Understanding Salinity

Changes in landuse, seasonal variations in our weather and longer-term changes to climate can all affect
surface water, groundwater, the flows between them, and the amounts of salt that they contain.
The term "salinity" refers to the concentrations of salts in water or soils. Salinity can take three forms, classified
by their causes: primary salinity (also called natural salinity); secondary salinity (also called dryland salinity),
and tertiary salinity (also called irrigation salinity).
Small amounts of dissolved salts in natural waters are vital for the life of aquatic plants and animals; higher
levels of salinity alter the way the water can be used {see Salinity Classification Table}, yet even the most
hypersaline water can be used for some purposes. However, high levels of salinity and acidity (if present) are
harmful to many plants and animals.
Where does the salt come from?
Salt in our water resources is generally derived from three sources. Firstly, small amounts of salt (primarily
sodium chloride) are evaporated from ocean water and are carried in rainclouds and deposited across the
landscape with rainfall.
Secondly, some landscapes may also contain salt that have been released from rocks during weathering
(gradual breakdown), and thirdly, salt may remain in sediments left behind by retreating seas after periods
where ocean levels were much higher or the land surface much lower.
Salt concentrations in rainfall are higher near the coast, and decrease as one moves inland. Depending on
rainfall and other factors, between about 3 and 360 kg of salt per hectare are deposited each year across
Western Australia (Hingston FJ & Gailitis 1976 'The geographic variation of salt precipitated over Western
Australia' in Australian Journal of Soil Research, Vol 14, pp 319–335).
Primary salinity (also called natural salinity)
Primary salinity is caused by natural processes such the accumulation of salt from rainfall over many
thousands of years or from the weathering of rocks.
When rain falls on a landscape, some evaporates from soil, vegetation surfaces and water bodies, some
infiltrates into the soil and the ground water, and some enters streams and rivers and flows into lakes or
oceans. The small amounts of salt brought by the rain can build up in soils over time (especially clayey soils),
and can also move into the groundwater.
In areas that receive a lot of rain, the large amounts of water infiltrating soils, entering and discharging from
groundwater, and leaving the catchment through streams and rivers provide a flushing effect, such that the soil
and groundwater salinities stay relatively fresh.
However, in drier areas with natural vegetation, there is not so much flushing and a larger proportion of the
water that falls on a landscape is lost through evaporation and transpiration from plants. Here, the salts tend to
build up in the soil and groundwater and can accumulate over long time periods to reach high levels.
Groundwater salinities can also be very high, particularly if salts have also been released in weathering of the
bedrock.
Lake Johnson, a naturally-formed salt lake in the Great Western Woodlands of South-Western Australia. The salt lake formed by saline groundwater approaching the ground surface, and is dry for most of the year, except following rains
or when groundwater levels rise above the lake's ground level. Photograph by Keren G. Raiter.

Secondary or dryland salinity

Secondary salinity is caused where groundwater levels rise, bringing salt accumulated through 'primary' salinity
processes to the surface. This is caused by clearing of perennial (long-lived) vegetation in drier areas; i.e.
areas that tend to accumulate salt in the soil profile and groundwater over time. When vegetation is cleared, as
happened extensively in the Western Australian wheatbelt, the amount of water lost from the landscape
through plants is drastically reduced. Instead, more water enters the groundwater and groundwater levels rise.
As groundwater levels rise, they bring with them the salt that is in the groundwater, and also dissolve the salt in
the previously unsaturated part of the soil profile. Eventually, low lying areas of valley floors may become fully
saturated (especially during winter) and the amount and duration of flow in streams and rivers increases. The
discharging saline groundwater mixes with the fresher surface water to cause flows which vary between
marginal to brine. As these saturated areas dry out after the wet season, salt crystals can be left behind,
causing a salt scald. The state government has conducted experiments to understand the impacts of land use
change and undertaken engineering works in controlled conditions to develop feasible solutions to manage the
effects of stream salinity.
Increased salinity and flow in streams and wetlands is likely to make an issue of the salt tolerance of
vegetation. Many plants tolerate higher salinities for short periods, but cannot survive long periods of inundation
as well (Barrett-Lennard EG 2003 'The interaction between waterlogging and salinity in higher plants: causes,
consequences and implications'. Plant and Soil Vol 253, pp 35-54).
Salinisation of streams and rivers can threaten ecosystems and their constituent species, and may render the
water unusable for human users. The salinity classification table below shows the thresholds for which water is
considered fit for public drinking water supply, irrigation and industry.
Doradine Creek (2003), a naturally-formed creek in the Dumbleyung Catchment of South-Western Australia. Crusted salt is seen on the banks and flows are from deep drains upstream intersecting saline groundwater.
Photograph by DoW.

Salinity status classifications, by total salt concentration

Salinity Salinity (milligrams of salt

Description and use
status per litre)
Fresh < 500 Drinking and all irrigation
Most irrigation, adverse effects on ecosystems
Marginal 500 –1 000
become apparent
Irrigation certain crops only; useful for most
Brackish 1 000 – 2 000
stock
Saline 2 000 – 10 000 Useful for most livestock
Highly Very saline groundwater, limited use for
10 000–35 000
saline certain livestock
Seawater; some mining and industrial uses
Brine >35 000
exist
Classifications from Mayer, XM, Ruprecht, JK & Bari, MA 2005, Stream salinity status and trends in south-west Western Australia, Department of Environment, Salinity and land use impacts series, Report No. SLUI 38
Lake Eganu (2001), a naturally-formed salt lake in the Moore Catchment of South-Western Australia. The salt lake formed in low part of valley floor and receiving runoff from a mainly cleared Marchagee catchment and saline
groundwater discharge.
Photograph by Peter Muirden.

Tertiary or irrigated salinity

Tertiary salinity occurs when water is reapplied to crops or horticulture over many cycles, either directly or by
allowing it to filter into the groundwater before pumping it out for re-application. Each time the water is applied,
some of it will evaporate and the salts in the water remaining will become more concentrated; very high salt
concentrations can result from multiple cycles of reuse.
Managing salinity
Department of Water aims to manage and protect key water resources. Where salinity is a problem, the
department recommends management practices that ensure salinity levels are kept low enough to permit
sustainable use of water for today and for future generations. The protection or improvement of these key and
potential water resource catchments also promotes a healthy landscape and environment. This issue is one of
Western Australia's biggest environmental problems.
Salinity of streams or land is closely linked to groundwater interaction with surfacewater and often linked to
clearing of native vegetation. Its causes are explained in more detail in Understanding Salinity.
Impact
In the south-west of the state, 18 million hectares of the 25 million originally covered by native vegetation have
been cleared mostly for agricultural purposes. As a result, 1.8 million hectares are now salt-affected and either
cannot grow crops previously grown there or have severely reduced yields. This affected area keeps expanding
slowly and is not expected to reach equilibrium for several decades.
Salinity is affecting our natural environment, water resources, agriculture, and important infrastructure such as
towns, roads and railways.

Mortlock East River culvert showing signs of salt degradation

Photograph by Peter Muirden
Yilgarn River culvert showing effects of land clearing, waterlogging and salt

Photograph by Peter Muirden

Tackling salinity
The department, and its former agencies, have been successful in delivering science and effective responses
to the ongoing issue of salinity on land and in our water over many decades. Changes in land management can
alter the salinity of the downstream receiving water bodies. It is important to keep protecting the current and
future water resources that might deteriorate in terms of quantity and quality if not managed carefully.
Some forest management activities need to be managed for water quality risk to water resources. State forests
are managed by the Department of Parks and Wildlife, though the Department of Water also owns forested
land. The departments work together to manage these resources and in preparing and evaluating the Forest
Management Plans and silvicultural guidelines.
Mining for bauxite occurs in the water supply catchments in the Darling Range of Western Australia and is
controlled by state agreement Acts. The department sits on the Mining and Management Program Liaison
Group (MMPLG) and both chairs and administers the Bauxite Hydrology Committee. This ensures the
department can provide technical advice and recommendations on hydrology and stream zone ecology to
protect the water resources from the effects of mining.
Recently the resources available to undertake the salinity management program in the department under the
State Salinity Action Plan 1996 and subsequent {Salinity Strategy March 2000} have been reduced
considerably; some of the work programs have been completed while other salinity work was replaced by
higher priority state government initiatives.
The work has contributed significantly to the state's understanding of the impacts of land use change (clearing
and mining) on water resources and contributed to stabilisation and in some cases recovery of important water
resources.
The Salinity program review (2012) recognised catchments where the risk to public assets from salinity was
high enough to justify retaining existing clearing controls and keep a 'watching brief' in water resource recovery
catchments. Other components of the program have been documented and published as design principles and
best environmental practices for Drainage in the Wheatbelt. External components, such as Natural Diversity
Recovery Catchments that protect significant natural areas are managed by the Department of Parks and
Wildlife.
The last decade has seen many achievements and improvements in understanding and managing the state's
salinity problem and the impacts of mining and forest and vegetation management on water assets. These
achievements include:

 Successful trial of saline diversion technique in East Collie River and development of a treatment
approach for inland desalinisation
 Management of Wellington Plantings Estate for a 800 mg/L salinity benefit to Wellington Reservoir
 Recovery of Denmark River from impacts of salinity
 Implementation of the Engineering Evaluation Initiative and Wheatbelt Drainage Evaluation ($6.8 M
initiative including construction of 10 drainage trials, 3 pump systems and 2 treatment systems of
saline acidic water)
 Development of {Inland Drainage Policy Framework}
 Development and provision of high level science that guides water resource management in dryland
areas and state forest. This science has been documented and is widely used by stakeholders.

A summary of the salinity status and trends is available in the Stream salinity status and trends report, 2005.
Monitoring of flow and salinity in key water resources is vital to capture any changes in salinity status and
trends early so as to intervene in catchment management.
A range of reports providing technical advice and support for managing and understanding the impacts of
salinity are now available.
Country Areas Water Supply Act (1947) clearing controls
The Clearing Control Catchments are proclaimed under the Country Areas Water Supply Act 1947 to limit the
clearing of indigenous vegetation in some existing or potential water supply catchments in the South West of
Western Australia where the permanent clearing of indigenous vegetation would cause an increase in the
salinity of water resources.
There are six South West river catchments where the clearing controls apply:

 Mundaring Weir Catchment Area

 Wellington Dam Catchment Area
 Harris River Dam Catchment Area
 Warren River Water Reserve
 Kent River Water Reserve
 Denmark River Catchment Area
 CAWSA boundaries spatial data

Flow and salinity monitoring has shown that the clearing controls have been very successful in arresting further
salinisation of water resources in the controlled catchments.
The Environmental Protection Act clearing legislation, introduced in July 2004 has primacy over Country Areas
Water Supply Act 1947 clearing controls. Consequently, land owners or occupiers considering clearing
indigenous vegetation in the clearing control areas should first contact the Department of Environment
Regulation for advice as to whether an EP Act Clearing Permit or a CAWS Act Licence to clear is required.

Reference material
Water Facts - Salinity
Stream salinity status and trends in the south-west of Western Australia
Water yield response to land use change in south-west Western Australia
Preliminary assessment of rainfall and groundwater trends in areas of Wandoo
Groundwater information for management of the Ellen Brook, Brockman River and Upper Canning Southern
Wungong catchments
Groundwater information and management options for the Brockman River catchment
Groundwater information for management of the Upper Canning Southern Wungong catchment
Natural resource management in WA; Salinity strategy, March 2000
Policy framework for inland drainage
Water Resource Recovery
Catchments
The 1996 Salinity Action Plan designated portions of key water supply catchments effected by salinity as Water
Resource Recovery Catchments (WRRCs).
The catchments are:

 Helena River
 Collie River
 Warren River
 Kent River
 Denmark River

Salinity Situation Statements were completed for all five catchments. Their purpose was to analyse where and
why the salinity of the rivers became marginal or brackish and state the current salinity situation of the
catchment with respect to land-use changes, groundwater and surface water. They proposed management
options to achieve fresh water (≤ 500 mg/L) at their outlets.
The Helena WRRC is sometimes referred to as the Mundaring Catchment. Water from the Helena Reservoir is
used to supply water to the Goldfields and the Agricultural region. The salinity of the inflows to the reservoir is
mostly in the fresh category, but sometimes the limit is exceeded and water is then diluted by supplemented
fresher water from the Integrated Water Supply Scheme. The catchment is currently only 3% cleared but, if all
the free/leasehold land in 1978 was cleared, then the salinity would likely rise from 500 mg/L to 1500 mg/L.
Clearing controls have prevented the salinity of the river from increasing significantly.
The Department of Water won the Australian Business Award Sustainability category 2013 and the Australian
Water Association's 2014 National Research Innovation Award for its work on returning the Denmark River's
water 'from brackish to drinkable'. The water now has a salinity of 540 mg/L and is currently used as a back-up
water supply for the Denmark Town. The Denmark River water resource recovery plan (2011) outlines the
salinity recovery options available for the Denmark WRRC. Science and modelling was used to evaluate the
options. Revegetation of cleared farmland to blue gums, buy back of farmland and subsequent revegetation in
1984 and fencing of remnant vegetation were integral to the recovery of this water resource.
The Collie WRRC includes the Wellington Reservoir, which is a potentially valuable water supply for the State.
The Harris Reservoir was built in 1989 to replace the Wellington Reservoir as the source for the Great
Southern Towns Water Supply scheme as the reservoir had become too salty. The salinity of the reservoir is
currently 1000 mg/L and is used for irrigation and recreation. Salinity of water flowing into the Wellington
Reservoir has stabilised due to clearing controls enacted in the mid 1970s, as well as planting of pine and blue
gum plantations in the Wellington Plantings Estate. The Wellington Plantings Estate is 18 350 ha of land owned
and managed by the Department consisting of native vegetation, mixed eucalypt plantings and some plantation
plantings. This land was farmland that was bought back and revegetated by the Government to reduce salinity
in the reservoir.
The Kent and Warren WRRC salinity levels are currently around 1300 mg/L and 1000 mg/L respectively.
Feasible options to reduce the inflow salinity of the Collie, Kent and Warren WRRCs have been developed, but
no action is planned at this time.
Helena River (2005)
Photograph by Renee Dixon.

Related publications:
Salinity Situation Statements for the WRRCs:
Helena River
Denmark River
Collie River
Warren River
Kent River