the answer is then multiplied by the second figure of the

deficiency 12, (2×2 = 4), and this is added to the last figure, 5, in 235
to give 9 as the last figure of the remainder.
So the answer digit, 2 here, multiplies each deficiency digit, and the
results are added to the next figure in the number being divided.
2 1 1 3
36 7887 ) 3 / 1 3 1 3
3/76 5 2
Applying All From 9 and the Last From 10 to 7887 gives 2113.
Each of the figures in 2113 are multiplied in turn by 3, the answer

digit, and the result is added to the next figure of 31313:
3×2 = 6, 6+1 = 7 etc.
Next we consider the case where the answer (the quotient) consists of more than
one digit.
2 1
37 79 ) 1 1 / 0 4
1 3 / 7 7
Here we mark off two spaces on the right for the remainder, and our
deficiency from 100 is 21. In this sum the answer consists of 2
figures. The additions required at each step are provided by
Vertically and Crosswise.
Bring the first 1 down into the answer. Multiply it by the first
deficiency figure and add this to the next figure in the number being
divided: 1×2 = 2, 2+1 = 3, which is the second figure.
Then cross-multiply the 21 (deficiency figures) with 13 (answer

figures): 2×3 + 1×1 = 7, 7+0 (the next figure in the number being
divided) = 7, which is the first figure of the remainder.
Finally multiply the last deficiency figure, 1, by the last answer

figure, 3, and add the last figure of 1104: 1×3 + 4 = 7, which is the
last figure of the remainder.
If we set the answer figures, 13, below the deficiency figures, 21:
2 1 2×1 = 2 (vertically on the left)

| × | 2×3 + 1×1 = 7 (crosswise)
1 3 1×3 = 3 (vertically on the right)
we can clearly see the vertical and crosswise products which had to
be added on at each step.
0 1 2
38 988 )1 1 2 / 2 1 1
1 1 3 / 5 6 7
Similarly here, the additions are given by Vertically and Crosswise:
0 1 2 0×1 = 0
0×1 + 1×1 = 1
1 1 3 0×3 + 1×1 + 2×1 = 3
1×3 + 2×1 = 5
2×3 = 6
11
39 91) 2 3 / 3 7
2 5 / 6 2
Here instead of having a deficiency of 09 we can have 11.
Having got the 25 in the answer the cross-product is then

1×5 + 1×2 = 3, and 3+3 = 6.
Then 1×5 =5 , 7+5 = 2.
2 1
40 79 ) 2 6 / 0 1
3 2 / 7 3
Here, if we put down 2 as the first figure we see that this will lead to
10 for the second figure.
Anticipating this we therefore put 3 for the first figure, 2×3 + 6 = 12
and we put down only the 2 (as in Example 33).
1 3
41 93 ) 2 1 / 1 2
2 3 / 2 7 = 22/73
Using a deficiency of 13 here we find we have a negative remainder,

–27. In this case, since we have found that there are 23 93's in 2112
with –27 over, we take one of the 23 93's and add it to the –27.
2 3
42 123 ) 1 4 / 8 9
1 2 / 1 3
The divisor, 123 is above 100 and so we proceed as before but

subtract from 489 instead of adding, and these subtractions are found
by applying Vertically and Crosswise to 23 (the excess of 123 over
100) and 12 (the answer figures), just as in Example 37):
bring down 1 into the answer,

2×1 = 2, 4–2 = 2 put it down,
2×2 + 3×1 = 7, 8–7 = 1 put it down,
3×2 = 6, 9–6 = 3 put it down.
If we wish we can decimalise the remainder in these division sums. In the above
example we put a decimal point in the position of the oblique lines, obtain 121
in the answer as before (which is now 12.1) and then use the last two figures of
this, i.e. 21 to obtain a cross-product with 23:
123) 1 4 8 9
1 2.1 1 5 7 . . .
2×1 + 3×2 = 8, 9–8 = 1 put it down,

cross-product of 11 and 23 is 2×1 + 3×1 = 5, 0–5 = 5 put it down,
and so on.
Practice L
1. 9)1213 2. 9)11213 3. 9)20143 4. 9)3434
5. 9)83213 6. 9)24682 7. 8)122 8. 8)3111
9. 88)123 10. 88)321 11. 88)1221 12. 97)2323
13. 92)3221 14. 888)3210 15. 887)12320 16. 91)2017
17. 92)1001 18. 997)31416 19. 987)102030 20. 88)11001
21. 112)1234 22. 121)3993 23. 103)432 24. 1012)21312
25. 122)3333 26. 119)1234
B) GENERAL DIVISION
We now consider the general division process by which any two numbers can
be divided in one line. First we will see how the general multiplication method
can be simply reversed, then we will see that the process can be put into a more
compact form.
43 6 3
7 2
4 5 3 6
In multiplying 63 by 72 Vertically and Crosswise gives the answer as
4536.
This means that 4536 divided by 72 is 63.
Suppose that we have 4536 and we wish to divide it by 72:
? ? We need the two missing figures.

7 2
4 5 3 6 Looking at the 45 and the 7 we can deduce that the first
figure of the missing number must be 6, and since
6 ? 6×7 = 42 it follows that 3 of the 45 are left over.
7 2
4 533 6 We can put this 3 down as shown.
The vertical product 6×7 = 42, or rather 60×70 = 4200,
accounts for 4200 of the 4536 so that 336 are left- to be
accounted for by the crosswise operation and the right-
hand vertical product.
Considering the cross-product next and looking at the 33 in the 336,

we see that since one part of the cross-product is known (6×2 = 12)
the missing figure can be determined: 33–12 = 21, so the missing
figure must be 3 since 7×3 = 21.
Finally we observe that the vertical product on the right, 3×2 = 6 is

the last figure of 4536, so the division is exact and complete.
44 ? ? ? Dividing 58 by 7 here we get 8 remainder 2, and

7 3 since 56000 divided by 70 is 800 there must be 3
5 8 2 9 51 21 figures in the answer.
The other figures can be deduced in the same way as in the previous
example but you will notice two things as you go through these two
examples.
First, that each answer is found by dividing by 7, the first figure of the
divisor.
And second, that the subtracted parts, like 12 in the first example, are
found by multiplying the last figure of the divisor, 2 in the first
example, by the last obtained answer digit.
In fact, in making use of these two observations a better way of

setting out the division sum is as shown below:
3)5 8 9 1/ 1 58÷7=8 rem 2, as shown

2 5
7 /2 8×3=24, 29–24=5, 5÷7=0 rem 5 as shown,
8 0 7 /0 0×3=0, 51–0=51, 51÷7=7 rem 2 as shown,
7×3=21, 21–21=0, as shown.
This is a simple and straightforward procedure and some important variations

are illustrated in the last two examples.
45 3) 3 7 3 7 / 3
1 1
6 /2
6 1 3 /14
In dividing 37373 by 63 we initially divide 6 into 37 and put 6

remainder 1. But then we find that we must subtract 18 from 13.
If we choose negative numbers here (see alternative below) we

proceed:
13–18 = 5 , 5 ÷6 = 0 rem 5 or 5 ÷6 = 1 rem 1.

1 rem 1 is better so we put this down.
We now find we have 3 to subtract from 17, which means adding 3

to 17. So 20÷6 = 3 rem 2.
Then subtracting 9 from 23 gives 14 as the remainder.
Alternatively:
3) 3 7 3 7 / 3
7 4
6 /2
5 9 3 / 14
We may prefer to avoid the negative numbers and this can be done by
realising that we are going to go negative if we put down 6 remainder
1 at the beginning.
Instead we can say that 37÷6 = 5 remainder 7 and then proceed as

before.
46 In dividing 34567 by 39 we would find that because of the large

"flag" digit, 9, the subtractions are large, and somewhat unwieldy.
In such cases it is best to use 41 instead of 39:
1) 3 4 5 6 / 7 Now, when we multiply each answer

2 1
4 /0 figure by the flagged 1 we find we are
8 8 6 / 13 subtracting a negative amount; in other
words where before we subtracted we
now add:
34÷4 = 8 rem 2,
8×1 = 8, 25+8 = 33, 33÷4 = 8 rem 1,
8×1 = 8, 16+8 = 24, 24÷4 = 6 rem 0,
6×1 = 6, 7+6 = 13 which is the remainder.
In these divisions we can continue the process and decimalise the remainder:
having arrived at the remainder 13 above, we do not put it down but divide it by
4:
1) 3 4 5 6 7 . 0 0
2 1 0 1 1
4
8 8 6 . 3 3....
13÷4 = 3 rem 1,
3×1 = 3, 10+3 = 13, 13÷4 = 3 rem 1,
and so on.
Practice M
1. 81)213141 2. 73)4129 3. 92)4154 4. 72)44872
5. 53)89179 6. 48)613 7. 92)19792 8. 59)54545
9. 77)2468 10. 59)1040.77

The Vertically and Crosswise formula is very powerful and far-ranging. With
the left-to-right calculation technique it means we can combine operations and,
for example, find the third side of any right-angled triangle given two of them
(that is, we can square two numbers, add or subtract them, and find the square
root in a single line). We can also find sines and cosines etc, and their inverses,
and solve polynomial and transcendental equations and so on.7,8
Colburn, when he was eight, was asked to raise
the number 8 to the sixteenth power: he
announced the answer (281,474,976,710,656)
"promptly and with facility", causing the
academic audience to weep.
He was next asked to raise the numbers 2,3,....9
to the 10th power: and he gave the answers so
rapidly that the gentleman who was taking them
down was obliged to ask him to repeat them more
slowly.
Asked for the factors of 247,483 he replied 941
and 263; asked for the factors of 171,395 he
gave 5, 7, 59 and 83; asked for the factors of
36,083 he said there were none.
Zerah Colburn (1804-1840) was born in America. In his 6th year

his father heard him repeating parts of the multiplication table
though he had had only about 6 weeks schooling. When the
father asked for 13 × 97 the answer 1261 was immediately given.
After a 2-week tour of America Colburn came to England in the
spring of 1812. The number 4,294,967,297 was presented to the
child. It had been asserted that this was a prime number, but
Euler had shown it to be 641 × 6,700,417. Colburn found out
the factors "by the mere operation of his mind".
CHAPTER 7
USING THE AVERAGE
In this chapter we look at a neat and easy way of multiplying numbers by using
their average.
Suppose we want to know 29 × 31.

Since the average of 29 and 31 is 30, we might think that 29 × 31 is 30 × 30, or
close to it.
In fact 29 × 31 = 899
and this is just 1 below 900.
2 Now consider 28 × 32. Again 30 is their average.
28 × 32 = 896
This is 4 below 900.
3 For 27 × 33 whose average is also 30:
27 × 33 = 891, which is 9 below 900.
You may have noticed the rule here:
square the average and subtract the square of the difference of either number
from the average.
4 So 26 × 34 = 302 – 42 = 900 – 16 = 884
5 And 58 × 62 = 602 – 22 = 3600 – 4 = 3596
6 94 × 106 = 1002 – 62 = 10,000 – 36 = 9964
Note that the final subtraction part here is facilitated by using All From 9 and
the Last From 10 as shown in Chapter 5.
7 43 × 45 = 442 – 12 = 1935
8 123 × 77 = 1002 – 232 = 10000 – 529 = 9471
9 97 × 57 = 772 – 202 = 5929 – 400 = 5529

7. USING THE AVERAGE 63
10 37 × 33 = 352 – 22 = 1225 – 4 = 1221
This type has also been dealt with in Chapter 3. Note also the use of
the method of squaring numbers that end in 5, also from Chapter 3.
11 76 × 42 = 2×(38 × 42 ) = 2 × 1596 = 3192
Making use of the Proportionately Sutra.
12 In the case of 33 × 28 the average is not a whole number, and we

find that we need 30½2 – 2½2.
But 30½ is the average of 30,31

and 2½ is the average of 2,3.
So we find 31×30 – 3×2 = 930 – 6 = 924
Alternatively, in this case, find 32 × 28 and add another 28.
Or, find 99 × 28 and divide by 3.
Or, find 33 × 7 and double twice.
This method is available for the product of any two numbers. Even if the
average is not a very attractive number this method is still often better than
multiplying the numbers. For example, for 67 × 69 it is easier to find 682 – 1
than to multiply the original numbers together.
The method is best when the numbers being multiplied are close together (see
Example 7), or where their average (see Example 8) or their difference (see
Example 9) is easily squarable.
Practice
1. 49 × 51 2. 17 × 23 3. 57 × 63 4. 64 × 66 5. 85 × 65
6. 55 × 95 7. 33 × 47 8. 91 × 99 9. 44 × 48 10. 33 × 37
11. 74 × 86 12. 98 × 102 13. 62 × 38 14. 48 × 72 15. 73 × 93
16. 196 × 204 17. 346 × 354 18. 34 × 27 19. 18 × 23 20. 57 × 33
21. Find 4 ways (or more) of multiplying 53 by 47

At the age of three Gauss corrected his father when
he was calculating the wages due to one of the
labourers in his charge. On checking the account
the figure named by young Gauss was found to be
correct.
When he was ten Gauss' teacher asked his class to
add up all the numbers from 1 to 100. Gauss
immediately wrote down the answer on his slate
and later when all the slates were checked the
teacher was astonished to find that only Gauss had
given the correct answer.
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) is usually reckoned as one of the

three greatest mathematicians, along with Archimedes and Newton.
He worked on the theory of numbers, astronomy, hyperbolic geometry,
non-Euclidean geometry and practically every major area of
mathematics. Gauss said that "mathematics is the queen of the
sciences, and arithmetic the queen of mathematics".
CHAPTER 8
BY ADDITION AND BY SUBTRACTION
We frequently use addition and subtraction together: if we have to add 99 pence

to an amount, for example, we would add £1 and subtract 1 penny. Or asked for
34 × 19 we might find 20 34's and then subtract one 34. And for 34 × 21 we
could find 20 34's and add another 34.
In this chapter we see a quick and easy way of getting a square or product if
there is a known square or product near the one required.
SQUARES FROM SQUARES
Certain squares are easy to find. For example, squares of numbers consisting of
a single figure and zero(s), such as 30, 600 etc. Also we have a very simple
method of squaring numbers that end in 5, like 75, 405 etc. (see Chapter 3).
So we might ask, is there an easy way to get one square from another?
For example, can we get 392 from 402 or 732 from 752?
1 392 = 1521
402 = 1600
so 392 = 1600 – (39 + 40) = 1600 – 79 = 1521.
In other words, we add 39 and 40 and subtract the result from 1600.
We may also note here that the subtraction is easily done by

All From 9 and the Last From 10: see Chapter 5.
2 812 = 6561
802 = 6400
so 812 = 6400 + (80 + 81) = 6561.
Here we add to 6400 because 812 must be more than 802.
3 762 = 5776
752 = 5625
so 762 = 5625 + (75 + 76) = 5625 + 151 = 5776.
4 382 = 1444
402 = 1600
so 382 = 1600 – 2(38 + 40) = 1600 – 2 × 78 = 1444.
Because 38 is 2 from the base of 40 we must multiply the total

(38 + 40) by 2.
5 682 = 4624
Rather than use 70 as base and subtract, we may prefer to avoid

subtraction by using 652:
652 = 4225
so 682 = 4225 + 3(65 + 68) = 4225 + 399 = 4624.
8. BY ADDITION AND BY SUBTRACTION 67
Thus it is possible to obtain any square number from any other square number.
Practice A
1. Given 612 = 3721 find 622 2. Given 672 = 4489 find 662
Square the following numbers:
3. 51 4. 91 5. 56 6. 42 7. 49 8. 44
9. 119 10. 251 11. 351 12. 753
13. Given 3322 = 110224 find 3332 14. Find 3342
15. Given 22262 = 4955076 find 22362
16. Find 9912 a) By Addition and By Subtraction and All From 9....
b) using All From 9 and the Last From 10
c) using the general squaring method from Chapter 6,
but splitting the number into 99/1
PRODUCTS FROM PRODUCTS
We may also ask whether we can do a similar thing with products.
Given 25 × 26 = 650, for example, can we find 27 × 28?
6 Suppose we want 27 × 28
Since 25 × 26 = 650
then 27 × 28 = 650 + (25 + 26 + 27 + 28)
= 650 + 106 = 756
Instead of adding all four numbers we can just add the outer pair
(or the inner pair) and double the result.
Alternatively, we can get the answer using the product 29 × 30 which

follows after 27 × 28 (rather than the preceding product):
27 × 28 = 29 × 30 – 2 × 57 = 870 – 114 = 756.
7 Find 36 × 39
30 × 33 = 990,
but since now the numbers 30, 33, 36, 39 are increasing 3 at a time,
we increase 990 by 3 times the total of the four numbers,
or by 6 times the total of the inner or outer pair:
36 × 39 = 990 + 6(30 + 39) = 990 + 414 = 1404
This method can also be extended to the use of numbers which are in the
progression but which are not immediately before or after the product required.
However we leave this for the reader to investigate.
Practice B
1. 32 × 33 2. 47 × 48 3. 48 × 49 4. 52 × 54 5. 78 × 79
6. If 79 × 80 = 6320 find 77 × 78
7. If 366 × 367 = 134322 find 368 × 369
8. If 65 × 66 = 4290 find 67 × 68
9. Given 51 × 52 = 2652 can you find 52 × 53?

π 163
According to Professor Aitken e differs from a
whole number by less than 10-12. This is the more
remarkable since this is an enormous number with
18 figures before the decimal point is even reached.
Professor Alexander Craig Aitken (1895-1967) is a recent and

remarkable mental calculator. Born in New Zealand he travelled
to Edinburgh where he lectured at the University, wrote books
on algebra and statistics and some seventy memoirs and papers
on various mathematical topics.
CHAPTER 9
BY MERE OBSERVATION
This chapter shows how certain products can be immediately given when
certain special numbers are found contained in the sum.
Sometimes we know the answer to a particular sum immediately, by mere

observation, without having to work it out. It may be that we have the answer in
memory (for example, 4 × 3 = 12), or that we know a rule that automatically
gives us the answer without having to make any effort (for example, 17 × 100 =
1700). Or perhaps the answer just appears in our mind and we know it is right:
some computation has occurred but it is out of our awareness. These are
examples of Mere Observation.
1 23 × 101 = 2323
We need 23 hundreds and 23 ones.

The effect of multiplying any 2-figure number by 101 is simply to
make it repeat itself.
2 69 × 101 = 6969
3 Similarly 473 × 1001 = 473473

4 47 × 1001 = 47047 (think of 47 as 047)
5 123 × 101 = 123,1 23 = 12423 (that is, 12300 + 123)

6 28 × 10101 = 282828
7 37 × 201 = 7437
here we bring in the Proportionately formula from Chapter 2:

37×2=74.
8 31 × 10203 = 316293 we have 31×1, 31×2, 31×3.
Practice A
1. 46 × 101 2. 246 × 101 3. 321 × 1001 4. 43 × 1001
5. 54 × 201 6. 67 × 1002 7. 71 × 10101 8. 33 × 30201
9. 123 × 20102 10. 101 × 111 11. 31 × 111 12. 11001 × 101
13. 777 × 101 14. 333 × 1011
DISGUISES
Now it is possible for a sum to be of the above type without it being obvious: it
may be disguised.
9 93 × 67 = 6231
Since 3 × 67 = 201,
therefore 93 × 67 = 31 × 3 × 67
= 31 × 201
= 6231
In other words, we recognise that one of the special numbers (201 in this case)
is contained in the sum (as 3 × 67).
9. BY MERE OBSERVATION 71
10 24 × 37 = 888
We know that 3 × 37 = 111, which is a number very easy to multiply.
So 24 × 37 = 8 × 3 × 37
= 8 × 111
= 888.
If we know the factors of these special numbers we can make good use of them
when they come up in a sum, and they arise quite frequently.
Below is a list of a few of these numbers with their factors:
67 × 3 = 201 17 × 6 = 102 11 × 9 = 101

43 × 7 = 301 13 × 8 = 104 27 × 37 = 1001
89 × 9 = 801 29 × 7 = 203 83 × 12 = 100 4
17 × 53 = 901 19 × 16 = 304 23 × 13 = 301
7 × 11 × 13 = 1001 31 × 13 = 403 17 × 47 = 801
3 × 23 × 29 = 2001 3 × 37 = 111 3 × 31 × 43 = 4001
These numbers and others of the same type are so useful in multiplication and in
other areas of mathematics that the mental mathematician becomes very
familiar with them.
11 76 × 48 = 3648
19 × 16 (=304) is contained in this sum: 76 = 4×19,

48 = 3×16.
So 76 × 48 = 19 × 4 × 16 × 3
= 304 × 12
= 3648
12 756 × 143 = 108108
We see here 7 × 11 × 13 (=1001) in this sum:
756 = 108 × 7 (see 756 as 7/56, then division by 7 is obvious),

and 143 = 11 × 13.
So 756 × 143 = 108 × 7 × 11 × 13

= 108 × 1001
= 108108
13 81 × 74 = (27 × 37) × 6
= 1001 × 6
= 600 6
= 5994
Practice B
1. 16 × 26 2. 29 × 42 3. 31 × 78 4. 43 × 49
5. 53 × 187 6. 91 × 46 7. 77 × 63 8. 87 × 69
9. 94 × 68 10. 108 × 74 11. 119 × 159 12. 126 × 43
It is just a matter of spotting the factors of a particular special number in the

sum. But even if they are not quite there we may still prefer to use this method:
14 43 × 64 = 43 × 63 + 43
= 43×7 × 9 + 43
= 301 × 9 + 43
= 2709 + 43
= 2752
15 219 × 16 = 200×16 + 19×16

= 3200 + 304
= 3504
It may also be possible to split a number up so that the special numbers can be
brought in:
16 2917 × 42 = 122514
2 9/1 7 multiply 29 × 42 (using 29×7) to get 1218,

42 × and multiply 17 × 42 (using 17×6) to get 714:
1 2 2 5/1 4 and 1218,714 = 122514.

GENERAL EXERCISES
The following are general exercises: use any method you like.
Experimenting with different methods on the same sum is a good way of

finding out when best to use a particular technique.
Some hints will be found on Page 75.
Practice C
1. 43 × 47 2. 17 × 13 3. 556 × 4 4. 73 × 36 5. 31 × 88
6. 68 × 46 7. 84 × 67 8. 1082 9. 6132 10. 76 × 999
11. 9996 × 87 12. 97 × 22 13. 138 × 331 14. 1753 × 5 15. 1912
16. 143 × 707 17. 9872 18. 8112 19. 77 × 65 20. 93 × 38
Practice D
1. 616 × 51 2. 412 3. 98 × 44 4. 131 × 171 5. 77 × 73
6. 614 × 8 7. 63 × 69 8. 74 × 66 9. 31 × 32 10. 46 × 54
11. 399 × 6 12. 94 × 43 13. 42 × 45 14. 1982 15. 92 × 108
16. 333 × 21 17. 54 × 74 18. 777 × 997 19. 77 × 97 20. 1999 × 14

74
Practice E
1. 5272 2. 152 × 74 3. 136 × 231 4. 1892 5. 193 × 194
6. 73 × 56 7. 58 × 76 8. 86 × 42 9. 143 × 777 10. 472
11. 3021×1203 12. 621 × 34 13. 848 × 38 14. 4122×321 15. 68 × 73
16. 125 × 29 17. 293 × 17 18. 409 × 9 19. 89 × 29 20. 97 × 17
Practice F
1. 23 × 36 2. 28 × 31 3. 14 × 49 4. 556 × 3 5. 23 × 82
6. 97 × 76 7. 74 × 98 8. 64 × 98 9. 942 10. 582
11. 332 12. 78 × 99 13. 1532 14. 3522 15. 334 × 17
16. 66 × 86 17. 1646 × 6 18. 69 × 71 19. 304 × 306 20. 3142

HINTS FOR PRACTICES C, D
C
1. By One More than the One Before
2. Again By One More than the One Before
3. Left to right multiplication or double twice
7. 3 × 67 = 201
8. As in Chapter 5, increase by 8 and square 8
9. As in Number 8 but multiply on the left by 6, or square 6/13
10. See Chapter 5 for multiplying by 9's
11. Chapter 5 for multiplying numbers near different bases
12. Use 100 as base
14. Left to right multiplication
15. Use 200 as base (reduce by 9, double and square 9)
17. Reduce by 13 and square 13
18. Like number 9
19. 7×11×13 = 1001
D
1. Moving multiplier, Chapter 6
2. Straight square or use 40 as base (Chapters 5 or 8) or use 50 as base as in
Chapter 5 for squaring numbers near 50
3. Find 98×88 and halve
4. 13/1 × 17/1: find 13×17 using By One More than the One Before
5. By One More than the One Before
6. Left to right multiplication or double 3 times
7. Use 60 as base (Chapter 5) or use the vinculum
8. Use the Average or use 37×3 = 111
9. Use 30 as base (Chapter 5)
10. Find 23×27 and double twice
11. Find 401×6, i.e. 2400-6
12. Find 46×43: By One More than the One Before
13. Same as 21×90
14. Use 200 as base, as in Chapter 5
15. Use the Average or All from 9 and the Last from 10
16. Moving multiplier (Chapter 6)
17. Use the average
18. All from 9 and the Last from 10
19. All from 9 and the Last from 10
20. 2001 ×14 = 28000–14
76
ALGEBRAIC PROOFS
The various multiplication etc. devices shown in this book can be proved by
arithmetical and geometrical methods, but here for brevity we give the algebraic
proofs.
Chapter 3
Examples 1-5 (ax + 5)2 = a(a + 1)x2 + 25 x =10
6-9 (ax + b)(ax + 10–b) = a(a + 1)x2 + b(10 – b) x=10
10 as above with x=100
Chapter 4
Examples 11–12 (ax + b)((10–a)x + b) = (a(10–a) + b)x2 x=10
Chapter 5
Examples 1–15 (x + a)(x + b) = x(x + a + b) +ab x=10n
n −1
Subtraction xn = (x–1) ∑ x r + x
1
16-19 (nx + a)(nx + b) = nx(nx + a + b) + ab
20-22 (x + a)(y + b) = (x + a)y + bx + ab x=10m, y=10n
23-24 (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) = x2(x+a+b+c) + x(ab+ac+bc) + abc
25-26 (x + a)2 = (x + 2a) + a2
27 (nx + a)2 = n(nx + a)x + a2
28-29 (50 + a)2 = 100(25 + a) + a2
30-31 a(xn – 1) = (a – 1)xn + (xn – a)
Chapter 6
(axn + bxn-1 + cxn-2 + . . . + zx0)(Axm + Bxm-1 + Cxm-2 + . . . + Zx0)
= aAxn+m + (aB+bA)xn+m-1 + (aC+bB+cA)xn+m-2 + . . . + zZ x=10
For grouping 2, 3 etc. figures on the right of the numbers x=102,

103 etc.
Division near a base. Since bx = (x – a)b + ab
therefore xbx−a = b remainder ab. x=10, a < x
Chapter 7
(a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2, where a = average, b < a
Chapter 8
(a + p)2 = a2 + p(2a + p)
(a + 3p)(a + 2p) – (a + p)a = p(a+3p + a+2p + a+p + a)
77
REFERENCES
1. Tirthaji B.K. (1965) Vedic Mathematics, Motilal Banarsidass
2. Bidder G.P. (1856) On Mental Calculation. Minutes of

Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers (1855-56), 15, 251-280
3. Scripture E.W. (1891) American Journal of Psychology.

Vol. IV 1-59
4. Mitchell F.D. (1907) American Journal of Psychology.

Vol. XVIII 61-143
5. Aitken A.C. (1954) The Art of Mental Calculation: With

Demonstrations. Transactions of the Society of Engineers.
45, 295-309
6. Dow A. (1991) A Unified Approach to Developing Intuition in

Mathematics, Scientific Research on the Transcendental
Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program Vol 5, 3386-3398
7. Williams K.R. (1984) Discover Vedic Mathematics. Inspiration Books
8. Nicholas, Williams, Pickles (1984) Vertically and Crosswise.

Inspiration Books
78
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1
Exercise A Page 3
1. 81 2. 504 3. 156 4. 456 5. 702

6. 2568 7. 768 8. 7413 9. 2223 10. 2007
11. 6741
Exercise B Page 4
1. 123 2. 121 3. 112 4. 118 5. 88

6. 819 7. 1737 8. 1221 9. 876 10. 1023
Exercise C Page 6
1. 1368 2. 1368 3. 3186 4. 1638 5. 8631 6. 34524

7. 135 8. 1231 9. 1082 10. 959 11. 12344 12. 10203
CHAPTER 2
Exercise A Page 8
1. 108 2. 148 3. 668 4. 228 5. 288

6. 176 7. 116 8. 308 9. 3108 10. 336
11. 536 12. 1272 13. 624 14. 448 15. 504
Exercise B Page 9
1. 112 2. 108 3. 168 4. 176 5. 288

6. 308 7. 448 8. 234 9. 336 10. 484
Exercise C Page 10
1. 210 2. 180 3. 280 4. 305 5. 1630

6. 765 7. 935 8. 3090 9. 1545 10. 12340
11. 2160 12. 10800 13. 1800 14. 1050 15. 2075
ANSWERS 79
Exercise D Page 12
1. 270 2. 2870 3. 870 4. 1870 5. £77

6. 72 7. 405 8. 9900 9. 10400 10. 42700
11. 525 12. 126
CHAPTER 3
Exercise A Page 14
1. 3025 2. 225 3. 72¼ 4. 9025 5. 11025

6. 38025 7. 24025 8. 60025 9. 1225 10. 420¼
11. 64080025 12. 6125 [½ (35 × 350)]
Exercise B Page 16
1. 5621 2. 3016 3. 7209 4. 11024

5. 87021 6. 93021 7. 2432 8. 4048
9. 2442 10. 1848 [3×22×28] 11. 2808 12. 2484 [23×27×4]
13. 60196 14. 120819 15. 560475 16. 200099
17. 400198 18. 20202 [480×42 + 42]
CHAPTER 4
Exercise A Page 18
Numbers 7 and 14 are wrong
Exercise B Page 20
1. 2964 2. 2236 3. 1001 4. 3481 5. 2709

6. 2016 7. 2464 8. 2581 9. 1649 10. 2816
CHAPTER 5
Exercise A Page 23
1. 88/36 2. 86/33 3. 86/13 4. 85/26 5. 82/65

6. 84/48 7. 77/44 8. 54/32 9. 64/32 10. 93/06
11. 94/08 12. 32/01 13. 96/04 14. 63/36 15. 66/36
16. 18032
CHAPTER 5 (continued)
Exercise B Page 24
1. 322 2. 595 3. 1952 4. 46

5. 83 6. £10.66 7. 9901 8. £6.37
9. 1223 10. £37.66 11. 2648 12. 7184
Exercise C Page 25
1. 665/666 2. 765/696 3. 987/022 4. 882/345

5. 881/234 6. 466/066 7. 881/199 8. 8884/4448
9. 6996/9003 10. 90903/54546 11. 78986/63033 12. 9865/1364
Exercise D Page 26
1. 136/99 2. 115/56 3. 172/71 4. 106/08

5. 131/25 6. 16/8 7. 23/4 8. 1225/666
9. 1058/357 10. 15115/5333 11. 209/09 12. 1071/224
Exercise E Page 27
1. 94/64 2. 102/46 3. 100/94 4. 103/04

5. 101/01 6. 94/34 7. 93/73 8. 97/37
9. 95/55 10. 995/955 11. 992/922 12. 1102/112
Exercise F Page 28
1. 172/2 2. 422/28 3. 972/63 4. 422/24

5. 8199/18 6. 225/6 7. 368/48 8. 394/02
9. 366/66 10. 415/67 11. 992/34 12. 25555/324
13. 365/4 14. 55/2 15. 6468 16. 7896
Exercise G Page 29
1. 963/21 2. 909/88 3. 9788/24 4. 9876/048

5. 1045/45 6. 1072/72 7. 10234/68 8. 1166/88
9. 996/66 10. 956/65 11. 3776/22 12. 3802/81
Exercise H Page 30
1. 116/61/66 2. 110/32/32 3. 94/10/94

4. 91/19/88 5. 1026/111/126 6. 108/03/52 7. 1030
ANSWERS 81
Exercise I Page 31
1. 96/04 2. 82/81 3. 77/44 4. 112/36 5. 118/81 6. 123/21

7. 16/9 8. 1022/121 9. 1004/004 10. 974/169 11. 99796/10404
12. 449/44
13. 28/09 14. 21/16 15. 37/21
Exercise J Page 32
1. 88/11 2. 81/18 3. 18/81 4. 44/55

5. 777/222 6. 78/921 7. 123/9876 8. 8988/91011
Exercise K Page 32
1. 86 2. 115 3. 153 4. 553

5. 552 6. 740
Exercise l Page 33
1. 721 2. 322 3. 134 4. 105 5. 67
Exercise M Page 34
1. 887/222 2. 111/18 3. 1119/888 4. 81/88

5. 98/88 6. 77/76 7. 948/48 8. 928/28
9. 428/48 10. 403/01 11. 102/12 12. 63/36
13. 114/49 14. 112/35 15. 36/963 16. 1123/32
17. 98/01 18. 99/19 19. 99/91 20. 10208/0712
Exercise N Page 34
1. 1962 2. 8428 3. 8372 4. 292

5. 154 6. 384 7. 795606 8. 88927707
9. 430 10. 2100 11. 11227 12. 11808
13. 2240 14. 7800 15. 42427 16. 37036
17. 7225 18. 5609 19. 1056 20. 4042068
21. 979706 22. 104346 23. 7224 24. 1512
25. 93021 26. 60196 27. 8649 28. 1022121
29. 162409 30. 2601 31. 2209 32. 2849
33. 1701 34. 877122 35. 729927
CHAPTER 6
Exercise A Page 36
1. 682 2. 651 3. 462 4. 286 5. 1891 6. 672 7. 961 8. 169
Exercise B Page 37-8
1. 987 2. 989 3. 696 4. 616 5. 1166 6. 1116

7. 1232 8. 2232 9. 2332 10. 2772 11. 2277 12. 1428
13. 1122 14. 1144 15. 2244 16. 2754 17. 2345 18. 3245
19. 3456 20. 3465 21. 3564 22. 3645 23. 3456 24. 646
25. 3344
26. (a) put down the product of the left-hand figures, then their total, then 1.
(b) the crosswise step is found by multiplying the figure which is repeated
by the total of the other two figures.
Exercise C Page 39
1. 456 2. 1357 3. 868 4. 696 5. 2448

6. 931 7. 1444 8. 666 9. 2223 10. 2356
Exercise D Page 40
1. 22736 2. 16113 3. 15006 4. 13776 5. 9262
Exercise E Page 41-42
1. 64144 2. 124949 3. 87696 4. 65621 5. 254016

6. 251001 7. 79744 8. 148333 9. 255521 10. 135744
11. 213321 12. 639936 13. 1577133 14. 6060144 15. 6/060/144
Exercise F Page 43
1. 6741 2. 7383 3. 9262 4. 13161 5. 25452

6. 29282 7. 40703 8. 246862 9. 187 10. 1353
11. 153 12. 1107
ANSWERS 83
Exercise G Page 45
1. 15851 2. 27772 3. 26862 4. 37873 5. 66356 6. 39483

7. 87768 8. 73926 9. 81918 10. 53235 11. 23532 12. 285825
13. 344988 14. 103041 15. 33333 16. 44144 17. 110011 18. 101001
Exercise H Page 47
1. 765 2. 567 3. 3149 4. 7663

5. 2112 6. 2211 7. 2112 8. 21112
9. 48884 10. 39693 11. 25152 12. 3800
13. 1444 14. 1561056 15. 2025 16. 123552
17. 12402 18. 30090 19. 95616 20. 154044
21. 46464 22. 71262 23. 9964 24. 3838329
25. 4848207
Exercise I Page 48
1. 961 2. 196 3. 1681 4. 676 5. 4356

6. 6561 7. 8281 8. 3136 9. 3969 10. 5929
11. 2829 12. 5313
Exercise J Page 49
1. 44944 2.17161 3. 41616 4. 263169 5. 69169 6. 69696

7. 97969 8. 47089 9. 9628609 10. 4545424 11. 1999396
12. 17172736
Exercise K Page 51
1. 44521 2. 169744 3. 13456 4. 14641 5. 11881 6. 22201

7. 37636 8. 232324 9. 1236544 10. 4048144 11. 6889 12. 2116
13. 363609 14. 93636 15. 328329 16. 452929 17. 29929 18. 136161
19. 130321 20. 123201 21. 4848804 22. 234256 23. 49729 24. 27279729
25. 390625
Exercise L Page 56
1. 134/7 2. 1245/8 3. 2238/1 4. 381/5 5. 9245/8

6. 2742/4 7. 15/2 8. 388/7 9. 1/35 10. 3/57
11. 13/77 12. 23/92 13. 35/1 14. 3/546 15. 13/789
CHAPTER 6 (continued)
16. 22/15 17. 10/81 18. 31/509 19. 103/369 20. 125/1
21. 11/2 22. 33/0 23. 4/20 24. 21/60 25. 27/39
26. 10/44
Exercise M Page 59
1. 2631/30 2. 56/41 3. 45/14 4. 623/16 5. 1682/33

6. 12/37 7. 215/12 8. 924/29 9. 32/4 10. 17.64017
CHAPTER 7
Exercise Page 64
1. 2499 2. 391 3. 3591 4. 4224 5. 5525

6. 5225 7. 1551 8. 9009 9. 2112 10. 1221
11. 6364 12. 9996 13. 2356 14. 3456 15. 6789
16. 39984 17. 122484 18. 918 19. 414 20. 1881
21. 2491 by Using the Average; Vertically and Crosswise; All from 9.... with
a base of 50; By One More .... (43×47 + 10×47); Vertically and
Crosswise using the vinculum.
CHAPTER 8
Exercise A Page 67
1. 3844 2. 4356
3. 2601 4. 8281 5. 3136 6. 1764 7. 2401
8. 1936 9. 14161 10. 63001 11. 123201 12. 567009
13. 110889 14. 111556
15. 4999696
16. (a) 9902 + 1981 = 980100 + 1981 = 982081
(b) 982/081
(c) 9801,198,1 = 982081
Exercise B Page 68
1. 1056 2. 2256 3. 2352 4. 2808 5. 6162

6. 6006 7. 135792
8. 4556 9. 2756
ANSWERS 85
CHAPTER 9
Exercise A Page 70
1. 4646 2. 24846 3. 321321 4. 43043

5. 10854 6. 67134 7. 717171 8. 996633
9. 2472546 10. 11211 11. 3441 12. 1111101
13. 78477 14. 336663
Exercise B Page 72
1. 416 2. 1218 3. 2418 4. 2107

5. 9911 6. 4186 7. 4851 8. 6003
9. 6392 10. 7992 11. 18921 12. 5418
Exercise C Page 73
1. 2021 2. 221 3. 2224 4. 2628 5. 2728

6. 3128 7. 5628 8. 11664 9. 375769 10. 75924
11. 869652 12. 2134 13. 45678 14. 8765 15. 36481
16. 101101 17. 974169 18. 657721 19. 5005 20. 3534
Exercise D Page 73
1. 31416 2. 1681 3. 4312 4. 22401 5. 5621

6. 4912 7. 4347 8. 4884 9. 992 10. 2484
11. 2394 12. 4042 13. 1890 14. 39204 15. 9936
16. 6993 17. 3996 18. 774669 19. 7469 20. 27986
Exercise E Page 73
1. 277729 2. 11248 3. 31416 4. 35721 5. 37442

6. 4088 7. 4408 8. 3612 9. 111111 10. 2209
11. 3634263 12. 21114 13. 32224 14. 1323162 15. 4964
16. 3625 17. 4981 18. 3681 19. 2581 20. 1649
Exercise F Page 74
1. 828 2. 868 3. 686 4. 1668 5. 1886

6. 7372 7. 7252 8. 6272 9. 8836 10. 3364
11. 1089 12. 7722 13. 23409 14. 123904 15. 5678
16. 5676 17. 9876 18. 4899 19. 93024 20. 98596
VEDIC MATHEMATICS BOOKS
Teacher’s Manual – Elementary
This is similar to the intermediate book but covers a lesser range (aimed at teachers of grades 3 to 7).
It contains many topics that are not in the other Manuals that are suitable for this age range and many
topics that are also in Manual 2 are covered in greater detail here. ISBN 978-1-902517-16-2
Teacher’s Manual – Intermediate

This is similar to the elementary book but covers a greater range (aimed at teachers of grades 5 to 10)
including divisibility, square roots, applications of triples, further equations, combined operations etc.
ISBN 978-1-902517-17-9
Teacher’s Manual – Advanced

This includes: calculus, series, logs and exponentials, trigonometry (including solving trig equations,
proving identities), solution of equations (special types, quadratics, cubics, transcendental), complex
numbers, coordinate geometry, transformation geometry, Simple Harmonic Motion, projectile motion,
forces, work moments, etc. ISBN 978-1-902517-18-6
The Cosmic Computer - Abridged Edition

This is a shortened version of the full course described next. It contains some of the most striking
Vedic methods. It is beautifully illustrated with full colour cover and is perfect bound (paperback). A
good introduction to Vedic Mathematics. Authors: Kenneth Williams and Mark Gaskell. 216 pages.
Almost A4 in size. 1997. ISBN 978-0-9531782-0-9
The Cosmic Computer Course

This covers Key Stage 3 (age 11-14 years) of the National Curriculum for England and Wales. It
consists of three textbooks, a Teacher's Guide and an Answer Book. Much of the material in Book 1 is
suitable for children as young as eight and this is developed from here to topics such as Pythagoras'
Theorem and Quadratic Equations in Book 3. The Teacher's Guide contains a Summary of each Book,
a Unified Field Chart (showing the whole subject of mathematics and how each of the parts are
related), hundreds of Mental Tests (these revise previous work, introduce new ideas and are carefully
correlated with the rest of the course), Extension Sheets (about 16 per book) for fast pupils or for extra
classwork, Revision Tests, Games, Worksheets etc.
Discover Vedic Mathematics

This has sixteen chapters each of which focuses on one of the Vedic Sutras or sub-Sutras and shows
many applications of each. It goes into some detail, showing variations and giving explanations and
proofs.. Also contains solutions to GCSE and 'A' level examination questions. Author: K. Williams,
216 pages. 1984.
Triples
This book shows applications of Pythagorean Triples (like 3,4,5). A simple, elegant system for
combining these triples gives unexpected and powerful general methods for solving a wide range of
mathematical problems, with far less effort than conventional methods use. The easy text fully
explains this method which has applications in trigonometry (you do not need any of those
complicated formulae), coordinate geometry (2 and 3 dimensions) transformations (2 and 3
dimensions), simple harmonic motion, astronomy etc. etc. Author: K. Williams, 176 pages,
paperback.
Vertically and Crosswise

This is an advanced book of sixteen chapters on one Sutra ranging from elementary multiplication etc.
to the solution of non-linear partial differential equations. It deals with (i) calculation of common
functions and their series expansions, and (ii) the solution of equations, starting with simultaneous
equations and moving on to algebraic, transcendental and differential equations. Authors: A. P.
Nicholas, K. Williams, J. Pickles, 200 pages, paperback, 1999.
For further details and other books please visit http://www.vedicmaths.org

1
Sri – Om
VEDIC MATHEMATICS AWARENESS YEAR
E-Newsletter Issue no 285 dated 20-08-2015
For previous issues and further more information visit at www.vedicganita.org
Organizers: Dr. S. K. Kapoor, Sh. Rakesh Bhatia, Sh. Bhim Sein Khanna, Sh. Deepak Girdhar
VMS & T Awareness course

(Duration: 1-8-2015 to 30-09-2015)
12
We recognize and salute
Kenneth Raymond Williams
We recognize and salute Present Kensglen, Castle Douglas, DG7

Kenneth Raymond Williams 3TE,
address: Scotland, U.K.
Email: kenwilliams.vm@gmail.com
Anybody going through the
curriculum vitae of ‘Kenneth Qualifications:
1972 Teacher’s Certificate in Mathematics.
Raymond Williams’ is bound to University of London Goldsmiths’
recognize and salute his College.
1981 B.Sc. in Astronomy (honours).
contribution in the domain of University of London, University
Vedic Mathematics. College London.
We have the pleasure to Teaching experience:

share his Curriculum Vitae with 1972-78 Full-time mathematics teacher at
Parliament Hill School, London.
all. 1981-88 Part-time, 6th form of William Ellis
School, London.
KENNETH RAYMOND WILLIAMS 1986-88 Part-time lecturer at the Polytechnic
of North London.
Born: 10th March 1946 in Beverley, 1987-88 Part-time teacher at Islington Sixth
Yorkshire, UK. Form College.
VMS & T Newsletter issue no 285 2
1988-89 Part-time lecturer at Liverpool Conferences on Vedic Mathematics at

Polytechnic. London, Oxford, Cambridge, 1988.
1989-06 Full-time and part-time teacher at Courses at Oxford University, 1990-95.

Carmel Sixth Form College, St Helens,
Merseyside, UK. Swedish mathematics Conference in
Linkoping, Sweden, 1990.
2006-2008 Chief Academic Officer to Math
Monkey, a US-based, after school Lecture to 150 maths teachers and
supplemental education company using lecturers at Conference in Boras, Sweden,
Vedic Maths 1992.
Articles published: “Bharati Krsna Seminar in Singapore, 200 maths teachers

Tirthaji’s system of Vedic (with Minister of Education present), 1999.
Mathematics”, journal of the IMA
(Institute of Mathematics and its Series of courses/talks at Skovde
Applications), Nov/Dec 1982 (joint University, Sweden, 2000.
pubn with A. Nicholas and J.
Pickles). Courses in Holland (Amsterdam, Utrecht,
Lelystad), 2002-03.
“An outline of recent research in Vedic
Mathematics”, Vedic Ganit, Vol. 2, Bull. Many talks in various places in the USA
4, 1986 (joint pubn with A. Nicholas). and Canada from 2006-7.
“Triples”, Vedic Ganit, Vol. 2, Bull. 4, 1986. Talks in India in July/August 2008 and
April/May 2009.
“Indian Inspiration”, Times Educational
Supplement, 10th May 1991. Various online courses to teachers
throughout the world, 2007 to present time,
"Vertically and Crosswise", Mathematics including:
in School, Sept 1999
(published by The Mathematical Online Introductory and Diploma and
Association). Advanced Diploma courses
"The Sutras of Vedic Mathematics", in the Online Teacher Training courses (6

Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. L, Nos batches to date)
1-4, Sept 2000 - June 2001, p145 – 156.
Also: Vedic Mathematics
"The System of Vedic Mathematics - a research started in 1971.
Comparison", in "Glimpses of Vedic
Mathematics" by Dr S K Kapoor, 2003, Project for astronomy degree, 1981, on
published by Arya Book Depot, New Delhi. Vedic Mathematics solution of Kepler’s
equation and prediction of eclipses.
Courses/talks given on Vedic
Mathematics, including:
3
Five lesson VM video course, 1991, for “Fun with Figures”, 1998, Inspiration Books
Maharishi University of Natural Law. (also available as an ebook).
Created first Vedic Mathematics web site and “Astronomical Applications of Vedic
Newsletter, 1998. Mathematics”, 2000, Inspiration Books.
Vedic Mathematics Correspondence course “Vedic Mathematics Teacher’s Manual –

prepared, 2000. Elementary”, 2002, Inspiration Books.
Basic and Advanced DVD courses (of 3 “Vedic Mathematics Teacher’s Manual –
DVDs each) released in 2009. Intermediate”, 2002, Inspiration Books.
Various other online courses and publications “Vedic Mathematics Teacher’s Manual –
(Math2020, Algebra for the Terrified, Fun Advanced”, 2003, Inspiration Books.
with Calculus, How to Really Calculate in “Why Do We Calculate Backwards? – Left to
your Head etc.). Right is Better”, 2010, Inspiration Books.
Books published: “Vedic Mathematics Proofs”, 2013,

Inspiration Books.
“Introductory Lectures on Vedic
Mathematics”, 1982, Vedic Mathematics “The Crowning Gem – One Vedic Master-
Research Group, (joint pubn with A. Formula for Powers, Roots and Polynomial
Nicholas, J Pickles). Equations”, 2013, Inspiration Books.
“Discover Vedic Mathematics”, 1984, Also some CDs on mental mathematics,

Inspiration Books. 2004,5.
“Triples”, 1984, Inspiration Books. A book on Calculus is currently under

development
“Vertically and Crosswise”, 1984, Inspiration
Books, (joint pubn with A. Nicholas and J. Online Courses
Pickles).
Certificate Course in Vedic Mathematics (3
“The Natural Calculator”, 1991, Inspiration weeks)
Books.
Diploma Course in Vedic Mathematics
“The Cosmic Computer – Abridged”, 1997, (following on from the Certificate Course, 6
Inspiration Books, (joint pubn with M. weeks)
Gaskell).
Teacher Training Course in Vedic
“The Cosmic Calculator Course – A Vedic Mathematics (9 weeks), 7 batches run to date
Mathematics Course for Schools”, 1998,
Inspiration Books, (joint pubn with M. Advanced Diploma Course in Vedic
Gaskell). Mathematics (5 weeks)
VMS & T Newsletter issue no 285 4
Powers, Roots and Polynomial Equations see, as I saw, how these

Course (3 weeks) beautiful new methods and
Applied Mathematics Applications Course in approach could change our
Vedic Mathematics (2 weeks) view of maths and
Calculus Course (under construction)
mathematics education.
* But in spite of my efforts,
they and the education
Kenneth Raymond Williams, on officials I approached, had
our request has shared with us: no interest and
“I was brought up in recommended I did not
London with my two ‘waste my time’ on it.
sisters and brother. We However subsequent
were in an area with many events and changing views
‘bomb sites’ left from the have proved I was right
second world war – I because there is now huge
remember making a and growing interest in
bicycle out of the many Vedic mathematics.”
wrecked bicycles lying *
around. My father was a Further on our request,
painter and decorator with Kenneth Raymond Williams has
the local council. At school obliged us by sharing his following
I could not decide what different age groups photographs
career I wanted to take up
and had several jobs after
leaving until I decided
after 5 years to become a
maths teacher: I was very
keen to do something
useful in the world. It was
while I was doing my
teacher training course
that I was given a copy of
the “Vedic Mathematics”
book.
It was not clear to
me then, but receiving that
book set one of the main
directions in my life. I
always expected that the
‘big mathematicians’ of the *
world would read it and
5

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THE

USING THE NATURAL PROCESSES OF THE MIND

FOR MENTAL CALCULATION

First published in 1991 by the Vedic Mathematics Research Group.

3 BY ONE MORE THAN THE ONE BEFORE 13

4 THE FIRST BY THE FIRST AND THE LAST BY THE LAST 17

5 ALL FROM 9 AND THE LAST FROM 10 21

6 VERTICALLY AND CROSSWISE 35

7 USING THE AVERAGE 61

8 BY ADDITION AND BY SUBTRACTION 65

Though mathematics has applications at many levels it is primarily a mental

IN FAVOUR OF MENTAL MATHEMATICS

2. It enhances the precision of thought. Numbers and other mathematical

5. Mental calculation improves the memory. Memory depreciates if it is not

6. Because numbers are absolutely dependable and reliable, calculation

7. Mental calculation is a delight to the mind: the intrinsic qualities,

8. Through mental calculation one becomes familiar with numbers and

9. In calculating mentally the subtle properties of numbers and their

Problem solving is considered by many educators to be the main aim of

It is peculiar to arithmetic that once we have knowledge of how to count, we

Push-button calculators and computers are in widespread use nowadays and

MENTAL CALCULATION IN EDUCATION

Vedic (pronounced Vaydik) Mathematics was reconstructed earlier this century

Vedic Mathematics provides a coherent structure for mathematics: the Vedic

systems have their advantages. By taking a mental, and therefore a practical

THE ART OF MENTAL CALCULATION

I desire, as far as I can, to lay open my mind to you,

Furthermore these activities become increasingly automatic, effortless and

in what appears to be merely an instant of time; and

E.W.Scripture,3 a psychologist and one of the first to make a study of

Jedediah Buxton, in addition to his other extraordinary abilities in mental

Professor Aitken, a fairly recent lightning calculator, described to the Society of

but mostly it was as though they (the numbers) were

These descriptions refer to activity at different levels of consciousness, and to

THE UNIFIED FIELD

And we see a similar thing in calculation: that which can be solved by

TEACHING MENTAL MATHEMATICS

I have, for many years, entertained a strong conviction

In Vedic Mathematics we use the natural properties of numbers to our

Mental mathematics is very easy to introduce into lessons: a mental arithmetic

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Truman Henry Safford was born in America in 1836. He was a

CALCULATING FROM LEFT TO RIGHT

1 Suppose we want to multiply 234 by 2: 234

2 Now if we had 237 × 2: 237

The products we get when we multiply 2,3,7 each by 2 (from left to

The 3 mental steps carried out, corresponding to multiplying each of

In summary: if a single figure is to be combined with what is in memory (as

3 For 236 × 7: 236 The mental steps are:

4 4321 × 6 = 25926 The mental steps are: 24

5 In multiplying 56 by 7: we get 35 (5×7), then 42 (6×7).

The 4 here is then added to the 35 to give 39 and the 2 is tagged

11. Find 321 × 21 (a) by multiplying by 3 and then by 7,

ADDITION FROM LEFT

This is just the same as multiplying from left to right.

6 Add 187 and 444.

This can of course be extended to the addition of longer numbers or to adding

WRITING LEFT TO RIGHT CALCULATIONS

8 8 7 First we multiply the 8 by 4 to get 32.

Alternatively the flagged numbers can be committed to memory rather than

10 5 6 7 8 In this addition sum we first get 5 + 2 = 7 and

7. 4 9 8. 8 6 3 9. 9 5 9 10. 1 8 2 11. 4 5 6 7 12. 7 7 7 7

George Parker Bidder (1806-1878) was the son of a stonemason of

Proportion is a natural and easy concept which is fundamental to mathematics.