Attachment Summary Sheet - Agricultural Engineering

AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
SUMMARY SHEET
For NABARD Grade A/B 2019
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Contents
1 What is Agricultural engineering? ........................................................................................................................ 6
2 Various forms of farm power: .............................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Mobile Power: .............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.1 Human Power: ...................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Animal Power:....................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Mechanical Power: ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Stationary power: ......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Electrical Power: ................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 Renewable energy: ............................................................................................................................... 7
3 Let us have a look at certain important terminologies used in agricultural engineering: ................................... 7
3.1 Horse power (HP): ........................................................................................................................................ 7
3.2 Indicated horse power (IHP): ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.3 Brake horse power (BHP): ............................................................................................................................ 7
3.4 Power take-off horse power (PTO HP): ........................................................................................................ 7
3.5 Frictional horse power (FHP): ....................................................................................................................... 8
4 Farm Mechanization: ............................................................................................................................................ 8
4.1 Various stages/categories in which mechanization is involved: .................................................................. 8
5 Land Levelling: ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.1 What are the equipments used for land levelling? ...................................................................................... 8
5.1.1 Soil Scoop:............................................................................................................................................. 8
5.1.2 Leveling board - bullock drawn:............................................................................................................ 8
5.2 The other machinery/equipments used for land levelling are as follows: ................................................... 9
6 Sowing: ................................................................................................................................................................. 9
6.1 Seed Drill: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
6.2 Seed Cum Fertilizer drill:.............................................................................................................................10
6.3 Different type of furrow openers are: ........................................................................................................10
7 Planter: ...............................................................................................................................................................10
7.1 Some specific planters are: .........................................................................................................................10
7.1.1 Potato Planter (Automatic Seed Dropping): .......................................................................................10
7.1.2 Potato Planter (semi-automatic): .......................................................................................................10
7.1.3 Calibration of Seed Drill: .....................................................................................................................10
8 Weeding and interculture: .................................................................................................................................10
8.1 Khurpi .........................................................................................................................................................10
8.2 Hand Hoe: ...................................................................................................................................................11
8.3 Long Handle Weeders: ...............................................................................................................................11
9 Cultivators:..........................................................................................................................................................11

9.1 Types of cultivator: .....................................................................................................................................11
9.1.1 Duck foot type cultivator: ...................................................................................................................11
9.1.2 Shovel type cultivator .........................................................................................................................12
Specification: ..............................................................................................................................................................12
10 Harvesting and Threshing: ..............................................................................................................................12
10.1 Methods of harvesting: ..............................................................................................................................12
10.2 Certain terms in connection with harvesting: ............................................................................................12
11 Tractors: ..........................................................................................................................................................13
11.1 History of tractor development: .................................................................................................................13
11.2 Types of tractor: .........................................................................................................................................14
11.2.1 Classification based on the type of construction: ..............................................................................14
11.2.2 Classification based on the type of drives: .........................................................................................14
Track type tractors: (Also called Chain Type or Crawlers Type) .........................................................................14
Wheel Type Tractors:..................................................................................................................................................15
11.2.3 Classification based on the purpose for which they are used: ...........................................................15
11.3 Tractor components: ..................................................................................................................................15
12 Power Tiller: ....................................................................................................................................................15
12.1 Background of Power Tiller: .......................................................................................................................16
12.2 Components of power tiller:.......................................................................................................................16
13 Tillage Implements: ........................................................................................................................................16
13.1 Ploughs: ......................................................................................................................................................17
13.2 Types of plough: .........................................................................................................................................17
13.3 List of Primary Tillage Implements: ............................................................................................................17
14 Secondary Tillage Implements:.......................................................................................................................18
14.1 Harrow: .......................................................................................................................................................18
14.2 Types of harrows used in India: ..................................................................................................................18
14.3 Disc Harrow: ...............................................................................................................................................19
14.4 Spike Tooth Harrow: ...................................................................................................................................19
14.5 Spring Tooth Harrow: .................................................................................................................................20
14.6 Acme Harrow: .............................................................................................................................................20
14.7 Patela: .........................................................................................................................................................20
14.8 Blade harrows: ............................................................................................................................................20
14.8.1 Bakhar: ................................................................................................................................................20
14.8.2 Guntaka: .............................................................................................................................................21
14.9 Bodela: ........................................................................................................................................................21
14.10 Power harrow – tractor drawn: ..............................................................................................................21
14.11 Rotary Tiller: ...........................................................................................................................................21

14.12 Land packer or Culti-packer: ...................................................................................................................21
Specification: ..............................................................................................................................................................21
14.13 Tillage Implements for Rice Cultivation: .................................................................................................21
14.13.1 Cage Wheels: ..................................................................................................................................21
14.13.2 Puddler: ..........................................................................................................................................22
15 Implements used for both primary and secondary tillage: ............................................................................22
15.1 Rotavator: ...................................................................................................................................................22
16 Implements used for inter-culture operations: ..............................................................................................23
16.1 Three tyned cultivator with seeding attachment: ......................................................................................23
17 Plant Protection Equipment: ..........................................................................................................................23
17.1 Sprayers: .....................................................................................................................................................23
Types of Spray:....................................................................................................................................................23
17.2 Commercial Sprayer: ..................................................................................................................................23
Manually operated sprayers are classified as follows: .......................................................................................23
Engine operated sprayer is classified as follows: ...............................................................................................24
17.3 Duster: ........................................................................................................................................................24
17.3.1 Types of duster: ..................................................................................................................................24
18 Farm Processing Equipments: ........................................................................................................................24
19 Seed Processing: .............................................................................................................................................25
19.1 Phase of seed processing:...........................................................................................................................25
20 Pasteurization: ................................................................................................................................................26
20.1 Pasteurization is mainly done in one of the following ways: .....................................................................26
20.2 Main types of pasteurizers: ........................................................................................................................26
21 Pumps for Irrigation:.......................................................................................................................................26
21.1 Types of pumps for agricultural purposes: .................................................................................................26
22 Miscellaneous: ................................................................................................................................................29
22.1 Implements for horticultural crops: ...........................................................................................................29
22.1.1 Post-Hole Digger: ................................................................................................................................29
22.1.2 Dibber: ................................................................................................................................................29
22.1.3 Paddy transplanter .............................................................................................................................30
22.1.4 Self-propelled paddy transplanter......................................................................................................30
Some points to remember......................................................................................................................................30
22.2 Classification of crops as per difficulty level in Transplantation ................................................................30
23 Storage ............................................................................................................................................................30
23.1 Traditional Storage Structures ....................................................................................................................31
23.2 Improved Storage Structures......................................................................................................................31
23.3 Pusa bin.......................................................................................................................................................31

23.4 Brick and cement bin ..................................................................................................................................31
23.5 Bunker Storage ...........................................................................................................................................31
23.6 'CAP' Storage structures .............................................................................................................................32
24 Modern Storage Structures ............................................................................................................................32
24.1 Types of modern storage structures: .........................................................................................................32
25 Modified Storage Systems ..............................................................................................................................32

1 What is Agricultural engineering?
It means application of engineering in agriculture.
• When we talk about agricultural engineering, we are talking about the various fields of
agriculture in which engineering is applied.
• Be it as simple as drawing water using the pumps or be it the mechanized tractors used in
the agricultural fields these days.
2 Various forms of farm power:
2.1 Mobile Power:

The various sources are:
• Human Power
• Animal Power
• Mechanical Power
2.1.1 Human Power:

A strong man can develop maximum power of about 75 watts (0.1 hp) for doing farm work.
2.1.2 Animal Power:

Draught animals:
The power available from draught animals is related to its body weight:
✓ Buffaloes: About 12% of the body weight

✓ Bullocks: About 10% of the body weight
✓ Camels: About 18% of the body weight
✓ Donkeys: About 32% of the body weight
2.1.3 Mechanical Power:

The following are the machines that use mechanical power for work:
✓ Tractors
✓ Power Tiller
Mechanical power means the power coming from machines:
Note: Thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 percent, whereas that of petrol
engine varies from 25 to 32 percent.
2.2 Stationary power:

• This kind of power can be provided by either the Stationary engines or the electric motors.
• Stationary oil engines can be used for pumping water, flour mill, cotton gins, sugarcane
crusher, Thresher, Winnower etc.

2.2.1 Electrical Power:
• Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms.
• Electrical power is used for water pumping, dairy industry, cold storage, farm product
processing, fruit industry, poultry industry etc.
2.2.2 Renewable energy:

• It is the energy obtained from biomass, sun and wind.
• The energy obtained from these renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on
a human timescale is used for many agricultural and domestic purposes.
The examples are: Used for lighting, cooking, water heating, water distillation, food processing,
water pumping, diesel engine operation with supplementary fuel and electrical generation on small
scale.
Now, we have understood the various sources of farm power.
3 Let us have a look at certain important terminologies used in agricultural

engineering:
3.1 Horse power (HP):

It is the rate of doing work. It is usually expressed in horse power.
Conversion factors from work to power
4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp
75 kg m of work /second = 1.0 hp.
Roughly, 1.0 hp = 746 watts
3.2 Indicated horse power (IHP):

It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and received by the piston. It is the power
developed in a cylinder without accounting frictional losses.
3.3 Brake horse power (BHP):

It is the power delivered by the engine at the end of the crankshaft. It is measured by a
dynamometer.
IHP = BHP + FHP
3.4 Power take-off horse power (PTO HP):

• The PTO horsepower is the amount of horsepower available for running implements with
the tractor, like for example a bush hog.
• Most of the tractors have a Power Take Off Shaft, which is what connects to the implements
to power them.

• The PTO hp is around 80-85% of tractor engine power (PTO-Power take off).
3.5 Frictional horse power (FHP):

It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed without producing any useful work. It
represents the friction and pumping losses of an engine.
4 Farm Mechanization:
4.1 Various stages/categories in which mechanization is involved:

Mechanization in farming operations is classified under following heads:
✓ Land levelling
✓ Seed bed preparation
✓ Sowing
✓ Weeding and interculture operations
✓ Fertilizer application and
✓ Harvesting and threshing
5 Land Levelling:
5.1 What are the equipments used for land levelling?

For land development, bullock drawn implements, have been developed and are commercially
available such as:
1. Scoop
2. Buck scraper
3. U- leveler
4. Float leveler
5.1.1 Soil Scoop:

Soil scoops are used for excavating ditches, clearing drains and doing cut and fill jobs in land
leveling. The angle of the cutting blade varies from 12° to 15° angle.
5.1.2 Leveling board - bullock drawn:

It is a wooden board of length 2.0m, width 0.4m and thickness 0.3m provided with side wings,
hitching braces and handle.
The following can also be used:

1. 2-wheel tractors using harrows and leveling boards
2. 4-wheel tractor using rear mounted tractor blades or drag
3. By a 4-wheel tractor with a laser-controlled bucket

Tractor drawn land leveler
5.2 The other machinery/equipments used for land levelling are as follows:
✓ Leveler - tractor, power tiller and bullock drawn types are available. Heavy duty machinery.
Meant for initial cutting and filling of land undulations
✓ Precision land leveler- to provide desired grade either level or gently sloping. 8, 10, 12 13,
15- and 15-feet width of cut, 8 to 18 yards. Tractor HP 120 meant for farm use.
✓ Leveler with ripper attachment - rippers loosen the soil prior to moving the soil.
✓ Scrapers - tractor drawn animal drawn types available for smooth leveling. Used after Initial
leveling is completed using a leveler.
✓ Scrap plane - to create table top finish
✓ Drag scrapers - Precision finish and final touch up. Suitable for small areas Weight boxes are
used to add weight to increase depth of cut.
✓ Box scraper - Box scrapers are used to smooth and level the ground. Rear Wheel makes the
unit a mini land-plane. Skid shoes control depth of cut. Hitching adjustment for more or less
cutting force to suit job.
6 Sowing:
• Seed drills or seed cum fertilizer drills (bullock drawn, or tractor drawn) facilitate line
sowing and proper application of seed and fertilizer in the field.
• Thus, there is saving of 10-15% inputs.
• About 30% loss of fertilizer is estimated if not properly applied.
• The animal drawn Dufan (Two row), Tifan (Three row) Enatigour and FESPO plough (all local
sowing devices) have been adopted as these cover more area and cost less, these however
require skilled operator to regulate the seed rate.
Let us have a look in detail at the commonly used equipment for seed sowing:
6.1 Seed Drill:

• Seed drill is a machine used for placing the seeds in a continuous stream in furrows at
uniform rate and at controlled depth with an arrangement of covering the seeds with soil.

• In manually metered seed drills a person drops the seeds in the furrows, in mechanically
metered seed drills a mechanical device called seed metering mechanism is used to meter
the seeds.
6.2 Seed Cum Fertilizer drill:

• Seed drills fitted with fertilizer dropping attachments are called seed-cum-fertilizer drills.
• They deliver both the seeds and fertilizers simultaneously in an acceptable pattern.
6.3 Different type of furrow openers are:

(1) Shovel type (2) Shoe type (3) hoe type 4) Disc Type
Shovel type Shovel type openers are best suited for stony and root infested fields
Shoe Type Suited for Black soil
Hoe Type Suited for loose soil
Disc Type Single disc type: Works better in sticky soil; Double Disc: trashy soil
7 Planter:
• Planter is a sowing equipment used for sowing those seeds which are larger in size and
cannot be handled by seed drills.
• Row to row and plant to plant spacing is maintained in a planter.
• Potato planter, maize planter, cotton planter are the commonly used equipment.
7.1 Some specific planters are:
7.1.1 Potato Planter (Automatic Seed Dropping):

It can plant in 2-4 rows. Capacity is 6000- 14000 potatoes /hr.
7.1.2 Potato Planter (semi-automatic):

It may plant in 2-4 rows. Field capacity is 0.15-0.35 ha/hr.
7.1.3 Calibration of Seed Drill:

Laboratory testing of a seed drill to determine the rate of seed delivery is called calibration of a seed
drill.
8 Weeding and interculture:
8.1 Khurpi
• Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of weeds.
• It takes 300-700 man-hours to cover one hectare, depending upon crop, soil and weed
infestation.
• The yield is affected to the extent of 20-60% if weeds are not controlled.
• Use of long handle weeders, (wheel hoe and peg type weeders) reduce this weeding time to
25-110 hours per hectare.
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8.2 Hand Hoe:
• Hand hoe is the most popular manually operated weeding tool used in the farm.
• It consists of an iron blade and a wooden handle.
• The operator holds the handle and cuts the soil with the blade to a shallow depth of 2-3 cm
thereby weeds are cut and soil is stirred.
• The handle is short (30-40cm long) and hence the operator uses the tool in bending posture.
• The coverage is 5-7 cents per day.
8.3 Long Handle Weeders:

• Hand hoes exert greater strain on the operator because of the short handle which
necessitates the operator to do weeding job in bent posture.
• To avoid this nowadays long handles are used in hoes and hence they are called as long
handle weeders.
• The popular long handle weeders available are a) star type weeder b) peg type weeder.
• These weeders are also called as dry land weeders since they are used in dry lands.
a) Star type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also
when the soil moisture is low (10-15%). Star wheel is designed for loamy soils. The
operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
b) Peg type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also
when the soil moisture is low (10-15%). Peg type wheel is designed for clayey soils. The
operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
9 Cultivators:
• It is an implement used for inter cultivation with laterally adjustable tines or discs to work
between crop rows.
• This can be used for seed bed preparation and for sowing with seeding attachment.
9.1 Types of cultivator:

✓ Disc cultivator (It is a cultivator fitted with disc)
✓ Rotary cultivator (It is a cultivator with tines or blades mounted on a power-driven horizontal
shaft)
✓ Tine cultivator (It is a cultivator fitted with tines having shovels)
Depending upon the type of power available for the implements, the cultivator can be classified
as:
✓ Tractor drawn
✓ Animal drawn
Let us have a look at the various types of cultivators:
9.1.1 Duck foot type cultivator:

• It is a type of rigid cultivator which is used mostly for shallow ploughing, destruction of
weeds and retention of moisture.

• It consists of steel frame and rigid tines to which sweeps are attached.
• The sweeps are fabricated from high carbon steel.
• It is a tractor-mounted implement and depth of operation is controlled by hydraulic system.
• The sweep cultivator is popular in black cotton soils.
• This cultivator is mostly used in hard soils for shallow ploughing.
Specification:
Number of sweeps 5-7

Length (mm) 1980-2310
Width (mm) 839-1150
Height (mm) 1000-1050
Weight (kg) 200-300
Power requirement (hp/kW) 25-50/18.75-37.5, tractor
9.1.2 Shovel type cultivator
Specification:
Number of tynes 7-11

Cutting width (mm) 1500-2400
Cutting (mm) 175-225
Weight (kg) 127-350
Power requirement (hp/kW) 25-60/18.75- 45, tractor
10 Harvesting and Threshing:
10.1 Methods of harvesting:

✓ Harvesting can be done by:
✓ Manually operated tool;
✓ Animal drawn machine;
✓ Mechanically operated machine;
10.2 Certain terms in connection with harvesting:
Tools/Implements Function/Operation
Mower A machine to cut herbage crops (herbaceous plants eg. grass) and
leave them in swath
Reaper A machine to cut grain crops.

Reaper can be animal drawn or machine operated.
Vertical conveyer reaper (Tractor mounted):

• The reaper is front mounted at the tractor which can be
lowered and raised by the hydraulic control.
• The capacity may be 0.4 – 0.6 ha/hr.
Vertical conveyer reaper (Power Tiller operated):

• The reaper is front mounted on the power tiller.
• The capacity maybe 0.25 – 0.35 ha/hr.
The vertical conveyer reapers are used for harvesting mostly paddy
and wheat.
Reaper binder • A reaper which cuts the crops and ties them into neat and
uniform sheaves.
• It cuts and binds the crop simultaneously.
• It cuts the crop at the height of about 10 cm from the
ground level.
• The harvesting capacity is 0.25-0.35 ha/hr.
Swath It is the material as left by the harvesting machine
Sickle A curved steel blade having a hand grip used for harvesting by
manual power
Windrow A row of material formed by combining two or more swaths
Windrower A machine to cut crops and deliver them in a uniform manner in a
row
Note: COMBINE is a machine, which performs the functions of a reaper, thresher and winnower.
The power requirement of the combine may be taken on 8 HP/m width of cut for pulled type
machine and 12 HP/m width of cut for self-propelled machines.
11 Tractors:
11.1 History of tractor development:

The present tractor is the result of gradual development of machine in different stages.
• 1890: The word tractor appeared first on record in a patent issued on a tractor or traction
engine invented by George H. Harris of Chicago
• 1906: Successful gasoline tractor was introduced by Charles w. Hart and Charles H. Parr of
Charles City, Iowa
• 1908: First Winnipeg tractor trails were held
• 1911: First tractor demonstration was held at Omaha (Nebraska)

• 1915-1919: Power take off was introduced.
• 1920-1924: All purpose was developed
• 1936- 1937: Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
• 1950-1960: Manufacturing of diesel tractors on extensive basis throughout the world was
taken up
• 1960-1961: Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth.
• 1962-1970: Manufacturers like Tractor and Farm Equipment, Madras, Hindustan tractors at
Baroda, Escorts Tractors at Faridabad and International Harvester in Bombay started work
during this period
• 1971: Escorts Tractor Ltd. Started producing Ford Tractors 1973- Manufacture of HMT
Tractor was started
• 1974: Manufacture of Pitti and Kirlosker Tractor was started 1975- Harsha Tractors was
established
• 1981: Auto tractors were started
• 1982: Universal Tractors was established
• 1983-2003: GTCL tractors, M.M Tractors, Sonalika, VST, L&T, Bajaj Tractors were produced
11.2 Types of tractor:
11.2.1 Classification based on the type of construction:

• It is divided into two types: First type is the one in which the driver can easily sit and drive
the machine;
• The second type is the tractor in which the operator walks along side and it is also known as
Walking type tractor.
• One of the very important walking type tractors is: Power tiller
11.2.2 Classification based on the type of drives:

It is divided into Track type and Wheel Type:
Track type tractors: (Also called Chain Type or Crawlers Type)

• In these types of Tractors, instead of wheels, one track is fitted on either side. This track
gets drive from the sprocket run by real axle shaft.
• To steer the Tractor, there is no steering gear fitted.
• Here, the machine is steered by applying brakes to one side of the track while the other
track is in motion.
Wheel Type Tractors:

• Tractors, having three of four pneumatic wheels are called wheel tractors.
• Four-wheel tractors are most popular everywhere.
11.2.3 Classification based on the purpose for which they are used:
✓ Utility Tractors
✓ Row Crop Tractor
✓ Orchard Type
✓ Industrial Tractor
✓ Garden Tractor
✓ Rotary Tillers
✓ Implement Carrier
✓ Earth Moving Tractors
11.3 Tractor components:

A tractor is made of the following main units:
✓ I.C. engine
✓ Clutch
✓ Transmission gears
✓ Differential unit
✓ Final drive
✓ Rear wheels
✓ Front wheels
✓ Steering mechanism
✓ Hydraulic control and hitch system
✓ Brakes
✓ Power take off unit
✓ Tractor pulley
✓ Control panel
NOTE:
“In India, four-wheel tractors for agricultural operations are fitted with 25-80 hp. Walking type
tractors are fitted with 8-12 hp engines”.
12 Power Tiller:

Let us understand the background of Power Tiller:
12.1 Background of Power Tiller:

• It is a prime mover in which the direction of travel and its control for field operation is
performed by the operator walking behind it.
• It is also known as Hand tractor or walking type tractor. The concept of power tiller came in
the world in the year 1920.
• Japan is the first country to use power tiller on large scale. In Japan, the first successful
model of power tiller was designed in the year 1947.
• In India power tiller was introduced in the year 1963.
• Manufacturing of several makes of power tillers like Iseki, Sato, Krishi, Kubota, Yanmar and
Mitsubishi were started in India after 1962.
12.2 Components of power tiller:

Power tiller consists of the following main parts:
✓ Engine
✓ Transmission gears
✓ Clutch
✓ Brakes
✓ Rotary Unit
Note:
• All the power tillers are fitted with an I.C engine. At present, most of the power tillers are
fitted with diesel engine.
• Only Iseki made have used kerosene engine.
• The other makers like Kubota, Mitsubishi, Krishi, Yanmar and Satoh have used diesel engines
in India.
• Usually 2 to 4 ply pneumatic tyres are used in power tillers. The pressure of the tyre ranges
from 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2.
13 Tillage Implements:
First, we shall deal with the Primary Tillage Implements:

13.1 Ploughs:
• The main implement which is used for primary tillage is Plough used for ploughing
operations.
• Ploughing is the primary tillage operation which is performed to cut, break and invert the
soil partially or completely.
13.2 Types of plough:

The different type of ploughs are as follows:
✓ Indigenous plough
✓ Mould board plough
✓ Disc plough
✓ Chisel plough
✓ Sub soiler
✓ Rotary plough
13.3 List of Primary Tillage Implements:

Country Plough
MB Plough

Bose Plough
Tractor
Power tiller
14 Secondary Tillage Implements:

Let us start by understanding the simplest implement:
14.1 Harrow:
• A harrow is an implement that cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and
pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix materials with soil.
• It is an implement used to break the clods after ploughing, to collect trash from the
ploughed land and to level the seed bed.
• Harrow is used for harrowing, which is a secondary tillage operation, which pulverizes,
smoothens and packs the soil in seed bed preparation and to control weeds.
14.2 Types of harrows used in India:

✓ Disc harrow;
✓ Spring tooth harrow
✓ Spike tooth harrow

✓ Blade harrow (Bakhar)
✓ Guntaka
✓ Triangular harrow
✓ Bodela
✓ Zig-zag harrow
✓ Bindha
✓ Other harrows
14.3 Disc Harrow:
• It is a harrow, which performs the harrowing operation by means of a set of rotating discs,
each set being mounted on a common shaft.
• Disc harrow is found very suitable for hard ground with full of stalks and grasses.
• It cuts the lumps of soil, clods and roots.
Specification (tractor drawn):
Length (mm) 1980-2260

Width (mm) 1150-1900
Height (mm) 1143-1350
Number of Discs (mm) 10-16
Diameter of discs (mm) 457-660
Pitch of Discs (mm) 228-280
Weight (kg) 330-490
Capacity (ha/day) 2.5
Power requirement (hp/kw) 20-60/15-45, tractor
14.4 Spike Tooth Harrow:

• Spike tooth harrow has teeth resembling long spikes that stir the soil.
• These harrows are also known as peg tooth harrow, drag harrow, section harrow, or
smoothing harrow.
• Its principal use is to smoothen and level the soil directly after ploughing.
• It will stir the soil to a depth of about 5 cm, if weighted.
14.5 Spring Tooth Harrow:

• Spring tooth harrows are made in sections somewhat like spike tooth harrows.
• The sections vary in width from 0.9 to 1.7m.
• Spring tooth harrows are adapted for use in rough and stony ground.
• They are also used extensively to loosen previously ploughed soil ahead of grain drill
seeding rice or small grains.
• The teeth will penetrate deeper than those on spike tooth harrow, and they will give when
obstructions are struck.
• Spring tooth harrow is also called as quack grass, and Bermuda grass eradicator, since the
teeth penetrate deeply, tear out and bring the roots to the surface.
14.6 Acme Harrow:

It is a special type of animal drawn harrow having a transverse horizontal frame with stiff curved
blades. Also known as blade harrow; curved knife-tooth harrow.
14.7 Patela:
• It is a wooden plank used for smoothening the soil and crushing the clods. It is also used for
removing the weeds.
• The size of the Patela varies in the range of 1200 to 3000 mm.
• The weight of Patela varies between 45 to 55 kg only.
• The main components of Patela are: Plank and Weeding hooks.
14.8 Blade harrows:

There are two implements under this: Bakhar and Guntaka.
14.8.1 Bakhar:
• It is an implement which consists of one or more blades attached to the beam or frame,
used for shallow working of the soil with minimum of soil inversion.
• It is used to prepare seed beds mostly in clayey soils.
• It works like a sweep which moves into the top surface of the soil without inverting the soil.

14.8.2 Guntaka:
It is an improved type of blade harrow. The functions of Guntaka are same as that of Bakhar.
14.9 Bodela:
It is twin blade harrow used in the Southern region of India.
14.10 Power harrow – tractor drawn:

• A power harrow tills the soil maintaining the same profile of the field.
• It pulverizes the upper and lower layer of soil without turning them upside down and thus it
forms a good seed bed as well as good soil mulch.
• It consists of two horizontal cross bars fitted with rigid pegs which reciprocate taking power
from the PTO of a tractor.
• The pegs are spaced 200 mm wide and are staggered with respect to each cross bar.
• The two bars move in opposite directions and hence the implement is dynamically balanced.
• The oscillating pegs break the clods and pulverizes the soil to a fine tilth.
• The width of the operation is 2000 mm and the field capacity is around 1.5 ha/day.
14.11 Rotary Tiller:

• The rotary tiller or rotary cultivator is widely considered as the most important implement as
it provides fine degree of soil pulverization.
• It is directly mounted to the tractor and operated.
14.12 Land packer or Culti-packer:

• The implement consists of number of cast iron V- shaped rollers mounted on three axles.
The implement can be operated either with one or three gangs.
• Sometimes it can be attached behind disc harrow (trailing type) to affect compaction for
moisture conservation.
Specification:
Gang span (mm) 1425
Number of gangs 1-3
Working width with 3 gangs (mm) 3200-4100
Number of rollers in each gang 14
Roller width (mm) 102
Roller diameter (mm) 46
Power Requirement (hp/kW) 35/26.25, Tractor
Now, let us have a look at the secondary tillage implements for Rice Cultivation:
14.13 Tillage Implements for Rice Cultivation:
14.13.1 Cage Wheels:

• This is an iron wheel, lugged with L angles.
• The tractor will not work satisfactorily in ploughing / puddling of rice fields due to slippage of
rubber wheels.
• To overcome this difficulty iron wheels are introduced which are called cage wheel.
• The width of full cage wheel is 1 m and that of the half cage wheel is 0.5 m.
14.13.2 Puddler:
• Puddler is used for churning the soil with standing water while preparing fields for paddy
transplantation.
• It is used after completing an initial ploughing with iron plough or country plough.
• Puddling is done in standing water of 5-10 cm depth.
15 Implements used for both primary and secondary tillage:
15.1 Rotavator:
• It consists of a steel frame, 3-point hitch system, a rotary shaft on which blades are
mounted, power transmission system and a gearbox.
• The blades are of L-shape, made from medium carbon steel or alloy steel, hardened and
tempered to suitable hardness It uses the power from tractor PTO.
• Rotavator is used as both primary and secondary tillage operations. A good seedbed and
pulverization of the soil is achieved in a single pass of the rotavator.
Specification:
Weight (kg) 230-310

Working width (mm) 1200-1720
Working depth (mm) 80-100
Rotor speed (rpm) 210-240
Capacity (ha/hr) 0.38-0.50

Power source 35-65 hp tractor
16 Implements used for inter-culture operations:
16.1 Three tyned cultivator with seeding attachment:

• This implement can be used for both secondary tillage operations and for interculture of row
crops by detaching the seeding attachment.
• It is also used for sowing crops in three rows.
• The rate of seed dropping is manually controlled.
The main parts of the cultivator are:
✓ Frame
✓ Seeding attachment
✓ Shovel
✓ Tine
✓ Handle
✓ Beam
17 Plant Protection Equipment:
17.1 Sprayers:
Types of Spray:
Based up on the volume of liquid handled, sprayers may be classified into:
✓ High volume spray (more than 400 liters /ha)

✓ Low volume spray (5 to 400 liters/ hectare)
✓ Ultra-low volume sprayer (ULV) spray (less than 5 liters /ha) - One hectare of crop can be
treated in around 2.5 hour. ULV spraying can be defined as plant protection in which total
volume of liquid applied amount to a few milli litre per acre. It is mainly used in aircraft
spraying.
17.2 Commercial Sprayer:

Sprayers are of three types:
✓ Manually operated
✓ Engine operated
✓ Airplane operated
Manually operated sprayers are classified as follows:

✓ Hand atomizer type
✓ Stirrup pump type
✓ Knapsack type

✓ Bucket type
✓ Hand compression sprayer
✓ Rocket sprayer
✓ Foot sprayer
Engine operated sprayer is classified as follows:

✓ Knapsack mist sprayer duster
✓ Power sprayer
17.3 Duster:
• Duster is a machine to apply chemical in dust form.
• Dusters make use of air streams to carry pesticides in finely divided dry form on the plants.
17.3.1 Types of duster:

The following are the various types:
✓ Plunger type
✓ Knapsack type
✓ Rotary type
✓ Power operated duster
18 Farm Processing Equipments:
Let us have a look at some of the processing equipments:

S.No Farm Processing Equipment Uses
1 Chaff Cutter Machine used for cutting fodder
2 Feed Grinders Farm products are reduced in sizes by cutting or crushing
operations.
Two types of grinders are used for the grinding of materials:
Hammer Mill; Burr Grinder
Hammer Mill It is used to break the product by means of revolving
beaters. They are usually operated at the speed of 1500 to
4000 rev/min.
Burr Grinder Grinders using burrs are called Burr Grinder.
It operates between 650 to 750 rev/min.
3 Processing of Different Crops
(there are many, but we will
have a look at Ginning of
cotton)
Ginning of cotton • Ginning is the process of separation of cotton seed
from the lint.
• After the cotton has been picked, it is ginned in order
to separate the fibres or lint from the seeds and

short fibres.
• The equipment for cotton ginning is called Gin.
The gins are usually of two types:
✓ Roller Gin;
✓ Saw Gin;
4 Rice Processing Let us discuss this in a separate section below
5 Seed Processing Let us discuss this in a separate section below
6 Grain Driers • Grain drying is the process of conditioning the grains
for safe storage.
• Important point to be noted is: Grain is a living
organism and during the drying process, its life must
be fully safeguarded.
Grain Drying is based on two principles:

• Thin layer drying (It refers to the drying of grains
which are entirely exposed to the air, moving
through the grains; Grain depth is not more than 20
cm)
• Deep bed drying (It includes bin or batch type driers)
• In this process, the drying air has to pass through a
layer of more than 20 cm thickness of grain.
• In this process, grain does not move.
• It is contained in a bin.
• The natural or heated air is forced through the
bottom of the bin upward through the wet grain).
7 Dairy Equipments Important machineries used in dairy industry are:
✓ Milking machine;
✓ Heater;
✓ Pasteuriser;
✓ Bottle filling unit;
✓ Bottle capping unit;
✓ Bottle and can washing unit;
✓ Cream separator;
✓ Refrigerator
Pasteurization This is discussed in the section below
19 Seed Processing:
19.1 Phase of seed processing:

There are three phases of seed processing:

First phase of processing consists of:
✓ Scalping
✓ Debearding (Debearder is used)
✓ Hulling
Debearder: Oats, barleys, some vegetables and flower seeds have appendages, hairs that make
them difficult to be processed. These can be removed by a vigorous rubbing or abrading action.
The mechanical device ‘Debearder’ is used to rub the seeds.
Second phase consists of removal of inert materials, weed seed, other crop seed and broken seed.
Air-screen cleaner is used for this purpose.
Third phase includes:

✓ Drying
✓ Treating
✓ Bagging
20 Pasteurization:
It is defined as heating the milk up to specified temperature for a predetermined duration of time
for removing bacteria and harmful organism from the milk.
20.1 Pasteurization is mainly done in one of the following ways:

• Heating the milk upto 61◦C and holding it at that temperature for 30 minutes;
• Heating the milk upto atleast 71◦C and holding it at that temperature for at least 15
seconds;
20.2 Main types of pasteurizers:

✓ Batch Type (Heating the milk upto 61◦C and holding it at that temperature for 30 minutes)
✓ High Temperature Short Time (HTST) pasteurizer (Heating the milk upto atleast 71◦C and
holding it at that temperature for at least 15 seconds; There is a similar pasteurizer called
Ultra high temperature short time is also used at some places in which milk is heated to
135◦C temperature and kept at that temperature for only 2 seconds)
✓ Vacreators
21 Pumps for Irrigation:

Pump is the most effective means for lifting water from open wells, tube wells, ponds, rivers and
streams.
Let us have a look at the types of pumps for agricultural purposes:
21.1 Types of pumps for agricultural purposes:

✓ Centrifugal pump
✓ Vertical Turbine pump

✓ Submersible pump
✓ Propeller pump
✓ Jet pump
✓ Reciprocating pump
Let us have a look at the comparative study of the various types of pumps:
Comparative study of the various types of pumps:
Type of pump Pumping depth Remarks Advantage Disadvantage

(m)
Centrifugal pump 3 to 4.6 m It is a rotary 1) Smooth even 1) Looses
machine in flow primed
which there 2) It may pump water easily
is an water 2) Special care
impeller containing to maintain
rotating sand or silt designed
inside the 3) Low starting head and
casing. torque speed
It draws in 4) Reliable and
the liquid at good service
its centre 5) Free from
and throws shocks and
out the liquid vibrations.
through an
opening at
the side of
the casing
due to
centrifugal
force.
Vertical turbine More than 7.5 m 1) Smooth even 1) Special care

pump flow needed to
maintain
designed
head and
speed
2) Low starting 3) Requires a
torque sufficiently
straight well.
Requires

special care
for making
the shaft
vertical in
the well and
alignment is
difficult.
4) Reliable and Not suitable for
good service water containing
sand or silt.
5) Free from Liable to abrasion
shocks and from sand.
vibrations
Submersible More than 7.5 m The pump 1) Short pump Repair of unit
pump and motor shaft to motor requires complete
remain fully 2) Plumbness and removal from well
submerged
alignment of repair or
in water
well not replacement of
difficult. motor and pump is
3) Less costly.
maintenance
problem.
4) Lower
installation
cost.
5) Lower noise
Propeller pump 1 to 2.5 m These types 1) High discharge Its use is very
of pumps are at low heads limited due to less
used where pumping depth.
high
discharge of
water is
needed at
low heads
Jet pump 12 to 18 m It is a pump 1) Suitable for Efficiency is low
which low capacity
consists of a deep well
centrifugal
pumping.
pump and a
jet 2) It can be used
mechanism for high suction
(or ejector). lift where
The main ordinary
component centrifugal
are:

Nozzle; pump cannot
Venturi be used.
3) Simple in
construction
and easy in
maintenance.
Reciprocating Upto 45 m It consists of 1) Useful for 1) Capacity is
pump a cylinder home water low
and a piston supply 2) Not suitable
(or a
2) It is positive for irrigation.
plunger).
The piston displacement
moves in the pump.
air tight 3) Develops high
cylinder. head at low
Water is capacity
discharged
due to
reciprocating
action of the
piston.
22 Miscellaneous:
22.1 Implements for horticultural crops:
22.1.1 Post-Hole Digger:

Features:
• It consists of a frame, three-point hitch system and an auger.

• For operation of auger, it gets drive from tractor PTO shaft.
Specification:
Field capacity (pits/h) 12

Size of the augers (mm) 200, 250, 300
Cost of operation (Rs/pit) 12-15
Power Source(hp/kW) 35 /26.25, tractor
22.1.2 Dibber:
Dibbers are used to make holes in seed bed to plant seeds, seedlings and bulbs. They are
ergonomically designed consisting of a stainless-steel sharp dibber and a hard wood handle joined
together using a ferrule. The sharp dibber glides effortlessly into all soils. Overall length 27cm,
weight 290g.
Tractor operated turmeric harvester: The field capacity of the unit is 1.6 ha per day.
The tractor-drawn canopy shake system- citrus harvester: The harvester can travel between one-
half and one mile per hour and have the capacity to harvest between 100 and 200 trees per hour.
Self-propelled harvesting units- citrus harvester: 200 to 400 trees per hour to be harvested.
Power tiller operated potato digger: The field capacity is 0.4 ha/day
22.1.3 Paddy transplanter

What is a Transplanter? It is an equipment used for transplanting mat type paddy seedlings in the
main field. It is suitable for all types of paddy varieties grown by transplanting
22.1.4 Self-propelled paddy transplanter

The machine maintains a row to row spacing of 28 cm to 30 cm and plant to plant spacing of 14 to
16 cm. The planting capacity of the machine is about 0.05 to 0.1 hectare per hour Power
requirement is about 1.2 to 1.8 HP petrol engine.
Some points to remember

• Plough the filed 20-25 cm deep for paddy transplantation
• Apply Nitrogenous fertilizer 10-15 cm deep to prevent its loss
• To plant 1 ha (with 2 seedlings/hill at 20 X 20 cm spacing), use 18-25 kg good quality seeds
for modified mat nursery establishment
• A modified mat nursery establishes seedlings in a layer of soil mix, arranged on a firm
surface. Seedlings are ready for planting within 15-20 days after seeding (DAS).
22.2 Classification of crops as per difficulty level in Transplantation
23 Storage
• Grain is generally stored either in bags or in bulk.
• A combined system of bag-cum-bulk storage is also practiced in some parts of the country.
• In villages the bulk storage system is more common than the storage in bags which is
considered to be a practicable method· of storing grain in the government godowns as well
as in trade.
There main following three types of storage structures for storage of grains.
➢ Traditional storage structures

➢ Improved storage structures
➢ Modern storage structures
➢ Farm Silos
23.1 Traditional Storage Structures

In this types of storage structures the grain is generally stored in bulk. This types of storage
structures having generally capacities between 1 to 50 tonnes. The storage of grain is generally
done in one of the following storage structures in the different rural and urban regions of India in
bulk as well as in bag storage.
➢ Morai type storage structures

➢ Bukhari type storage structures
➢ Kothar type storage structure
➢ Mud Kothi type storage structure
➢ Muda type storage structure
➢ Kanaj type storage structure
➢ Kuthla type storage structure
➢ Metal/ Steel bin type storage structure
➢ Bag type storage structure
23.2 Improved Storage Structures

• Improved storage structures are the storage structures for storage of food grains.
• In this type of storage structures there are some improvements made in traditional storage
structures.
• This type of storage structures having a higher storage capacity and long-term storage of
food grains than traditional storage structures.
• Improved type of storage structures having capacities is generally 1.5 to 150 tonnes.
• The storage of grain is generally done in one of the following storage structures in the
different rural and urban regions of India in bulk, bag as well as bag and bulk storage.
23.3 Pusa bin

Pusa bin is like other traditional storage structures made of mud. To make the storage structure
moisture proof a plastic film is used in all the inner sides of the bin.
23.4 Brick and cement bin

These type of storage structures are very strong and effect of seasons on these is minimum.
23.5 Bunker Storage

These type of storage structure is used for long term storage and a larger volume of grains storage.

23.6 'CAP' Storage structures
The word 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth, plinth from the bottom and cover from the top. This
type of open storage is considered as transit storage and serves the purpose of storage of food
grains in bags for short period.
24 Modern Storage Structures

• In India, for larger volume of food grains are to be stored in bulk is 'silo' and conventional
godowns (Shed) designed for bagged storage.
• The godowns side walls are of brick or stone masonry and sloped roofing in asbestos or
Corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) sheets over steel trusses.
• Silos are constructed from steel or reinforced concrete.
• There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any modern large/ capacity processing plant.
• The modern permanent storage system should be selected for the safe keeping of stored
grains and other products.
• The modern storage structures should be selected on the basis of first on quality and then on
cost considerations.
There are following types of modern storage structures.
24.1 Types of modern storage structures:

✓ Silo type of storage structures
✓ Shallow bins
✓ Deep bins
✓ Shed
✓ Farm Silos
✓ Tower silos
✓ Horizontal silos
✓ Pit Silos
✓ Trench Silos
25 Modified Storage Systems

• MAP (or MAS) is modified atmosphere packaging in which we can change the composition of
gas in a container with a fixed gas mixture.
• After doing so we do not have any control over the process and the gas composition changes
inevitably in the container due to activities such as product respiration.
• Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) (or CAS) we have control over the storage
atmosphere (which is in fact air tight).
• As the desired gas composition (i.e. high carbon dioxide level and low oxygen level) changes
due to metabolic activity of fruits and vegetables, it is possible to add fresh air or nitrogen to
achieve pre-determined (desired) gaseous composition.
• The normal composition of air is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with the balance made up of
carbon dioxide (0.035%), other gases and water vapour.

• An increase in the proportion of carbon dioxide and/or a reduction in the proportion of
oxygen within specified limits maintains the original product quality and extends the product
shelf life.

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AGRICULTURE

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2 Various forms of farm power:

2.1 Mobile Power:

2.1.1 Human Power:

2.1.2 Animal Power:

✓ Buffaloes: About 12% of the body weight

2.1.3 Mechanical Power:

Mechanical power means the power coming from machines:

2.2 Stationary power:

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2.2.2 Renewable energy:

Now, we have understood the various sources of farm power.

3 Let us have a look at certain important terminologies used in agricultural

3.1 Horse power (HP):

Conversion factors from work to power

4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp

75 kg m of work /second = 1.0 hp.

Roughly, 1.0 hp = 746 watts

3.2 Indicated horse power (IHP):

3.3 Brake horse power (BHP):

IHP = BHP + FHP

3.4 Power take-off horse power (PTO HP):

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3.5 Frictional horse power (FHP):

4.1 Various stages/categories in which mechanization is involved:

5.1 What are the equipments used for land levelling?

5.1.1 Soil Scoop:

5.1.2 Leveling board - bullock drawn:

The following can also be used:

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6.1 Seed Drill:

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6.2 Seed Cum Fertilizer drill:

6.3 Different type of furrow openers are:

7.1 Some specific planters are:

7.1.1 Potato Planter (Automatic Seed Dropping):

7.1.2 Potato Planter (semi-automatic):

7.1.3 Calibration of Seed Drill:

8 Weeding and interculture:

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8.3 Long Handle Weeders:

9.1 Types of cultivator:

Let us have a look at the various types of cultivators:

9.1.1 Duck foot type cultivator:

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Number of sweeps 5-7

9.1.2 Shovel type cultivator

Number of tynes 7-11

10 Harvesting and Threshing:

10.1 Methods of harvesting:

10.2 Certain terms in connection with harvesting:

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Vertical conveyer reaper (Tractor mounted):