ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ISSUES (ESI)

CHAPTER
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

SUMMARY SHEET

FOR RBI GRADE B AND NABARD GRADE

A/B 2019

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Contents
What is a social movement? ......................................................................................................................................... 4
What are the types of social movements? ................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Alternative social movement ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Redemptive Social Movement...................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Reformist Social Movement ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Revolutionary Movement ............................................................................................................................. 4
What are the causes of social movement? .................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Psychological Theories of Social Movements ............................................................................................... 5
1.6 Social Theories of Social Movements ........................................................................................................... 5
What are the differences between OLD social movements and NEW social movements? ......................................... 8
What are the internal dynamics of a social movement?.............................................................................................. 8
PEASANT AND FARMER MOVEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 9
FARMERS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA ................................................................................................................. 9
PEASANTS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA ..............................................................................................................12
BACKWARD CLASS MOVEMENT IN INDIA...................................................................................................................14
ENVIRONEMNTAL MOVEMENTS ................................................................................................................................14
WOMEN MOVEMENTS ...............................................................................................................................................16
1.7 Community Rights (People’s) Movements .................................................................................................16
1.8 Women’s Emancipatory Movements .........................................................................................................16

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What is a social movement?
• The term 'Social Movement' was introduced by Lorenz Von Stein in 1850 in his book ‘History
of the French Social Movement from 1789 to Present’.
• But the work on social movement could get momentum only in 1940s through the work of
Herbert Blumer, Herberle, Wallace etc.
• Blumer defined social movement as collective enterprise to establish new social order of
life.
• Otherwise Social Movement is defined as sustained, collective effort either to change
wholly, or partially, the society or to resist any ongoing change in the society.
• All sorts of fundamentalist movements from Jewish, Islamic to Hindu is example of
movement resisting change.

What are the types of social movements?

Though social movements have been identified in large kinds, it can be broadly classified into 4
types:

1.1 Alternative social movement

It attempts to bring limited social change in specific individuals likely through remodeling of lifestyle
and behaviour e.g. Hippie Movement of 1970s.

1.2 Redemptive Social Movement

It attempts to change certain sphere of society, religious conversion movement come under this
category e.g. Mahar Movement in 1950s where Dalits of Maharashtra converted to Buddhism under
the leader of BR Ambedkar.

1.3 Reformist Social Movement

It attempts to change entire society in a limited way e.g. Temple Entry Movement, Literacy
Movement etc.

1.4 Revolutionary Movement

It attempts to change the whole society in a radical way. It leads to total structural transformation
of society. French revolution completely transformed the socio-economic and political structure
and value of feudal society to capitalist democratic society, communist movements too claim for
such structural transformation.

What are the causes of social movement?

There are two group of theories that explain Social Movements:

1. Psychological Theories and

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 2. Social Theories

1.5 Psychological Theories of Social Movements

These theories establish the roots of Social Movements in the personality of the followers. This is of
two types:

1. Personal Discontent Theory

People who are comfortable and contended with their situation have little interest in social
movements. Only those individuals who are not satisfied with the present order participate in the
social movements.

2. Personal Maladjustment Theory

These theories see social movements as a refuge from personal failure. In the book, ‘True Believer’
it is described that those people are drawn into social movements who are bored, misfit, the
downwardly mobile and those who are seriously dissatisfied with their lives. (E.g. Hitler’s frustration
and Failure to become a good painter.)

1.6 Social Theories of Social Movements

Sociologists counter the psychological theories arguing that without discontent and dissatisfaction
there would hardly be any social movement.
They are necessary but not sufficient conditions. Social Movements are not possible without
widespread feeling of relative deprivation and structural strain.

Social theories are classified into two categories:

1. Old/Classical Social Movement Theories

2. New Social Movement Theories

1) Classical / Old Social Movement Theory

• These theories have explained social movement from collective behaviour perspective as
described by Gustav LeBon in the book, ‘Crowd (1895)’.
• The classical social theorists equated social movements with that crowd behaviour
perceived as irrational, spontaneous and often destructive.
• They are definitely long term, more organized but irrational collective behaviour.
• At this phase Social Movements were also considered irrational as it was not guided by
existing social norms or collective actions were not institutionalized.
• The classical social movement theories are based on the perception of the Industrial
Society.
• It is rooted in the conflict between labour and capital.

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 • During this period the labour movements were not recognized and neither institutionalized
hence it was said to possess irrational behaviour.
• Post-World War II there occurred a fundamental shift in the nature of social structure and
state.
• The nature of state shifted towards acceptance of welfare state and the philosophy of
welfare state institutionalized the conflict between labour and capital and labour
movements were accepted as legitimate collective behaviour.

Difference between crowd, aggregate and mob:

Aggregate: Simple collection of people; each individual has his/her motive.

Crowd: When people have common reason; common stimulus for gathering i.e. aggregate with a
common stimulus.

Mob: Active crowd

Crowd / mob is highly suggestive i.e. it has irrational behaviour and the behaviour of crowd / mob is
unpredictable.

2) New Social Movement Theory

1) Resource Mobilisation Theory (RMT)

• This theory was first articulated by John D. McAarthy and Meyer Nzald in 1970.
• McAarthy and Nzald focused on structure (meaning in their case resources),
organization and its environment.

Structure of a Social Movement

Structure means pattern of interaction, arrangement of the elements and relationships in social
space. Structure refers to certain external conditions that give rise to a phenomenon i.e. material
condition (according to McAarthy and Nzald).

The pattern comes into existence only when there are factors outside the subjective consciousness
of human being.

Therefore, according to McAarthy and Nzald the structure of Social Movement includes:

1. Organisation
2. Resources and

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 3. Environment (Political and Natural)

• The pragmatic reason for the change in focus is changes in society at large.
• Most important is the growth of middle class willing to allocate some of its income and
students willing to allocate some of their time. Another important change is the invention
and use of mass media facilitating the spread of message.
• RMT is based on assumption that participants in the social movements are rational people
i.e. the people are calculative about the goal and possibility of success.
• According to Charles Tilly movements are formed and dissolved, mobilized and deactivated,
based on rational decisions about the goals of the group, available resources and the cost of
the mobilization of collective action.
• RMT assumes that participants must have some degree of economic and political resources
to make the movement successful. In other words, without grievances and discontent there
would be few or no movements, but widespread discontent alone cannot produce a social
movement. Adequate resources and motivated people are essential to any concerted action.

In short, though social movements in pre-World War II era from collective behavior are said to be
irrational but actually it is not true about all social movements.

Types or Resources

1. Material Resources — Money and physical capital.

2. Moral Resources — Existence of solidarity and support for the movement’s goals.
3. Social Organization — Organizational strategies and social networks
4. Human Resources — Volunteers, staff and leaders
5. Cultural Resources — Understanding of the issues, collective issue know how, prior activist
experience

Lokpal Movement is best example to demonstrate the 5 types of resources.

2) Political Opportunity Theory or Political Process Theory

• Sociologists with this perspective believe and argue that social movements should be
considered as part of the political sociology and part of society’s political process.
• It should not be treated merely as form of collective behaviour.

Movements are organised provided the political opportunities are available. These opportunities
include:

1. Increased access to Decision Making power

2. Insatiability in the alignment of ruling elite.

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 3. Access to elite allies who can help a movement in its struggle.
4. Declining capacity and propensity of state to repress dissent.

What are the differences between OLD social movements and NEW social movements?

Old Social Movements / OSM New Social Movements / NSM

Collective mobilization to express grievances.

Legally recognized as right of people in a

Beneficiaries were the participants democracy

Class conflict or Marxist ideology Rational

Largely focussed on lower classes Not directed against state rather they aim at
lifestyle related issues and better life choices
Little focus on resources e.g. LGBT Movement

Considered irrational on two grounds:
✓ Spontaneous reaction without goals and
resource calculation
✓ Not guided by existing norms that
workers did not have right to strike
organise etc.
Mainly directed against state because star was
considered as an agent of capitalists.
Movement for survival rather than lifestyle
Lifestyle issues are generally associated with
middle class and hence associated with
proliferation of middle class.
Beneficiaries are not participants, membership
is merely paper membership. Middle class
provides monetary support hence NSM are
largely carried out by NGOs, Civil Society and
voluntary organizations
Paid Staff acts as activists e.g. Green Peace
Movement, PETA etc.

NGOs not only get finances by people but also

receive support from government.

What are the internal dynamics of a social movement?

Internal Dynamics of Social movement is also called Life Cycle of Social Movement and it consists of
following 4 stages:

Stage 1: Origin
Stage 2: Recruitment
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Stage 3: Structural Elaboration
Stage 4: Termination / Institutionalization

PEASANT AND FARMER MOVEMENTS

Agricultural communities in India are differentiated in terms of their relationship with land.
They have been categorized as:

1. Absentee Landlords
2. Supervisory Farmers / Supervisory Agriculturalists
3. Owner Cultivators
4. Share Croppers
5. Tenants
6. Landless Labourers or Agricultural Labourers

The movements related to tenants, sharecroppers and landless labourers are known as peasant
movements. An agriculturalist who is defined as peasant is associated with 3 factors:

1. Amount of Landholding
2. Productivity of Soil
3. State Policy

FARMERS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA

Bhartiya Kisan Union Shetkari Sangathan Karnataka Rajya Ryot Sangh

Feature
(BKU) (SS) (KRRS)

Sharad Joshi
(Brahmin; Urban
english educated
middle class social
background)
Mahendra Singh Tikait
Nanjudaswami
(Vernacularly
Shetkari is Marathi
Leadership educated and
term which stands for Rooted in Seed Satyagraha of
belonged to rural Jat
all those who are from 1980
habitat)
agricultural
community whether
landholding, having
marketable surplus or
landless labourers

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 Emerged as multi- Included not only the
caste organisation in khedut but all
Western UP where the agricultural
GR had been community
successful
Took up the issues
Major castes were Jat, related to the
Gujjars, Tyagi and unskilled, semi-skilled
Rajputs. Jat, Gujjars, industrial workers i.e.
Tyagi were benefit of Mazdoors in urban
LR and GR in this industrial area.
region. Rajputs were
traditionally well off Started the INDIA vs It opposed introduction of
so further benefited. BHARAT Genetically Modified Seeds.
Debate. Bharat is
Gradually other than constituted by Followed the GREEN
Jats, other castes farmers, peasants, PRINCIPLE e.g. advocated
withdrew and it landless labourers and crop rotation, advocated
remained prominently industrial workers avoidance of chemical
a Jat Organisation (refugee from fertilisers, use of organic
Bharat). India is manures, locally available
Characteristics:
Remained non- constituted by seeds
communal capitalists, English
educated, urban Advised farmers against cash-
Remained non- middle-class people, crop farming. Cash-crop
affiliated to any beneficiary of farming is major cause of
political party. industrial policy and indebtedness.
inheritor of colonial
Remained rural; legacy. Advised the farmers not to
antagonistic to urban sell their lands to MNCs.
lifestyle; used urban Critical of post-
centres merely for independence
utilitarian purpose. industrial policy i.e.
Nehru-Mahalanobis
Conservative outlook Model that industrial
i.e. raised issues only policy emphasised on
related to well-off large industries and
farmers. Nor issues industrial
concerned about poor development was top-
peasants, landless heavy i.e. the
labourers or poverty approach is top-down
alleviation approach. Major focus

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 programme. on industrial
development and left
Never tried to create over on rural-
an all India platform agricultural
for the farming development. Per
community capita investment -
employment
opportunity is very
less.

Tried to create an all

India Platform for
agricultural
communities.

The motivated the

cooperative
movement.

Increase in subsidy on
agricultural inputs like
Advocated bottom up
seeds, fertilisers,
approach, major policy
machinery etc.
initiative should be
focussed to develop
Waiver of utility
agriculture and allied
charges viz. irrigation
Demands: agricultural activity.
dues, electricity bills
etc.
Only surplus from
agriculture should be
Increase in MSP e.g.
invested in industrial
for sugarcane, rice,
sector.
wheat and other cash
crops

Organising rally in
National Capital as
Sittings/Dharnas,
they were
followed Gandhian Wore GREEN SCARFS and
geographically close to
Strategies: Strategies followed Gandhian Non-
the capital.
characterised by non- Violence principles
violence.
Dharna before
government officials,

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 National Highways.

Gherao of Govt offices

as well govt officials

Kisan Jails i.e. abduct

the visiting
government officials
in a village keep them
in captivity till their
demand is met.

Traffic Jam on
National Highways.

Characterised by
complete absence of
literary strategy.

PEASANTS MOVEMENTS in MODERN INDIA

The Peasant Movement in India can be classified into:

1. PM prior to 1918
2. PM between 1918 and 1947
3. PM 1947 onwards

Prior to 1918 1918-1947 1947 onwards

No contribution from political

Active support of Indian National
groups i.e. Indian National
Congress
Congress

Examples: Examples:

1. Maratha Uprising of
1875 1. Champaran Satyagrah
2. Moplah Rebellion 2. Kheda struggle
1882/1992 3. All India Kisan Sabha
3. Wahabi and Farazi (1936)

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 movement 4. Telangana Movement
(1941-47)
5. Tebhaga Movement
(1945-1951)

Coincides with entry of Mahatma

Did not challenge British rule /
Landlordism
Arose due to difficult economic
conditions by internal as well
as external factors
Aimed at enacting laws to gain
concession as they were not
alienated from the British or
the rule of law.
Gandhi
Gandhi ji focussed on mass
mobilisation Alienation from the Rule of
Law as the laws were there
Alienation from the British but but were not followed and
not the rule of law. They wanted implemented. Legitimacy of
the rule of law and Democratic the state was questioned.
system to stay but British to leave
because British will not allow
laws for betterment of peasants
to pass.

Peasant movements in India in last 150 years can be classified on the basis of ideological affinity as:

1. Reformist — The demand for change within the exiting pattern.

2. Revolutionary — The demand for total structural changes from feudal agrarian to
communist.

• The movements that occurred till 1918 did not challenge either the British rule or
Landlordism. Most of these rebellions aroused due to the difficult economic conditions
caused by internal as well as external factors.
• For example, the peasantry in Marathwada were facing acute economic crisis due to crash of
cotton prices in the international market and as a result unable to pay the revenue.
• The Maratha uprising asked for reduction in revenue rate.
• Similarly, other movements that occurred in various parts of India brought acts like Punjab
Alienation Act for the exemption of state revenue.

• The 2nd phase i.e. 1918 to 1947 coincides with the entry of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian
National Movement.
• Mahatma Gandhi did not see any meaning in the independence of India if it is merely a
transfer of power from British ruling class to the Indian elites.
• Neither he envisioned the possibility of getting independence without mass mobilization.

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 • So, in order to make Indian national movement a mass movement they asked for support
from different sections of the society most important were the peasantry.
• The various leaders of INC including Mahatma Gandhi started taking proactively the issues
concerned with the peasant communities. Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda Satyagraha etc are
examples of such initiative.
• But the most important formation was that of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936.

BACKWARD CLASS MOVEMENT IN INDIA

What is Backward Class?

The term backward class was being widely used by British in the beginning of 20th century
to denote people who had failed to take up western education.
It happened that most of the people who failed to take up western education mainly belonged
to Shudra varna and Pancham varna each of which consists of a conglomerate of caste groups.

Since the British period especially for depressed classes provision for reservation came into
existence. Within the fundamental right chapter of Indian Constitution, state is empowered to take
measures for the development of socially and educationally backward class of people.

Due to ambiguity in the use of the term caste and class the reservation policy was challenged in the
court of law. Supreme Court in the case P. RAJENDRAN vs STATE OF MADRAS (1968) declared “A
caste is also a class of citizen.

Thus, Backward Class Movement includes all the moments by OBCs as well Dalits.

Backward Class / Caste Movement

It includes:

1. OBCs
2. Dalit or Scheduled Caste Movements

ENVIRONEMNTAL MOVEMENTS

The term environmental movements gained currency after the UNCHE — UN Conference on
Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972.
This conference paved the way for a number of studies and reports on the conditions of
environment and its impact on the present and future generations. It lead to development of green
politics and green movement in Germany and North America and witnessed emergence of a
network of voluntary organisations raising environmental issues throughout the world including
India.

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In India the Green Movement is carried out by a conglomeration of voluntary associations and NGOs
dispersed throughout the country but in dialogue with global and western ideas. This entails in the
mind of intellectuals that India does not have a truly indigenous environmental movement.

The other reasons of such notion is that many intellectuals are not ready to accept Chipko and
Narmada Bachao Andolan as environmental movement rather want them to be treated as
peasants subsistence struggle, the struggle for survival and livelihood.

Chipko and NBA are both are said to begin as peasant subsistence struggle. NBA began against
the tribal displacement and consequent threat to their community life and source of livelihood.
Tribal population depends on its ecology for livelihood. In the absence of skill and submergence of
their immediate ecology they loose their livelihood completely, highly detrimental to their social
living. Chipko movement also began against deforestation due to 2 important reasons:

1. Widespread devastation of areas just below the deforested areas in the flash floods of
1974 causing loss of wealth, life etc.
2. It was also against the state policy of granting deforestation rights or wood cutting rights
to private contractors but not allowing the local people to cut the woods for their need.

Immediate cause of Chipko movement:

Flash floods of 1973 causing huge damage to property and bovine life. Villages most affected by
landslides lay directly below forests where felling operations had taken place. Villagers assessed a
relationship between mass-scale felling of trees and erosion of soil and therefore, floods. The
villagers were not expert to do such assessment but they did so because of certain historic reasons.

1. The discontent and distrust prevailing against the forest department or state
administration.
2. Restriction on forest resources by state was seen as a forfeiture of their hereditary natural
rights.
3. Undue favour to contractors undermining the requirements of local people.
4. High unemployment among youth.

Though Chipko and NBA began as peasants subsistence struggle in the course of their progress they
have established themselves as environmental movement but definitely not with a global concern
but local concern. There has been a growing interaction with movements with global concerns and
local concerns and each is using the other to fulfil their goal.

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WOMEN MOVEMENTS

Women movements in India can be categorized on following basis:

1. Issues that the movements address

2. Movements raising women’s emancipation issue but participated by men or women.

On the basis of issues it can be classified as:

1. Community rights movements and

2. Women’s emancipatory movements

1.7 Community Rights (People’s) Movements

Women have participated in many movements like Freedom Struggle Movement, Peasants
Movements, Tribals Movements, Students Movements etc. Though in such movements women
related issues are not raised but women are able to realise their power and hence mobilise
themselves for their own issues.

1.8 Women’s Emancipatory Movements

Women’s emancipation movement by men

Social reforms movements by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, MG Ranade,
Behramji Malbari etc. against prevailing religious and social customs subjugating women. These
reformers influenced British government to enact laws banning social evils like sati system,
abolishing child marriage, allowing widow remarriage etc. They also mobilised people to increase or
spread education among women. But most of these social reformers believed in the separation of
role of men and women. They were not against women working outside but also not in favour of
women competing with men in all spheres.

Women’s movements by Women

In the beginning of 20th century many women’s organisation came into existence mostly for the
spread of education among them. Prominent among them are:

1. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC)

2. Women India Association (WIA)

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 • One of the major failure of women’s movements have been not able to pass the bill
reserving 33% seats in Parliament and Legislative assemblies.
• Though PRI Act have provision for reservation for women but PRIs are not highest decision
making bodies.
• Parliament and legislative assemblies without proper women’s representation cannot be
sensitive towards women’s issues.
• Today hardly 10-11% representation on part of women in legislative bodies.
• The number is so low that it does not allow women legislatures to cut across party line to
attain unity on Women’s issues.

Note: Beijing Declaration has set 33% as the standard representation for women in legislative
bodies.
Note: In Scandinavian countries the women participation in legislative process are 47-48%.

• Even Bangladesh Parliament and Sri Lanka Parliament have more women representative than
India in highest legislative bodies.
• The highest gender equality is found in Scandinavian countries as women representation in
the Parliament or legislative body is as high as 48%.
• Another major failure of Women’s movements is Anti-Dowry Act.
• As per NCRB — National Crimes Record Bureau— every 13 minutes in India a woman
become victim of violence and the majority of them is dowry related violence.
• Still there is a big gap between legal entitlement and actual realization of parental property.

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