 Bricks: Its manufacture, classification, properties and function.

 Structural Clay Products:

Clay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials. The raw materials
used in their manufacture are clay blended with quartz, sand which are burned at 1000ºC-
1400ºC. Structural clay product is ceramic material basically fabricated by moulding, drying and
burning clay mass.

Clay is an earthen mineral mass or fragmentary rock capable of mixing with water and form a
plastic viscous mass which has a property of retaining its shape when moulded and dried. When
such mass are heated to redness, they acquire hardness and strength.

 Physical properties of clay:

a) Plasticity
b) Tensile strength
c) Texture
d) Shrinkage
e) Porosity

a) Plasticity:is the property by virtue of which wetted clay can be deformed permanently without
cracking. The amount of water is required by different clays to produce the most plastic
condition varies from 15 to 35 percent.

b) Tensile strength: Since clay were subjected to considerable stress in moulding, handling and
drying, a high tensile strength is desirable.

c) Texture: The texture of clay is measured by fineness of its grains. The % passing 100 No.
sieve is determined. No numerical limit to the grain size between sizes is established. Very fine
grained clay free from sand are more plastic and shrink than those containing coarse materials.

d) Shrinkage:The shrinkage in drying is dependent upon pore space within the clay and upon the
amount of mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay lowers shrinkage, increase
porosity and facilities drying.

e) Porosity:Porosity of clay means the ratio of the volume of pore space to the dry volume. Since
porosity affects the proportion of water required to make clay plastic, it will indirectly influence
shrinkage. Large pores allow the water to evaporate more easily and consequently permit higher
rate of drying than small pores. As much as early possibility the clay safely dried in
manufacturing clay products, the effect of porosity on rate of drying should be considered.
  Clay bricks: One of the oldest building material brick continues to be the most popular
and leading construction material because of being cheap and easy to handle.

Clay bricks are having pleasing appearance, strength and durability whereas clay tiles are used
for lightweight partition walls and floors posses high strength and resistant to fire.

 Size of bricks:
A brick is rectangular in shape and size that can be conveniently handled with one hand.
The dimension of a brick:
Length of brick =2*width of brick +thickness of mortar
Height of brick= width of brick
Size of standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 * 9 * 9 cm. When
placed in masonry it becomes 20 * 10 * 10cm.
Bricks available in our country are 9″ * 4.5″ * 3″. They are called as field bricks. Weight
of such brick is 3kg.
An indent called frog. (1-2cm deep) is provided for 9 cm high bricks.
The size of the frog should be 10 * 4 * 1cm.
The purpose of providing “frog” is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore the
bricks are laid with frogs on top.

 Clay and its classification:

1) Clay is an earthen mineral mass or fragmentary rock capable of mixing with water and
form a plastic viscous mass which has a property of retaining its shape when moulded
and dried.
2) When such masses are heated to redness, they acquire hardness and strength. This is
basically the result of micro-structural changes in clay and their chemical properties.
3) Purest clay consists of kaolinite (2Si02.Al203, 2H20) with small quantities of minerals
such as quartz, mica, felsper, calcite and magnetite etc.

 Various properties of bricks:

The density of bricks range between 2.5-2.8g/cm3
Bricks are generally resistant to acids, alkali, chemicals and are excellent fire resistant
building materials.
 The modulus of elasticity for bricks (E) =5 to (30 * 103) N/mm2
Bricks may be made up of a) Burnt clay or mixture of (sand +lime)
b) Fly ash lime +sand
c) OPC
Length of brick = (2* width of brick) + thickness of mortar
Height of brick =width of brick
 Ingredients of good brick earth:
For the preparation of bricks, clay or other suitable earth is moulded to the desired shape
after subjecting it to several processes. After drying, it should not shrink and no crack
should develop. The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina
mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. The
proportions of various ingredients are as follows
Silica – 50- 60%
Alumina – 20-30%
Lime -10%
Magnesia <1%
Ferric oxide <7% less than 20%
Alkalis <10%
Carbon-di-oxide
Sulpher trioxide very small percentage
Water

 Functions of various ingredients:

Silica:It enables the brick to retain its shape, imparts durability and prevents shrinkage.
Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning.
Alumina: It absorbs water and renders the clay plastic. If alumina is present in excess of
specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying.
Lime:It consists less than 10% of clay. Lime in brick clay has following effects:
1) Reduces shrinkage on drying
2) Causes silica in clay to melt on burning.
3) Excess of lime causes brick to melt and brick looses its shape.
Magnesia: It exceeds 1%, affects on color and makes brick yellow. In burning it causes
the clay to soften lower rate than does with lime.
Iron: Iron oxide is less than 7% of clay with following properties,
1) Gives red in color on burning when excess of oxygen available and dark brown or
even black color when oxygen is insufficient.
2) Improves impermeability and durability.
3) Gives strength and hardness.
  Harmful substances in bricks:

Lime:
 When a desirable amount of lime present in clay, it results in good quality.
 But if it is in excess, it changes the color of brick from red to yellow.
 When lime presents in lumps, it absorbs moisture, swells and cause disintegration.
 The lime should be present in finely divided state and lumps if any it should be
removed in the beginning.
Pebbles, Gravels, Grits:
 It does not allow the clay to be mixed thoroughly and spoil the appearance of
bricks.
 Bricks with pebbles and gravels may crack quickly.

Iron pyrites:

 Tend to oxidize and decompose the brick during burning and consequently brick
may split into pieces.
 Pyrites discolourise the brick
Alkalis:
 Forming less than 10% of raw clay are of great value of fluxes, especially when
combined with silicates and alumina
 These are mainly in form of soda or potash.
 When present in excess amount alkalis make the clay unsuitable for bricks.
 They melt the clay on burning and make the brick unsymmetrical
 When bricks come in contact with moisture, water is absorbed and alkalis
crystallize. On drying the moisture evaporates, leaving behind grey and white
powder which deposits on the brick and spoil the appearance. This phenomenon
is called efflorescence.
 Efflorescence should always be brushed away before rendering or plastering a
wall.

Organic matter:

 On burning green bricks the organic matter gets charred and leaves pores making
the bricks porous.
 The water absorption is increased and strength is reduced.

Carbonaceous material:

 It is in the form of bituminous matter or carbon which greatly affects the colour of
raw clay.
Sulpher:

 It is usually found in clay as the sulphate of Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe (or Iron sulphide).
 Generally the proportion is small.
 However if there is carbon clay and insufficient time during burning for proper
oxidation of C and S, it will cause a swollen structure in the brick.

Water:

 A large proportion of free water generally causes clay to shrink considerably

during drying.
 Combined water causes shrinkage during burning.
 The use of water contains small quantities of Ca, Mg which often similar effects
as those by Sulpher.

 Manufacturing of clay bricks:

Preparation of brick earth

Unsoiling Digging Weathering Blending Tempering

Moulding

Drying

Burning

Brick
 Classification of clay bricks:
Clay bricks are classified as First class, Second class, Third class and Fourth class bricks based
on their physical and mechanical properties.

First Class Bricks:

 These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red or copper colour.
 The surface should be smooth and rectangular with parallel, sharp and straight edges and
square corners.
 These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
 These should have uniform texture.
 No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by finger nail.
 A metallic or ringing sound comes when two bricks are struck together.
  Water absorption should be 12-15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for
24hrs.

Functions:

It is recommended for pointing, exposed face workin masonry structures, flooring and reinforced
brick work.

Second Class Bricks:

 They supposed to have same requirements as the first class bricks except
 Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
 A little higher water absorption of about 16-20% of its dry weight is
allowed.
 The crushing strength should not be less than 7N/mm2

Functions:

It is recommended for all important and unimportant hidden masonry works and centering of
reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete structures.

Third Class Bricks:

 Unburnt
 They are soft and light colored
 Producing a dull sound when struck against each other.
 Water absorption is about 25% of dry weight.

Functions:

It is used for building temporary structures

Fourth Class Bricks:

 Overburnt
 Badly distorted in shape and size
 Brittle in nature

Functions: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete road
metal.
 Characteristics of good clay bricks:

The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing,
regularity in size and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.

 Size and shape: The bricks should have uniform size, rectangular surface with
parallel sides and sharp straight edges.
 Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red colour as indicative of
uniformity in chemical composition and uniformity in burning of bricks.
 Texture and compactness: The surface should not be too smooth to cause
slipping of mortar. The brick should have pre-compact and uniform texture. A
fractured surface should not show lumps of lime.
 Hardness and soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by
finger nail no impression is made. When two bricks are stuck together, a metallic
sound should be produced.
 Water absorption: It should not exceed 20% of its dry weight when kept
immersed in water for 24 hours.
 Crushing strength: It should not be less than 10N/mm2.
 Defects in bricks:

 Efflorescence: This defect is caused because of alkalis present in bricks. When bricks
come in contact with moisture, water is absorbed and the alkalis crystallize. On drying
grey or white powder patches appear on the brick surface. This can be minimized by
selecting proper clay materials for brick manufacturing, preventing moisture to come in
contact with the masonry, by providing waterproof coping and by using water repellent
materials in mortar and by providing damp proof course.
 Over burnt brick: If the bricks are overburnt, a soft molten mass is produced and the
bricks lose their shape. Such bricks are not used for construction works.
 Under-burning of bricks: When bricks are not burnt to cause complete vitrification, the
clay is not softened because of insufficient heat and the pores are not closed. These
results in higher degree of water absorption and less compressive strength. Such bricks
are not recommended for construction works.
 Bloating: This defect observed as spongy swollen mass over the surface of burned bricks
is caused due to the presence of excess carbonaceous matter and Sulpher in brick-clay.
 Black core: When brick-clay contains bituminous matter or carbon and they are not
completely removed by oxidation, the brick results in black core mainly because of
improper burning.
 Chuffs: The deformation of the shape of bricks caused by the rain water falling on hot
bricks is known as chuffs.
 Checks or cracks: This defect may be because of lumps of lime or excess of water.
When bricks come in contact with water, the absorbed water reacts with lime nodules
causing expansion and a consequent disintegration of bricks, whereas shrinkage and
burning cracks result when excess of water is added during brick manufacturing.
 Spots: Iron sulphide, if present in the brick clay, results in dark surface spots on the brick
surfaces. Such bricks though not harmful are unsuitable for exposed masonry work.
 Blisters: Broken blisters are generally caused on the surface of sewer pipes and drain
tiles due to air imprisoned during their moulding.
 Laminations: These are caused by the entrapped air in the voids of clay. Laminations
produce thin lamina on the brick faces which weather out on exposure. Such bricks are
weak in structure.

 Various test on bricks:

 Dimension test (As per IS 1077):

 While preparing the estimate the standard size of bricks are considered and the no. of
bricks to be used in the structure are estimated.
 If the dimensions of the brick will have more deviation than the permitted, the
estimated cost will inflate.
 More no. of brick bats or plaster/mortar will be required to make up the standard
dimensions specified for construction.
 This may disturb the regular specific type of bond and may impair the strength and
subsequently cracks.
 The tolerances on the size of bricks are fixed by giving maximum and minimum
dimensions, not on individual bricks but on a batch of 20 bricks.

 Water absorption test:

 Fractured surface of burnt brick reveals a continuous network of voids. The % of water
absorption is a valuable indication degree of burning.
 Vitrification: indicates the degree of compactness that the absorption of brick is not less
than 3% after 48 hrs of immersion. If absorption <5% danger from frost can be neglected.
 Low absorption (<7%) in brick indicates high resistance to damage by freezing, although
some bricks of higher absorption rate may also be frost resistant.
 Simple immersion of bricks in water without boiling the brick in water leads to an
incomplete saturation because air trapped in pores is not evacuated completely.
 If the ratio of absorption after 24 hrs submersion to absorption after boiling for 5 hrs
appear to be a better criterion of resistance to freezing than the % of absorption.
 The absorption test has long been considered as a measure of durability. This is known as
suction of brick.
 Bricks having suction rate between (10-35) g per brick per minute are preferred for their
superior bonding property.

𝑤 = 𝐴 √𝑡

A=Water absorption coefficient

t= time elapsed in test

 Compressive strength test (As per IS 3495 (Part-I)):

 The crushing value for comparing the quality of bricks but is of little value in
determining the strength of masonry wall.
 For testing bricks for compressive strength, from a sample of two bed faces of bricks are
ground to provide smooth, even and parallel faces with frogs filled with hardened mortar.
 The bricks are immersed in water at room temp. for 24hrs. These are then taken out of
water and wiped off with cotton or moist cloth. The brick with cement mortar stored
under jute bags for 24hrs. followed by its immersion in water at room temp. for 3days.
 Then the specimen is placed in compression testing machine with flat faces horizontal
and mortar filled faces being upwards.
 Load is applied at a uniform rate of 14N/mm2 per min till failure.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 @ 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁)
Compressive load=𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑔.𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 (𝑚𝑚2 )

 Warpage test (As per IS 3495 (Part-IV)):

 Warpage of bricks is measured with the help of flat steel or glass surface and measuring
ruler graduated in 0.5mm divisions or wedge of steel 60 x 15 x 15 mm. For Warpage test,
the sample consists of 10 bricks from a lot.
 Concave Warpage: The flat surface of the brick is placed along the surface to be
measured selecting the location that gives the greatest deviation from straightness. The
greatest distance of brick surface from the edge of straightness is measured by a steel
ruler or wedge.
 Convex Warpage: The brick is place on the plane surface with the convex surface in
contact with the flat surface and the distances of four corners of brick are measured from
the flat surface. The largest distance is reported as warpage.
 The higher of the distance measured in concave and convex warpage tests is reported as
warpage.

Measuring wedge
 Efflorescence test (As per IS 3495 (Part-III)):

 “Efflorescence” is characterized by the white powder patches on the surface of

brickwork, brought to the surface by water and deposited by evaporation. These salts may
be saltwater in contact with brickwork or from the mortar in mortar joints or from salts
within the brick.
 Efflorescence is caused by gradual migration of sulphates to the exposed face of
brickwork.
 The sulphates react with “Tricalcium Aluminate” compound in the cement to form
“Calcium Sulpho-Aluminate” (3CaCo3. x CaSo4. yH20).
 This chemical change accompanied by an increase in volume, causing expansion and
disintegration of mortar.
 The ends of brick are kept in 150mm dia glass dish containing 25mm deep water at room
temp. (20º-30ºC) till the entire water is absorbed or evaporated.