Chapter 1

A Brief Review of Quantum

Mechanics
1. (a) We know that p = i~d=dx. To nd [x; p], let it act on an arbitrary dierentiable function f (x),
[x; p]f = [x; i~d=dx]f = i~x(d=dx)f + i~(d=dx)xf
We should understand the meaning of (d=dx)xf : both d=dx and x are operators, so x acts rst on f
giving the new function xf on which d=dx acts. Therefore
[x; p]f = i~xf 0 + i~f + i~xf 0 = i~f
Since f is arbitrary, [x; p] = i~.
To nd [x2; p] = [xx; p], we use [AB; C ] = A[B; C ] + [A; C ]B along with [x; p] = i~. We nd [x2; p] =
2i~x.
To nd [p; V (x)], let f (x) be an arbitrary dierentiable function,
[p; V ]f = pV f V pf = i~(d=dx)V f + i~V (d=dx)f
= i~(dV=dx)f i~V f 0 + i~V f 0 = i~(dV=dx)f
=) [p; V ] = i~(dV=dx)
(b) Consider any orthonormal basis fj1i; j2i; : : : g. By denition of the adjoint of an operator,
!
X
hnj(AB )y jmi = hmjAB jni = hmjAjkihkjB jni
k
X X X
= hmjAjki hkjB jni = hkjAy jmihnjB y jki = hnjB y jkihkjAy jmi
k k k
= hnjB yAyjmi
It follows that (AB )y = B yAy.
(c) To show that T r(ABC ) = T r(CAB), it is sucient to show that T r(AB ) = T r(BA).
X X X X
T r(AB ) = hnjAB jni = hnjAjmihmjB jni = hmjB jnihnjAjmi = hmjBAjmi
n nm nm m
= T r(BA)
The rst equality results from the denition ofPthe trace of an operator: it is the sum of the diagonal
elements. The second equality is valid because m jmihmj = 1. The third equality holds true because
hnjAjmi and hmjB jni are simply numbers.
(d) Writing Sx = (~=2)x , Sy = (~=2)y , and Sz = (~=2)z , it is straightforward to check that [Sx ; Sy ] =
i~Sz , [Sy ; Sz ] = i~Sx , and [Sz ; Sx ] = i~Sy . These are the commutation relations for spin operators;
hence, the representation of S as (~=2) is a valid one.
Note that this representation is obtained if we take j "iand  j #i as the
 basis
 states of the 2-dimensional
1 0
spin vector space. In this case, j "i is represented by 0 , j #i by 1 , and Sz by
   
h" jS j "i h" jS j #i ~=2 0
Sz = h# jS j "i h# jS j #i = 0
z z
~=2
= (~=2)z
z z

1
2 CHAPTER 1. A BRIEF REVIEW OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

(e) 
   
0
Sx j "i = 1 0 0 =
~1 1 ~ 0 ~
2 2 1 = 2 j #i
    
Sx j #i = 01 10 01 =
~ ~ 1 ~
2 2 0 = 2 j "i
    
Sy j "i = 0i 0i 10 =
~ ~ 0 ~
2 2 i = i
2 j #i
    
~ 0 i 0 ~ i ~
Sy j #i = i 0 1 =
2 2 0 = i 2 j "i
2. Dirac-delta function
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 
I= eikx dk = eikx dk + eikx dk = lim+ eikx ek dk + eikx e k dk
1 1 0  !0 1 0
" 1 #
e ix+)k 0
(
e(ix )k 

1 1 
= lim
!+ ix + 

 + ix  0
= lim
!0+ x + i ix 
0 1
= lim 2
!0+ x2 + 2
We note the following:
 If x 6= 0 then I = 0.
 If x = 0 then I = 1.
 Integrating I over x, we nd
Z 1 2 = 2 Z 1 dy
J=
1 x2 +2
1 y +1 2

where y = x=. We thus nd,

J = 2tan 1 y11 = 2[=2

( =2)] = 2
Therefore, Z 1
eikx dk = 2(x)
1
3. Another representation of the Dirac-delta function.
sin2 (x
A(x) = lim
!1 x2
We note the following:
 x 6= 0 =) A(x) = 0.
 x ! 0 =) A(x) !  ! 1.
 Dene I as: Z 1 sin2 (x
I= dx
1 x2
Setting y = x, 1 sin2 y Z Z 1
sin2 y
I= dy = 2 dy  2J
1 y 2
0 y2
Integrate by parts: u = sin2y; dv = dy=y2 ) v = 1=y.
sin2 y 1
 Z 1 Z 1
sin(2y) sinx
J= + dy = dx
y 0 0 y 0 x
Evaluation of J = R 1 sinx dx:
0 x
 3
{ First method:
e sx 1 1
Z 1 
e sx ds = x =x
0 0
Z 1 Z1 Z 1 Z 1  Z 1
=) J = dx dse sinx =
sx ds e sinxdx =
sx f (s)ds
0 0 0 0 0

where Z 1
f (s) = e sx sinxdx
0

Integrate by parts: u = sinx; dv = e = s e sx . We nd sx dx ) v 1

1
1
f (s) = e sinx +
sx  1 Z 1 e sx cosxdx = 1 Z 1 e sx cosxdx
s 
0
s 0 s 0

Integrate by parts again: u = cosx; dv = e sx dx. We nd

f ( s) =
1 e sx cosx1 1 Z 1 e sx sinxdx = 1 1 f ( s)
s 2 
0
s 2
0 s 2 s2
Therefore,
f (s) =
1=s 1
2

1 + 1=s = s + 1 2 2

Hence,
1 dsZ
J= = =2
0 s2 + 1
Z 1
sin2 (x)
=) dx = 
1 x2
=) lim 1 sin2(x) = (x)
!1  x2
Second method: Z 1 sinx Z 1 ix
e
I= dx = Im dx
1 x 1 x
Consider Z
eiz
A= dz
C z
where C is a closed contour in the complex plane which consists of four segments: two segments
along the real axis, one of which extending from 1 to x =  ( ! 0) and the other segment
running from x =  to 1, a semicircle C of radius  in the upper half-plane, and a semicircle
1
C at 1 also in the upper half-plane.
2
Z  Z 1 ix Z Z 
eix e eiz eiz
A = lim
!0 dx + dx + dz + dz
1 x  x C1 z C1 z
The integral over C vanishes (Jordan's lemma). Thus,
2

Z 1 eix Z
eiz
P = dz
1 x C1 z
Here, P stands for the principal value. The principal value of the integral is the value of the
integral from 1 to 1 excluding the value x = 0. To evaluate the integral over C , let z = ei , 1
then dz=z = id. Furthermore, eiz ! 1. Therefore,
Z 1 eix Z 0
P = i d = i
1 x 
Since the integrand sinx=x is nite at x = 0 (it is equal to 1) the principal value of the integral
of sinx=x is equal to the integral itself (they dier only by lim! R  [sinx=x]dx ). Hence I = . 0
4 CHAPTER 1. A BRIEF REVIEW OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

4. Periodic boundary conditions.

The eigenvalue equation is
(~ =2m)r  = 
2 2

The normalized eigenfunctions

R 
are k = pV eik:r , where k is a real vector, and the eigenvalues are
1

k = ~ k =2m. Note that k k d r = 1.

2 2 3

The boundary condition eikx x L = eikxx implies that

( + )

eikx L = 1 =) kx = 0; 2=L; 4=L;


= 2n=L; n 2 Z

Taking into account the electron's spin, the states are given by jki, where  =" or #, and
1
k (r) = hrjki = p eik:r ji
V
To show that the states are orthonormal, consider
hk0 0 jki = 1 d rei k k0 :r h0 ji = 0 1
Z Z
3 ( )
ei(k k0 ):r d3 r
V V
where the integration is over the volume of the cube. the integral may be written as
I=
1 Z ei k k0 :rd r = IxIy Iz
( ) 3
V
where
Ix =
1 Z L
ei kx ( kx0 )x dx
L 0

and Iy and Iz are the same as Ix with x replaced by y and z, respectively. If kx 6= kx0 , then
Ix =
1 ei kx kx L 1
0 ( )

L i(kx kx0 )
Since kx ; kx0 = 2n=L; n 2 Z , and kx 6= kx0 , it follows that kx kx0 = 2m=L; m 2 Z , and the numerator
in the above expression for Ix vanishes. If kx = kx0 , then Ix = 1. Therefore, Ix = kx ;kx0 . Similarly,
Iy = ky ;ky0 and Iz = kz ;kz0 . Hence I = kk0 and hk0 0 jki = kk0 0 ; the states are orthonormal.
To establish the completeness property, we evaluate
X X X
k (r)k (r0 ) = k (r)k (r0 ) jihj
k k 

First, consider the spin part. for an arbitrary state ji = aj "i + bj #i,
X
jihji = j "ih" ji + j #ih# ji = j "ia + j #ib = ji

X
=) jihj = 1

Now consider the spatial part,
A=
X
k (r)k v (r0 ) =
1 X eik: r ( r0 ) = Ax Ay Az
k
V k

where
Ax =
1 X eikx x ( x0 )
L kx
Similar expressions can be written for Ay and Az with x replaced by y and z, respectively. We note the
following:
(a) If x = x0, then Ax = L P 1 = 1 since there is an innite number of terms in the sum.
1
 5
(b) Suppose that x 6= x0. We can write
Ax =


+ e i  x x =L + e i  x x =L + 1 + ei  x x =L + ei  x x =L +



0 4 ( ) 0 0 2 ( 0
) 2 ( ) 4 ( )

We make the crucial observation that if we multiply the above innite series by ei n x x0 =L , for any 2 ( )

integer n, the value of the series remains unchanged, because we are still summing exactly the same
terms, the 1 being simply shifted n spaces. Therefore,
Ax = ei n x x =L Ax ; n 2 Z
0 2 ( )

Since L < x x0 < L, and x 6= x0, the only way the above equation is satised is by setting Ax = 0.
We conclude that: x 6= x0 =) Ax = 0.
(c) Consider
Z L
Ax dx =
1 Z L X eikx x x0 dx = 1 X Z L x0 eikx udu
( )

0 L kx
0 L kx x0

= L1 = L1 1
X eikx L e ikx x0 e ikx x0 X 0 eikx L
e ikx x
kx ikx kx ikx
Since kx L = 2n; n 2 Z , it follows that eikxL =Re in = 1, and the above integral vanishes if kx 6= 0.
2

If kx = 0, the integral is equal to 1. Therefore, A(x)dx = 1.

To summarize, Ax (x x0) is equal to zero if x 6= x0, is equal to 1 if x = x0, and its integral over x is 1
) Ax = (x x0 ).
Similarly, Ay = (y y0) and Az = (z z0). Therefore,
X
k (r)k (r0 ) = (r r0 )
k
The completeness property is thus established.
5. Singlets and triplets.
S 2 = (S1 + S2 )2 = S12 + S22 + 2S1 :S2 = S12 + S22 + 2S1x S2x + 2S1y S2y + 2S1z S2z
S12 acts only on states of electron 1 and S22 acts only on states of electron 2.

(S + S )(1)(2) = ~ s (s + 1)(1)(2) + ~ s (s + 1)(1)(2)

2
1
2
2
2
1 1
2
2 2
 
= ~ 21 ( 12 + 1) + 12 ( 21 + 1) (1)(2) = 32~ (1)(2)
2
2

~~
S1z S2z (1)(2) =
2 2 (1)(2) = (~ =4)(1)(2)
2

S x S x (1)(2) = (~ =4) (1) (2)

1 2
2

S y S y (1)(2) = ( i~=2)  (1) (2) = (~ =4) (1) (2)

1 2
2 2

We have used the results of problem 1 in writing the last two equations. Collecting terms, we nd
S (1)(2) = 2~ (1)(2) = ~ s(s + 1)(1)(2)
2 2 2

~ ~
Sz (1)(2) = (S z + S z )(1)(2) = (1)(2) + (1)(2) = ~(1)(2)
1
2
2
2
where s = 1. We conclude that (1)(2) is an eigenstate of S and Sz with s = 1 and ms = 1. 2

Following the same steps as above, we nd

1 1
S p [(1) (2) +  (1)(2)] = 2~ p [(1) (2) +  (1)(2)]
2 2
2 2
1
Sz p [(1) (2) +  (1)(2)] = 0
2
S  (1) (2) = 2~  (1) (2)
2 2

Sz  (1) (2) = ~ (1) (2)

6 CHAPTER 1. A BRIEF REVIEW OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

As for the singlet state, we obtain

1
S 2 p [(1) (2)  (1)(2)] = 0
2
1
Sz p [(1) (2)  (1)(2)] = 0
2
To summarize: 8
>
< (1)(2) s = 1; ms = 1
Triplet : > 2 [(1) (2) +  (1)(2)]
p1
s = 1; ms = 0
:
 (1) (2) s = 1; ms = 1
Singlet : p12 [(1) (2)  (1)(2)] s = 0; ms = 0
We conclude with the following remarks:
 The four states given above are normalized and orthogonal to each other.
 The triplet states are symmetic under the interchange of electrons 1 and 2, while the singlet state is
antisymmetric under such an interchange.
6. Particle bound by a delta-function potential.
(a) The potential energy is V (x) = (x). The wave function (x) satises the Schrodinger equation
~ 2 d2
2m dx (x) (x)(x) = E(x)
2

For a bound state the energy E must be negative (if E > 0, the wave function for x < 0 and for x > 0
will be plane waves extending to 1; the particle will not be bound).
Writing E = jE j, and noting that V (x) = 0 for x < 0 and for x > 0, and that the wave function
must vanish at 1, we obtain (
Aex x<0
(x) =
Be x x>0
p
where  = 2mjE j=~. The continuity of (x) at x = 0 implies that A = B . Thus we can write
R (x) = Ae jxj for all values of x. The constant A is determined by requiring that (x) be normalized:
1 j(x)j dx = 1. This readily gives A = p. To determine , we integrate the Schrodinger equation
2
1
from  to , and take the limit as  ! 0,
Z  Z  Z 
~2 d 2

2m !  dx dx  lim
lim 0 !   (x)(x)dx = E lim
2 0 !  (x)dx 0

Continuity of (x) implies that the right hand side (RHS) vanishes. Using the sifting property of (x),
we nd
~  0
2  ~ 2
 (0 ) 0 (0 ) = (0) )
2m [ A A] = A )  = m=~
+ 2
2m
=) E = m
2

2~ 2

Thus, we nd that there is only one bound state with energy E as given above.
(b) Now V (x) = b(x), where b is a dimensionless positive constant. We want to determine the
probability that the particle remains bound.
With the new potential energy, the bound state wave pfunction (x) is obtained from (x) by replacing
 with b. Since  = m=~ , it follows that (x) = be bjxj . The particle is initially in the state
2

with wave function (x), so the probability amplitude of nding it in the state
p with wave function 9x)
is h ji = R 11  (x)(x)dx. The integral is easily evaluated; it yields 2 b=(b + 1). The probability
that the particle remains bound is thus given by
P = jh jij =
4b 2
(b + 1) 2

Note that P  1, as it should; it is equal to 1 only if b = 1, which corresponds to no change in the

delta-function potential.
 7
7. Harmonic oscillator. We want to show that in the ground state of a harmonic oscillator, hp =2mi = 2

h(1=2)m! x i = ~!=4.
2 2

One way to obtain this result is by using the wave function of the ground state, which is a gaussian, and
carrying out the integrals R 11  (p =2m)psi dx and R 11  (1=2)m! x psi dx. Another way is to use
2
0
2 2
0
the expressions for x and p in terms of creation and annihilation operators. Starting from
0 0

 
i
a=b x+ p
m!
   m! 1=2
y i
a =b x p ; b= ;
m! 2~
we solve for x. We nd
 1=2
~ y
x=
2m! (a + a )
=) 12 m! x = ~4! a + ay
= ~4! a + aay + ay a + ay

2 2 2 2 2

Using aay = aya 1, we nd

1 ~! ~! y y

2 m! x = 4 + 4 a + 2a a + a
2 2 2 2

Therefore,
h0j 21 m!2 x2 j0i = ~4! + ~4! h0ja2 + 2ay a + ay2 j0i = ~4!
Since
h0jH j0i = ~2!
and H = p =2m + (1=2)m! x , it follows that
2 2 2

h0jp =2mj0i = ~!=2 2

~!=4 = ~!=4

8. Harmonic oscillator coherent states.

(a) Since any state j i can be expanded as i = Pn cn jni, where the states jni are the harmonic oscillator
eigenstates, it follows that ay does not have an eigenstate. To show this,
p suppose that in the expansion
P
i = n cn jni, the lowest value of n is m. Then, in ay j i = Pn cn n + 1jn + 1i, the lowest energy
state that occurs in the expansion is jm + 1i; hence ay j i cannot be equal to a constant times j i.
We conclude that no state j i could be an eigenstate of ay.
(b) For any complex number z, consider the state
jzi = e z z= ezay j0i 2

To show that this is an eigenstate of the annihilation operator a, let us rst prove that [a; ayn ] =
nayn . This is proved by mathematical induction. It is clearly true for n = 1 since [a; ay ] = 1. We
1

assume that the formula is true for n and show that it is true for n + 1. That is, we assume that
[a; ayn ] = nayn , and show that [a; ayn ] = (n + 1)ayn . Using
1 +1

[A; BC ] = B [A; C ] + [A; B]C;

which is easily checked, we can write
       

a; ayn = a; ayn ay = ayn a; ay + a; ayn ay = ayn (1) + nayn ay = ayn + nayn = (n + 1)ayn
+1 1

In the third equality, we used the assumption that the formula is true for n. The formula is thus
veried. Now consider
h i 1 zn 
X  X 1 zn 1
X zn 1 1
X z m ym
= a; ayn = nayn =z ayn =z a = zeza
y y
a; eza 1 1

n=0 n ! n=0 n! n=1 (n 1)! m=0 m !

It follows that
aeza
y
j0i = ezay aj0i + zezay j0i = zezay j0i
8 CHAPTER 1. A BRIEF REVIEW OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

This shows that ezay j0i is indeed an eigenstate of a with eigenvalue z. We can write
1 zn
X X1 zn p
jzi = e z z=2 ezay j 0i = e z z=2 ayn j0i = e z z=2 n! j ni


n=0 n! n=0 n!
1
X z 0n p
hz0 j = e z0 z0 =2 n! hnj
n=0 n!
(recall that 9! = 1). We thus obtain
X z n z 0m p p X1 (zz 0 )n
hz0 jzi = e (  + 0 0 ) 2
z z z z =
! ! n! m!hmjni = e (z z+z z )=2
 0 0

nm n m n=0 n!
=e (  + 0 0
z z z z 2 zz0 )=2

This shows that hzjzi = 1: the states are normalized. However, the above shows that hz0jzi =6 (z z 0 ),
i.e., the states are not orthogonal.
9. Time-independent perturbation.
(a)
H = H + V; H = p =2m + (1=2)m! x ;
0 0
2
V = x 2 2

Treating V as a perturbation, the shift in energy of the ground state is given by

E = h0jV j0i + jhmjV j0ij 
E +
E
X 2
(1) (2)
0
m6=0 E0 Em 0 0

The perturbation can be written in terms of creation and annihilation operators:

 1=2
~

= x =  2m!
V a + ay

Since h0jaj0i = hjay j0i = 0, it follows that
E = 0. Noting that aj0i = 0 and ayj0i = j1i, we obtain
(1)
0
 1=2
~
hmjV j0i =  2m! m;1

Hence,
 

E = (2) ~2 X m;1 ~2
= 2m! E 1 = 2m!~2 1
0
2m! m6=0 E0 Em 0 E1 ~!
 2
= 2m! 2

(b)
p2 1 2 2
H=
2m + 2 m! x + x 
p2 1 2 2 2
= + m! x + 2 x
2m 2  m! 
p2 1 2 2 2 2 2
= 2m 2+ m! x + 2 x + 2 4
m! m! m2 ! 4
 2
= p 2
+ 1 m!2 x +  2
2m 2 m!2 2m!2
Except for the last term, which is a constant, this is the Hamiltonian for a harmonic oscillator whose
center is at x = =m! . Therefore,
2

2
En = (n + 1=2)~!
2m!2
The perturbation shifts all states downward by  =2m! . In this case, the second-order perturbation
2 2

theory yields the exact answer.

 9
10. Heisenberg picture of quantum mechanics.
(a) Denoting an operator in the Schrodinger picture by A, the corresponding operator in the Heisenberg
picture is given by
AH (t) = eiHt=~ Ae iHt=~
Taking the derivative with respect to time,
d @A
AH (t) = (iH=~)eiHt=~ Ae iHt=~ + eiHt=~ A( iH=~)e iHt=~ + eiHt=~ e iHt=~
dt @t
Note that H commutes with e  iHt= ~ . Therefore,
d i @A
A (t) = (HAH AH H ) + eiHt=~ e iHt=~
dt H ~ @t
The last term is simply @A=@t in the Heisenberg picture. If A has no explicit time dependence, as is
usually the case, then
d 1
AH = [H; AH ]
dt ~
(b) Let a(t) be the annihilation operator in the Heisenberg picture. Then
da i
= [H; a]
dt ~
For the harmonic oscillator, H = ~! aya + 1=2
. Thus,
[H; a] = ~! aya; a + ~![1=2; a]
The last term on the RHS vanishes (a number commutes with an operator). To evaluate the rst
term, we use
[AB; C ] = A[B; C ] + [A; C ]B
We thus nd  y   
a a; a = ay [a; a] + ay ; a a = 0 a = a
Hence da
dt
= i!a =) a(t) = a(0)e i!t
For ay (t), we can either repeat the same steps as above, or simply note that ay(t) is the adjoint of
a(t). Therefore,
ay (t) = ay (0)ei!t
11. The interaction picture
(a) Let A be an operator in the Schrodinger picture. The corresponding operator in the interaction picture
is dened as
AI (t) = eiH0 t=~ Ae iH0 t=~
This has the same form as AH (t) except that H ! H . Thus 0

d i
AI (t) = [H0 ; AI (t)]
dt ~
(b)
j I (t)i = eiH0 t=~ j S (t)i ) i~ @t@ j I (t)i = H0 eiH0 t=~ j S (t)i + eiH0 t=~ i~ @t@ j S (t)i
Using the Schrodinger equation
@
i~j (t)i = H j S (t)i = H0 j S (t)i + V j S (t)i
@t S
and noting that H0 eiH0t=~ = eiH0t=~ H0, we obtain
@
i~ j I (t)i = eiH0 t=~ V j S (t)i + eiH0 t=~ V e iH0 t=~ j I (t)i
@t
Hence,
@
i~ j (t)i = VI (t)j I (t)i
@t I
 10 CHAPTER 1. A BRIEF REVIEW OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

(c) For an arbitrary state j I (t )i, 0

j I (t)i = UI (t; t0 )j I (t0 )i ) i~ @t@ j I (t)i = i~ @t@ UI (t; t0 )j I (t0 )i

We also have @
i~ j (t)i = VI (t)j I (t)i = VI (t)UI (t; t0 )j I (t0 )i
@t I
Since j I (t )i is arbitrary, it follows that
0

@
i~ UI (t; t0 ) = VI (t)UI (t; t0 )
@t
(d) Let us integrate the above equation from t to t, 0

Z t Z
@ i t
UI (t1 ; t0 )dt1 = V (t )U (t ; t )dt
t0 @t1 ~ t0 I 1 I 1 0 1
Z t
=) UI (t; t0) UI (t0 ; t0) = i VI (t1 )UI (t1 ; t0 )dt1 ~ t0
Since UI (t ; t ) = 1, we obtain
0 0

Z t
i
UI (t; t0 ) = 1 V (t )U (t ; t )dt
~ t0 I 1 I 1 0 1
This is an integral equation. We solve it by iteration:
Z t  Z t1 
i i
UI (t; t0 ) = 1 dt1 VI (t1 ) 1 dt2 VI (t2 )UI (t2 ; t0 )
~ t0 ~ t0
Z  2 Z t Z t1
i t i
=1 ~ t0
dt1 VI (t1 ) +
~
dt1 dt2 VI (t1 )VI (t2 )UI (t2 ; t0 )
t0 t0
We continue to iterate; we nd
Z t  2 Z t Z t1
i i
UI (t; t0 ) = 1 dt1 VI (t1 ) + dt1 dt2 VI (t1 )VI (t2 ) +



~ t0 ~ t0 t0
(e)
j I (t)i = eiH0 t=~ j S (t)i = eiH0 t=~ U (t; t0 )j S (t0 )i
= eiH0 t=~U (t; t0)e iH0t0=~j I (t0 )i
Therefore,
UI (t; t0 ) = eiH0 t=~ U (t; t0 )e iH0 t0 =~ ;
and
hf jUI (t; t0 )jii = hf jeiH0 t=~ U (t; t0 )e iH0 t0 =~ jii
= eiEf t=~ e iEit0 =~ hf jU (t; t0 )jii
Therefore,
jhf jUI (t; t0 )jiij2 = jhf jU (t; t0 )jiij2 = Pi!f
12. Fermi golden rule.
(a) (
V (t) =
0 t<0
V t0
Pi!f = jhf jUI (t; t )jiij 0
2

Here, t = 0, and
0
Z t
i
UI (t; 0) = 1 VI (t1 )dt1 +



~ 0
 11
Suppose that jf i =6 jii. Then to rst order in the perturbation,
Z t
i
hf jUI (t; 0)jii = ~
dt1 hf jVI (t1 )jii
0

The matrix element is given by

hf jVI (t )jii = hf jeiH0 t1 =~ V e iH0 t1 =~ jii = ei!fi t1 Vfi
1

where !fi = (Ef Ei)=~ and Vfi = hf jV jii. Therefore,

Z t i!fi t 1  i! t=2 
e i!fi t=2
i
hf jUI (t; 0)jii = Vfi dt ei!fi t1 = i Vfi e
~ 1 = i Vfi ei!fi t=
~ i!fi ~!fi
2 e fi
i
0
 
= ~!2i Vfi ei!fi t= sin (!fit=2) 2
fi
The transition probability is thus given by
4
Pi!f = jVfi j 2 sin2 (!fi t=2)
~ 2 !fi
2

(b) The above is rewritten as

= t jV~fi j sin (t!fi=2)
2 2
Pi!f
t (!fi =2) 2 2

Using the result of problem 2.3, we can write

 
sin (t!fi =2)
2
Ef Ei
lim
t!1 t (!fi =2)
=  (!fi =2) =  2~ = 2~ (Ef Ei)
2

where we used the formula (ax) = (x)=jaj. Hence,

lim P = 2~ jVfij t (Ef Ei)
t!1 i!f 2
2

The transition rate is thus given by

d
wi ! f = tlim
2
P = jV j  (Ef Ei ) 2
dt !1 i!f ~ fi 2

This is Fermi's golden rule.

13. Harmonic perturbation.
(a)
V (t) = Aei!t + Ay e i!t t0
We assume that ! 6= 0. If ! = 0, then V is constant for t  0, and the problem becomes identical to
the previous one. To rst order in the interaction, the evolution operator in the interaction picture is
given by Z
i t
UI (t; 0) = 1 VI (t0 )dt0 +



~ 0

The transition probability from state jii to state jf i (these are eigenstates of H ) is given by 0

Pi!f = jhf jUI (t; 0)jiij 2

Assuming that jf i =6 jii,

Z t Z t D E
hf jUI (t; 0)jii = ~i dt0 hf jVI (t0 )jii = ~i dt0 f jeiH0 t0 =~ V e iH0 t0 =~ ji
0 0
Z t h i
i
= dt0 ei(!fi +! )t0
hf jAjii + ei(!fi !)t0 hf jAy jii
~ 0
 
i ei(!fi +!)t 1 ei(!fi !)t 1
= ~ i(!fi + !)
h f jAjii +
i(!fi !)
hf jAy jii
Hence,  2
1 1
Pi!f = 
ei(!fi +!)t
hf jAjii +
1 ei(!fi !)t hf jAyjii
~ 2 !fi + ! !fi ! 
12 CHAPTER 1. A BRIEF REVIEW OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

(b) Writing
h i
1 ei(!fi !)t = ei(!fi !)t=2 e i(!fi !)t=2 ei(!fi !)t=2
= 2iei(!fi !)t=2sin [(!fi  !) t=2] ;
we obtain
 
Pi!f = 
1  sin [(!fi + ! ) t=2] i ! ! t= sin [(!fi !) t=2] i !fi ! t=
hf jAjii + (! !) =2 e y 
hf jA jii
2

(!fi + !) =2 e
 fi ( + ) 2 ( ) 2
~ 2
fi
1  y
= ~ B (!)hf jAjii + B ( !)hf jA jii
 2
2

= ~1 jhf jAjiij jB (!)j + jhf jAyjiij jB ( !)j + 2Re hf jAjiihf jAyjii B (!)B  ( !)
2
2 2 2 2

The term jB (!)j is given by

2

jB (!)j2 = sin (![(!fi+ +!)!=)2t=2] = t sint (![t (!+fi!+) =!2) =2]

2 2

fi fi
Using the result of problem 1.3, we can write
   
!fi + ! Ef Ei + ~!
lim jB (!)j = tlim
t!1 !1 t 
2
2 = tlim
!1 t  2~
= tlim
!1 2 ~ t  (Ef Ei + ~! )
Therefore,
1 d
lim jB (!)j = 2~  (Ef
2
Ei + ~!)
~2 dt t!1
Similarly,
1
lim jB ( !)j = 2~  (Ef Ei ~!)
d 2
~2 dt t!1
The term in Pi!f containing B (!)B  ( !) vanishes as t ! 1. To see this, note that
lim 1 sin [(!fi + !) t=2] =   !fi + !  = 2 (!fi + !)
t!1  (!fi + ! ) =2 2
We can prove this as follows:
() =
1 Z 1 eitdt = 1 lim Z R eitdt = 1 lim eiR e iR
2 1 2 R!1 R 2 R!1 i
= 1 Rlim
!1 
sin(R)

Thus, the product B (!)B  ( !) contains (!fi + !) (!fi !), which vanishes if ! 6= 0. Therefore,
wi!f =
2 hjhf jAjiij  (Ef Ei + ~!) + hf jAyjii  (Ef Ei ~!)i
2 2