Sensor Transducer &

Actuator
Measurement an important subsystem of a mechatronics system.
comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices.
• Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units
• Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
• Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.
1. Sensor A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified
measurand. ”
2. A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal. This signal must be
produced by some type of energy, such as heat, light, motion, or chemical
reaction.

output = ‘electrical quantity' and measurand =‘physical quantity,

Transducer
Transducer
´ A transducer is any device which converts one form of energy into another
´ An element which converts a specified measurand into a usable output by
using a transduction principle. Example of A wire of Constantan alloy
(copper-nickel 55-45% alloy)

´ microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker

converts electrical impulses into sound
´ solar cell &thermocouple
´ electric motor is a transducer for conversion of electricity into mechanical
energy
´ Actuator
´ An actuator is a device that actuates or moves something. An actuator
uses energy to provide motion. Therefore, an actuator is a specific type of
a transducer
Classification of Transducer
´ Electroacoustic Transducer
´ Electromagnetic Transducer (Generator)
´ Electrostatic Transducer
´ Photoelectric Transducer
´ Thermoelectric Transducer (Thermocouple)
´ Piezoelectric Transducer
´ sensors are transducers’.
´ Sensor/transducers specifications
´ Range (25 - 225)
´ Span (200)
´ Accuracy - closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement
result and a true value of the measurand.
´ Sensitivity ratio of change in output value of a sensor to the per unit change
in input value that causes the output change. 41 µV/°C
´ Error
Non Linearity of Error
Hystresis Error
´ Resolution
´ Stability (drift- Change in output occurs over time)
´ Dead band/time
´ Repeatability
´ Response time
Classification of sensors
´ Displacement, position and ´ Velocity and motion
proximity sensors ´ Incremental encoder
´ Potentiometer ´ Tachogenerator
´ Strain-gauged element ´ Pyroelectric sensors
´ Capacitive element
´ Differential transformers
´ Eddy current proximity sensors
´ Inductive proximity switch
´ Optical encoders
´ Pneumatic sensors
´ Proximity switches (magnetic)
´ Hall effect sensors
´ Force
´ Strain gauge load cell
´ Fluid pressure
´ Diaphragm pressure gauge
´ Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
´ Piezoelectric sensors
´ Tactile sensor
´ Liquid flow
´ Orifice plate
´ Turbine meter
´ Differential pressure
´ Liquid level
´ Floats
´ Differential pressure
´ Temperature
´ Bimetallic strips
´ Resistance temperature detectors
´ Thermistors
´ Thermo-diodes and transistors
´ Thermocouples
´ Light sensors
´ Photo diodes
´ Photo resistors
´ Photo transistor
Displacement sensors
´ 1. Potentiometer Sensors
´ a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
´ a moving rod (for linear displacement)
´ a cable that is kept stretched during operation
´ Application of Potentiometer Sensor
´ In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also
used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment
´ 2. Strain Gauges
where Rx is resistance of strain
gauge element, R2 is
balancing/adjustable
resistor, R1 and R3 are known
constant value resistors.
Application of strain gauge
´ Two types of Strain gauge (a) Metal wire type (b) Semiconductor type
´ Comparison between them and their sensitivity
´ Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis
on machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress
fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration measurement,
torque measurement, bending and deflection measurement, compression
and tension measurement and strain measurement.
´ Problem with strain gauge wire length also changes with temperature.
Capacitive element based sensor
Application
´ Small vessel pump control
´ Grease level monitoring
´ Level control of liquids
´ To measure shape errors in the part being produced
´ To analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools
such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by
measuring errors in the machine tools themselves.
´ To test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features
Linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT)
Application
´ Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
´ To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
´ To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
´ For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for
dispatch
´ To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction
welding process
´ To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
´ To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
 Proximity Sensors
´ Eddy current proximity sensors

Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size,

highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.
If a coil is supplied with an alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced
If there is a metallic object close to it eddy current will get induced in it.
Same eddy current will oppose their cause and distorts the magnetic field.
As a result impedance of circuit will get change and so does the amplitude of alternating current
Application of eddy current proximity sensor

´ Automation requiring precise location

´ Machine tool monitoring
´ Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
´ Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving
target, such as a vibrating element,
´ Drive shaft monitoring
´ Vibration measurements
 Inductive proximity switch

• Basically used for detection of metallic objects.

• continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when
a preset value of inductance change is occurred.
Application of Proximity switch
´ Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer
´ Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines
PNEUMATIC SENSOR
Application of Pneumatic sensor
´ Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to
sense the proximity of an object close to it
´ Can measure the distance in a fraction of 3 to 12 mm.
Proximity switch
´ They are basically employed on conveyor systems to detect the presence of an item
on the conveyor belt.
´ Non contact type switches
´ Also used in Techogenerator to
´ Measure speed of rotating element
Photo sensitive device as a Proximity
sensor
´ Light emitting diode and photo detector.
´ For opaque and reflecting objects
OPTICAL ENCODER
´ Encoder which peovides a digital output as a result of angular
displacement.
´ In a clockwise direction pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner.
´ A 3 bit encoder gives a resolution of 2^3 position.
´ Latest example Made of HP HE DS 5000 Gives 2^7 = 128 position monitoring.
´ Application (a) Shaft and Turbine shaft mounting
Hall Effect Sensor
´ Linear output and Threeshold hall effect sensor
´ Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment
contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite
popular in industrial automation.
´ Fluid level detector in fuel tank.
´ Alignment
´ Brushless D C Motor
 Velocity, Force and Pressure Sensor
Techogenerator
´These are based on variable reluctance
principle.
´Toothed wheel made up of ferromagnetic
material and pick up coil is a permanent
magnet wounded by wire carry AC current.
´Application – Measures the rotational speed of
shaft.
Strain gauge as Force sensor
Fluid Pressure
´ Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure.
´ Strain gauge doped into the diaphragm and connected with Wheatstone
bridge.
´ Example of Silicon diaphragm pressure sensor used in Motorola MPX
pressure sensor . Here strain gauge element is integrated with resistive
network in a single silicon diaphragm chip.
´ Absolute pressure (A AP AS ASX)
´ Differential pressure (D DP)
´ Gauge Pressure (GP GVP GVS)
´ Example of MPXA200 series pressure range of 200 KPa
´ Absolute pressure sensor used in altimeter and barrometer
´ Differential pressure sensor used in air flow.
´ Gauge pressure sensor used in engine pressure / Tyre pressure
´ Diaphragm, capsule & bellows normally made from materials such as
Stainless steel, Phosphor bronze and nickel and can handle
´ Bourdon tube as a Mechanical Pressure Sensor.
Piezoelectric sensor
´ Ionic crystals which when stretch or compressed result in charge distribution
in the crystal so that there is net displacement of charge with one face to
positive and other to be negtive.
´ Net charge q = SF
´ S is charge sensitivity which depends upon material nature and orientation
´ Quartz 2.2 pc/N
´ Barium titanate 130 pc/N
´ Zirconate 265 pc/N
´ Having a very low time effect used in transient rather than stedy.
Tactile Sensor
´ Particular form of pressure sensor
´ Touch display contain PVDF film (polyvinyldilene flouride)
Turbine flow meter
´ Uses multi blade rotator
´ To mesure flow rate of steam
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
´ RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes
due to change in its temperature.
Working principle of RTD
Thermistors
´ Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature.
´ The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such
as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic containing
barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds.
´ Rt = Kexp(a/t)
´ Advantages
´ They are rugged and can be very small in size compare to another temp.
sensor
´ Gives a large change in resistance per degree change in temp.
´ Only disadvantage is its non linearity
Pyroelectric sensor
´ (Lithium tantalate)
´ A crystalline material which generates charge in response to heat flow.
´ When these material are heated before its curie point temp (610 C) in
presence of an electric field there exist a polarization of charge even after
removing electric field.
´ When infrared radiation incident on it increases the temp. of surface and
reduces the charge on surface, and unbalanced charge can be drain out
using an electrical circuit.
´ So it is also called as charge generator.
´ Normally used to detect the moving of heated source.
Photo diodes
´ Photo diodes are semiconductor junction diodes.
´ When light drops on junction diodes resistance decreases and current
increases.
´ Without light condidtion 3 V for 25 microampere and with light of 25000
lumen/m2 then current increases to 375 microampere.
´ The variance in resistance gives a fast response to light.
Photoresistor
´ Particular material whose resistance linearly dependent on the intensity of
light
´ If wavelength is less than 515 nm then cadmium sulphide
´ If less than 700 nm then cadmium selinide.
´ To check the variation in intensity of light.
´ Applications of photo resistor
´ Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to
automatically control the brightness of a screen

´ Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor

technology

´ In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and
robots. The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be
programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain amount of light is
detected.

´ Auto Flash for camera

 DRIVES AND MECHANISM
´ 1. Stepper motor
´ A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low
cost, open loop position control systems.
´ Types of stepper motors:
´ Permanent Magnet
´ Employ permanent magnet
´ Low speed, relatively high torque

´ Variable Reluctance
´ Does not have permanent magnet
´ Low torque

´
´ 1.1 Variable Reluctance Motor
´ Figure 4.2.1 shows the construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor is made of soft steel and has four poles as shown in Fig.4.2.1. It has four
rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart. Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence. It attracts the metal rotor.
When the windings are energized in a reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle. In the non-energized condition, there
is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent torque. This type of stepper
motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.
´
´ Advantages of stepper motors :
´ Low cost
´ Ruggedness
´ Simplicity of construction
´ Low maintenance
´ Less likely to stall or slip
´ Will work in any environment
´ Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
´ Disadvantages of stepper motors :
´ Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
´ Limited speed
´ During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise occur when running
at high speed.