1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
In 2008, total worldwide energy consumption was 80 to 90 percent derived from the
combustion of fossil fuels. This is equals to an average power consumption rate of 15
terawatts. In the International Energy Outlook 2009 (IEO2009) by U.S. Energy
Information Administration (EIA) states that world energy consumption increases from
472 quadrillion Btu (1 Btu = 1.06 kilojoules) in 2006 to 552 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and
678 quadrillion Btu in 2030 by prediction. The recession of current economic slow down
the world demand for energy in the near term as manufacturing and consumer demand for
goods and services are slow.

The use of all energy sources increases over the time. IEO2009 states that the
world oil prices will remain relatively high through most of the projection period. Liquid
fuels and other petroleum are the world’s slowest growing source of energy. The liquids
fuel consumption increases at an average annual rate of 0.9 percent from 2006 to 2030.
Renewable energy source are the fastest growing source of the world energy, with
consumption increasing by 3.0 percent per year. The increasing of oil prices, as well as
rising concern about the environmental impact of using fossil fuel and strong government
incentives for increasing renewable energy sources in most countries around the world
improves the prospects for renewable energy sources worldwide.
 2

FIGURE 1.1 : World Marketed Energy Consumption 1980-2030

From the figure 1.1 above, the usage of liquids fuel such as petroleum is huge
throughout the years. It follows by coal, natural gases and renewable energies. Renewable
energies increase actively after year 2005. Nuclear power remains the lowest from year
1980 towards year 2030.

Although liquid fuels are predicted to be the largest source of energy, but the
liquids share of the world marketed energy consumption declines from 36 percent in 2006
to 32 percent in 2030. IEO2009 states that this declining of consumption is due to the
world oil prices and lead to many energy users especially in the industrial and electric
power sectors to switch from liquid fuels to another energy sources. From 2006 to 2030,
the liquid consumption rate is declining in residential, commercial and electric power
sectors throughout the whole world.
 3

Natural gas remains an important fuels for electricity generation worldwide after
liquid fuels, because it is more efficient and emit less carbon than other fossil fuels.
IEO2009 stated that total natural gas consumption increases by 1.6 percent per year on
average and its use in the electric power sector increases by 2.1 percent per year. With
world oil prices increasing, consumers are expected to choose less expensive natural gas
to meet their energy needs especially in the industrial sector.

World coal consumption increases by 1.7 percent per year on average from 2006
to 2030. There is no policies or legislation that would limit the growth of coal use,
therefore the United States, China and India are expected to turn to coal in place of more
expensive fuels. These three nations account for 88 percent of the projected net increase
in coal consumption from 2006 to 2030 reported by IEO2009. The only decreases in coal
consumption is in Europe and Japan where the populations are either growing slowly or
declining, therefore the electricity demand growth is slow and renewable energy sources,
natural gas and nuclear power are likely to be used to replace coal for electricity
generation.

Electricity generation from nuclear power worldwide increases from 2.7

trillionkilowatthours in 2005 to 3.0 trillion kilowatthours in 2015 and 3.8 trillion
kilowatthours in 2030 in the IEO2009 reference. The increasing fossil fuel prices, energy
security, and greenhouse gas emissions lead to the development of new nuclear
generating capacity.However, there are still some issues that slow the development of
new nuclear power plant such as plant safety, radioactive waste disposal, and he
proliferation of nuclear weapons. High capital and maintenance costs may keep some
countries from expanding their nuclear power programs.

As the world’s population increases and there is likely to be demand for more
electrical power. Energy sources available in the world including coal, nuclear,
hydroelectric, gas, wind, solar, and biomass. In addition, fusion had been originally
proposed as the long-term source.

TABLE 1.1 : Advantages And Disadvantages Of All Form Of Energy
Source Advantages
Coal  In expensive
 Easy to recover (in US
and Russia)
Hydroelectri  Very inexpensive once
c dam is built
 Government has
invested heavily in
building dams,
particularly in the
Western U.S.
Gas/Oil  Good distribution
system for current use
levels
 Easy to obtain
 Better as space heating
energy source
Wind  Wind is free if available
 Good source for
4
Disadvantages
 Requires expensive air pollution
controls
 Significant contributor to acid
rain and global warming
 Requires extensive
transportation system
 Very limited source since
depends on water elevation
 Many dams available are
currently exist
 Dam collapse usually leads to
loss of life
 Dams have affected aquatics
 Environmental damage for ares
flooded and downstream
 Very limited availability as
shown by shortage
 Could be a major contributor to
global warming
 Very expensive for energy
generation
 Large price swings with supply
and demand
 Liquefied Natural Gas storage
facilities and gas transmission
system have met opposition
from enviromentalists
 Need 3X the amount of installed
generation to meet demand
 5

periodic water pumping  Limited to windy areas

demands of farms as  Limited to small generator size
used earlier in 1990s  Highly climate dependent
 Generation and  May affect endangered birds,
maintenance costs have however tower design can
decreased significantly reduce impact.
 Well suited to rural
areas
Solar  Sunlight is free when  Limited to sunny areas
available throughout the world
 Cost are dropping  Does not require special
materials for mirrors/panels that
can affect environment
 Current technology requires
large amounts of land for small
amounts of energy generation
Biomass  Industry in its infancy  Inefficient if small plants are
 Could create jobs used
because smaller plants  Could be significant contributor
would be used to global warming because fuel
has low heat content
Hydrogen  Combines easily with  Very costly to produce
oxygen to produce  Takes more energy to produce
water and energy hydrogen then energy that could
be recovered
Fusion  Hydrogen and tritium  Breakeven point has not been
could be used as fuel reached after 40 years of
source expensive research and
 Higher energy output commercially available plants
per unit mass than not expected for at least 35
fission years
 6

 Low radiation levels

associated with process
than fission-based
reactors
Nuclear  Fuel is inexpensive  Requires larger capital cost
 Energy generation is the because of emergency,
most concentrated containment, radioactive waste
source and storage systems
 Waste is more compact  Requires resolution of the long-
than any source term high level waste storage
 Extensive scientific issue in most countries
basis for the cycle  Potential nuclear proliferation
 Easy to transport as new issue
fuel
 No greenhouse or acid
rain effects
 Does not emit carbon

Throughout the world, we need energy source that are cheap in production, less
bad effect to the environment and produces massive energy. As one can see from the table
1.1 above, all energy sources have both advantages and disadvantages. Nuclear has a
number of advantages that warrant its use as one of the many method of supplying an
energy-demanding world. Energy demand will continue to increase with time. Therefore,
the world need to choose wisely which energy source can stay long and do not depleted in
the future. Nuclear method is one of the examples that can last long in the sense of energy
supplying.

Several major reasons that people working in the field still remain optimistic about
nuclear power are :

 The energy produced per amount of material consumed is highest available

 7

 Costs are competitive with coal, the major source used in the world
 Uranium, the source material is abundant
 Plutonium, a by-product of commercial nuclear plant operation, can also be used
as a fuel
 The amount of waste produced is the least of any major energy production process
 Nuclear energy provides benefits other than electricity generation

Uranium-235 is the isotope of uranium that is used in nuclear reactor. Uranium-235

can produce 3.7 million times as much energy as the same amount of coal. The fuel
assemblies remain in the reactor for 3 to 5 years. The waste, in the form of the radioactive
fission products, remains inside the fuel. 2000 kg of uranium are converted to waste after
1.5 years of operation. Currently, the fuel assemblies remain in the pools for about 10 to
15 years. After that time, they are being transferred to special storage where air can be
used for cooling.

1.2 Objectives

Till today, the nuclear power industry has been developing and improving reactor
technology for more than five decades of improvement and new generations of nuclear
reactors are in research and development to meet the rapidly increasing energy demand in
the world market. Therefore, the overall objective of this study is to do comparative study
on nuclear reactor technologies and understanding each reactor’s technology and their
 8

requirements. The specific objectives of this study is to perform research study on nuclear
energy in nuclear power industry and its concepts, study on current nuclear reactor
technologies, comparing on several types of nuclear reactor that are currently being used
in the world market, review on technical, economical, commercial assessment and safety
of nuclear power technology, and finally, the comparison and conclusions included in this
project are intended to provide an overall picture of the current status of reactor
technology.

1.3 Methodology

The following approaches are adapted in achieving the objectives. Firstly, is literature
studies. Literature studies done on nuclear reactor history, development by region,
statistic, nuclear reactor generations, nuclear reactor types and latest nuclear reactor.
Secondly is information collection. Next will be information analysis and data
interpretation for collected information. Analyze and summarize collected information
and comparison will be make for nuclear reactor comparison studies. Follow by that will
be the model making process. Model of AP1000 and APR1400 reactor coolant system is
made. And finally is documentation. All data collected after summarized and analyze will
be documented in a systematic manner. Documentation will be done throughout the
whole project process so that follow up of information shall be easy to trace at the end of
the project and thesis will be the last documentation work for this project.

CHAPTER 2
 9

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction To Nuclear Power

2.1.1 What Is Nuclear Power
Many elements exist in nature with a variety of isotopes. Chemically identical, the
various isotopes only differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei. The majority of the
isotopes found on earth are stable but several, including uranium 238 (238U) shown in
figure 2.3, are not and these are termed radioactive elements. These can spontaneously
naturally decay to form other elements by three processes which are the , , and  decay.
During -decay, a helium nucleus is emitted, with -decay a high energy electron is
formed and -decay results in the formation of a high energy photon.

Conversely to the above natural decay processes, a nucleus can be transformed

through fission. This usually occurs in highly unstable nuclei, for example, if a U235
nucleus absorbs an extra neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission and splits into two or more
fragments, which form atoms of other elements along with some more neutrons. The
atoms remaining are termed fission products and examples including strontium and
xenon. The neutrons produced in the fission process can be absorbed by other U235 nuclei
and the process can continue in a self-sustaining chain reaction if the concentration of
U235 in the material is sufficiently high, beside other elements is form, this process emit
high energy to surroundings in the form of heat. Figure 2.1 shows a clear picture of
nuclear fission.
 10

FIGURE 2.1 : Nuclear Fission Process

Using neutron moderators to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to

cause more fission controls these nuclear chain reactions. Nuclear bomb is an
uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction. All these nuclear activity happens in the
nuclear reactors. A nuclear reactor is a device which nuclear chain reaction are initiated,
controlled and sustained at a steady state to convert nuclear energy into extremely high
heat.

Beside nuclear fission, there is another process which can produce massive energy
which are the nuclear fusion. In figure 2.2, nuclear fusion is the process by which charged
atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus. When the nuclear fusion is an
uncontrolled chain reaction, it can result in thermonuclear explosion similar to hydrogen
bomb. Research into controlled nuclear fusion to produce fusion power for production of
electricity has been conducted over the past 50 years. There are some technological and
scientific difficulties with the nuclear fusion process while doing the research and
therefore it is still in progress till today.
 11

FIGURE 2.2 :Nuclear Fusion

FIGURE 2.3 : Uranium Ore

2.1.2 How Nuclear Power Works

The purpose of a nuclear power plant is not to produce or release nuclear power. The
purpose of a nuclear power plant is to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants have
many similarities to other electrical generating facilities. It should also be obvious that
nuclear power plants have some significant differences from other plants. There are
several known methods to produce electricity. The most practical for large scale
production and distribution involves the use of an electrical generator. In the electrical
generator, a magnet or we called it as rotor revolves inside a coil of wire named as stator,
creating a flow of electrons inside the wire. This flow of electrons is known as electricity.
Some mechanical device such as wind turbine, water turbine, steam turbine and diesel
engine must be available to provide the motive force for the rotor. When a turbine is
attached to the electrical generator, the kinetic energy of the wind, falling water, or steam
pushes against the fan-type blades of the turbine causing the turbine to turn and therefore
the attached rotor of the electrical generator to spin and produce electricity.
 12

FIGURE 2.4 : Hydroelectric Plant

For example, as figure 2.4, in a hydroelectric power plant, water flowing from a higher
level flow to a lower level and travel through the metal blades of a water turbine causing
the rotor of the electrical generator to spin and produce electricity.

FIGURE 2.5 : Fossil Fuel

Steam Plant

In a fossil-fueled power plant as figure 2.5 above, heat generated from the burning of
coal, oil, or natural gases. This will converts the heat and boils the water into steam which
 13

piped to the turbine. In the turbine, the steam passes through the blades which spins the
electrical generator and produce electricity. After the stream leave the turbine, it will
condensed back into water in the condenser and pumped back to the boiler to reheat into
steam.

FIGURE 2.6 : Nuclear Fuel Steam Plant

In a nuclear power plant as shown in figure 2.6, many of the components are similar to
those in a fossil-fueled plant such as the stream turbine and generator. The only different
is the steam boiler that is replaced by a Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS). The NSSS
consist of a nuclear reactor, a device for nuclear fission to happens and transfer heat
emitted from the nuclear reaction to boil the water into high pressure steam. The high
pressure steam created will turn the blades of the steam turbine for electrical generator.
 14

Besides from this, nuclear power plant consist of advance cooling system that used to
cooled or as a safety system to control the heat emitted from the nuclear reaction.

2.1.3 Nuclear Fuel Cycle

The fuel cycle for a nuclear power station is much more complicated than for a traditional
fossil fuel power plant. For example, a coal power station, the fuel is extracted,
transported to the plant where it is used to burnt and any ash is either sold to the
construction industry or disposed off. The fuel cycle for a nuclear plant can include all of
the steps shown in figure below. When fuel reaches the end of its usable life, it is
removed from the nuclear reactor and can be reprocessed to re-extract the unused
uranium or plutonium. This process is sometimes called “closing the back end of the fuel
cycle” and reduces the amount of fresh uranium that has to be purchased, thus reducing
the cost of the fuel for electricity generation. Nuclear fuel cycle are summarized in the
figure 2.7 below.
 15

FIGURE 2.7 : Nuclear Fuel Cycle

2.1.3.1 Mining

Most of the uranium comes from Australia, Canada or United States. The impurities are
removed at the side in order to save on transportation costs and the uranium ore
concentrate also known as the “yellow cake” as shown in figure 2.8 below is taken to be
processed into uranium metal or enriched UO2 pallets. The level of radiation is still very
low because it is still stable.

FIGURE 2.8 : Uranium

(Yellow Cake)

2.1.3.2 Processing and Enrichment

Once purification is complete, the yellow cake is concerted to uranium hexafluoride

(UF6). Uranium hexafluoride is gaseous, and is spun in a very high speed to separate the
lighter U235 from the heavier U235. If the purification had not been carried out, other light
gases would exist in the centrifuge and contaminate the enriched product. The enrichment
process yields large amount of uranium in which the level of U235 is reduced to about
 16

0.2% to 0.25%, this is termed as depleted uranium. This material is currently stored but it
may be used in the future fast reactors as a fertile fuel.

2.1.3.3 Fabrication

The next step in the process is to convert the enriched UF6 into uranium dioxide for used
in the reactors, commonly is Pressurize Water Reactor (PWR). Unenriched uranium ore is
converted into uranium metal rods for the use in Magnox reactors.

The production of oxide fuel from the enriched UF6 can be performed via a
method named as the dry route. In dry conversion the UF6 is decomposed by steam to
produce UO2F2 which is a solid. This is then reduced to UO2 using fluidized bed
technology, a two step process using a rotary kiln (a furnace or oven for drying). The UO2
powder produced at the end of this process is then pressed by compression into pellets.
The shape and size of the pellets differs for different reactors. Solid pellets are used in
most PWRs and annular pellets are used in Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor (AGR).

Annular pellets have a cylindrical hole running through the centre of the pellet and
thus require a retractable pin in the press. The purpose of this hole is to accommodate
distortions in the fuel and fission gasses formed in the reactor. Once the pellets have been
pressed, they are sintered at 1750 oC in a reducing atmosphere of hydrogen or a mixture
of hydrogen and nitrogen to prevent oxidation and the formation of U3O8. This process
increases the density of the pellets and gives them the physical properties they requires to
withstand the high temperature conditions in the reactor.

The next process is to assemble the pellets into fuel pins or elements. These differ
wildly among the different reactors but a similar process is used for both AGR and PWR
fuel elements. In both of these, the fuel pellets are stacked and weighed and then inserted
into the cladding. Once this is complete, the cladding is then filled with helium gas and
the ends are sealed, welded and tested.

The fuel is then transported and installed into the reactor where it is used until the
build-up of neutron absorbing fission products and other detrimental effects such as fuel
 17

swelling, require the fuel to be removed and either disposed off or reprocess again. This
completes the front end of the fuel cycle.

2.1.3.4 Reprocessing and Recycling or Disposal

After the fuel has been removed from the reactor, it enters the back end of the fuel cycle.
At this point, the fuel is highly radioactive due to the presence of fission products and
need to handle it by care. This fuel must be stored and cooled until the level of radioactive
is low enough to allow transport to the reprocessing site or the interim storage facility.
The fuel is normally stored in the ponds at the reactor site. These ponds are sealed
reinforced concrete structures filled with water. This acts as an effective radiation shield
and also provides cooling to the fuel which may otherwise heat to the point where the fuel
or the cladding becomes damaged and release contaminated material into the local
environment.

Once the material has cooled sufficiently, it is either taken to a storage site or to a
reprocessing plant. Reprocessing has several advantages over storage for later disposal
and these are listed here:

 Security of Supply : Security of supply is a concern for some countries where

there are no natural uranium deposits. This mean reprocessed uranium is a
valuable resource that should not be wasted. Some countries choose to store the
spend fuel and leave the reprocessing for later but corrosion of the fuel and
cladding materials can be a problem if it is to be stored for a long periods of time.
 Waste Management : The recovery of useful material means that the volume of
high level waste that must be disposed of is reduced by a factor of 9. The
radioactive content is also reduced as the alternative, direct disposal, adds
approximately 250kg of plutonium per year to the fuel awaiting burial. Since the
medium to long term radioactivity is dominated by plutonium isotopes, the
radioactivity over 10,000 years can be reduced by over 30%.
 18

 Improved Proliferation Resistance : Proliferation is the unlawful diversion of

fissile material. In particular, plutonium is potentially attractive to terrorist
organizations. While considerable effort is made to keep this material safe,
converting this material into mixed oxide (MOX) fuel makes it much less
attractive as the organization would not only have to move the bulky material but
to chemically separate it before it could be used.

Reprocessing fuel involves separating out the uranium and the plutonium from the
rest of the fuel. These two elements can consist of 97% to 99% of the spent fuel with the
remaining being high level waste including fission products and some of the minor
actinides, including neptunium, americium and californium. Once reprocessing is
complete, the uranium and plutonium are stored waiting to re-enter the fuel cycle at the
enrichment or fuel fabrication step. Figure 2.9 below are to summarized and give an
overview idea of nuclear fuel cycle.
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FIGURE 2.9 : Summarize of Nuclear Fuel Cycle

2.1.4 Nuclear Waste

Any kind of industry develops waste materials along side the desired products and the
nuclear industry is no different. The source of waste in the nuclear industry mainly come
from the following operations:

 Reprocessing spent fuel

 Final decommissioning when a plant reaches the end of its lifespan
 Military waste
 Surplus materials

Primary waste from fuel reprocessing includes the fission products, minor actinides
and the remains of the cladding. Secondary wastes that are formed during reprocessing
can include solvents that are no longer recoverable, worn out equipment or clothing and
other domestic waste that may have been contaminated with radioactive material. It’s the
aim of the industry to minimize the amount of secondary waste generated and to convert
as much of the radioactive material into a form that is both suited to long-term storage
and final disposal while taking up as small volume as possible. While doing this, the
environmental impact should be kept as low as reasonably attainable. Store pond shown
in figure 2.10 are used to store nuclear waste.
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FIGURE 2.10 : Store Pond For Nuclear Waste

2.1.5 Early Years of Nuclear Power

In the early years of nuclear power industry, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR)’s Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world’s first nuclear power plant to
generate electricity for a power grid and produced approximately 5 megawatts of electric
power. In 1954, Lewis Strauss, the chairman of the United States Atomic Energy
Commission spoke of electricity in the future being “too cheap to meter” and he refers to
hydrogen fusion but Strauss’s statement was interpreted as a promise of very cheap
energy from nuclear fission.

In 1956, the world’s first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield,
England shown in figure 2.11 was opened and generated initial capacity of 50MW and
later generation of 200MW. The first commercial nuclear generator to become
operational in the United States was the Shippingport Reactor.

U.S. Navy is the first organizations to develop nuclear power in the early stage for the
purpose of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers. It has a good nuclear safety record.
The U.S. Navy has operated more nuclear reactors than any other entity, including the
Soviet Navy, with no publicly known major incidents.

In December 1954, the first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571) was
put to sea. The U.S. Arm also launches a nuclear power program, beginning in the early
of 1954. The SM-1 Nuclear Power Plant at Ft. Belvoir, Va was the first power reactor in
the U.S. to supply electrical energy to a commercial grid in April 1957, before
Shippingport shown in figure 2.12.
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FIGURE 2.11 : Calder Hall, England

There is two major nuclear disaster happened in the nuclear power history. The
Chernobyl disaster and the Three Mile Island accident. The Chernobyl disaster shown in
figure 2.13 was a nuclear accident that happened on 26 April 1986 at Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant, Ukraine. It is the worst nuclear power plant disaster ever happened in
nuclear power history. On 26 April 1986, reactor number four at the Chernobyl plant
exploded. This explosion result in massive fire and highly radioactive fallout into the
atmosphere and over an extensive surrounding area, including the nearby town of Pripyat.
It was four hundred times more fallout was released than had been by the atomic bombing
of Hiroshima in world war two. The 2005 report prepared by the Chernobyl Forum, led
by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization
(WHO), attributed 56 direct deaths which include 7 accident workers and nine children
with thyroid cancer. Estimated of 4000 extra cancer deaths among the approximately
600,000 most highly exposed people. This accident raised concerns about the safety of
the nuclear power industry as well as nuclear power in general. Ever since this accident
 22

happened, the development of new nuclear power plant in the whole word is slowing
down.

FIGURE 2.12 : Shippingport, U.S.

 23

FIGURE 2.13 : Chernobyl Power Plant After The Explosion

The Three Mile Island nuclear accident shown in figure 2.14 happened in Three Mile
Island Nuclear Generating Station in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, United States on the
28 March 1979. The Three Mile Island nuclear accident was a partial core meltdown in
Unit 2 which are the pressurized water reactor manufactured by Babcock & Wilcox. It
was the most significant accident happened in the history of American commercial
nuclear power generating industry. It result in release of massive radioactive gases to the
surrounding atmosphere. This accident happened at 4 a.m. on the Wednesday, 28 March
1979 with failures in the non-nuclear secondary system, followed by stuck-open pilot-
operated relief valve in the primary system which leak large amounts of reactor coolant.
This mechanical failures is due to inadequate training and human factors because the
plant operators failed to recognize the situation as a loss of coolant accident. Since the
coolant is loss, the reactor will eventually heat up and result in partial core meltdown.
There are no deaths in this accident. The accident was followed by a slow development of
new nuclear plant construction in the United States.

FIGURE 2.14 : Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station

 24

2.1.6 World Nuclear Statistics

By year 2007, 14% of the world’s electricity came from nuclear power. Table below
shows that the percentage of nuclear power supply produced for a particular country. This
data is gained from International Energy Agency (IEA) year 2007.

TABLE 2.1 : Nuclear Power Percentage of Total Primary Energy Supply

France 42.6
Sweden 36.2
Lithuania 31.9
Armenia 27.7
Slovakia 24.8
Bulgaria 24.3
Switzerland 22.5
Belgium 21.9
Slovenia 21
Korea 17.9
Finland 17.3
Ukraine 16.1
Japan 15
Czech Republic 14.3
Hungary 13
Germany 12.3
Spain 10.3
United kingdom 9.1
United states 9
Canada 8.8
Russian Federation 6.1
Romania 3.8
Argentina 2.8
South Africa 2.3
Mexico 1.6
Netherlands 1.3
Brazil 1.2
China 0.8
India 0.8
Pakistan 0.8
From the table 2.1 above, the highest nuclear power generating as the primary
energy supply is France is year 2007 with 42.6% of its total generation from other source.
 25

TABLE 2.2 : Nuclear Electricity Generation 2008 and Reactor Operable

Country Nuclear Electricity Reactor Operable

Generation 2008 1 Sept 2009
Billion kWh %e No. MWe
Argentina 6.8 6.2 2 935
Armenia 2.3 39.4 1 376
Bangladesh 0 0 0 0
Belarus 0 0 0 0
Belgium 43.4 53.8 7 5728
Brazil 14.0 3.1 2 1901
Bulgaria 14.7 32.9 2 1906
Canada 88.6 14.8 18 12652
China 65.3 2.2 11 8587
Czech Republic 25 32.5 6 3686
Egypt 0 0 0 0
Finland 22.0 29.7 4 2696
France 418.3 76.2 59 63473
Germany 140.9 28.3 17 20339
Hungary 14.0 37.2 4 1826
India 13.2 2.0 17 3779
Indonesia 0 0 0 0
Iran 0 0 0 0
Israel 0 0 0 0
Italy 0 0 0 0
Japan 240.5 24.9 53 46236
Kazakhstan 0 0 0 0
North Korea 0 0 0 0
South Korea 144.3 35.6 20 17726
Lithuania 9.1 72.9 1 1185
Mexico 9.4 4.0 2 1310
Netherlands 3.9 3.8 1 485
Pakistan 1.7 1.9 2 400
Poland 0 0 0 0
Romania 7.1 17.5 2 1310
Russia 152.1 16.9 31 21743
Slovakia 15.5 56.4 4 1688
Slovenia 6.0 41.7 1 696
South Africa 12.7 5.3 2 1842
Spain 56.4 18.3 8 7448
Sweden 61.3 42.0 10 9104
Switzerland 26.3 39.2 5 3237
 26

Thailand 0 0 0 0
Turkey 0 0 0 0
Ukraine 84.3 47.4 15 13168
UAE 0 0 0 0
United Kingdom 52.5 13.5 19 11035
USA 809.0 19.7 104 101119
Vietnam 0 0 0 0
WORLD 2601 15 436 372,553

Table 2.2 above are showing that the nuclear electricity generation by year 2008
on each country around the world. Total of 2601 billion kWh been generate from these 44
countries. The total of 15% of the world generated electricity is from nuclear power.
There are 436 reactor operating worldwide by year 2009 which produce 372,533 MWe.

TABLE 2.3 : Reactors Under Construction and Reactor Planned

Country Reactors Under Reactors Planned

Construction Sept 2009
1 Sept 2009
No MWe No. MWe
Argentina 1 692 1 740
Armenia 0 0 0 0
Bangladesh 0 0 0 0
Belarus 0 0 2 2000
Belgium 0 0 0 0
Brazil 0 0 1 1245
Bulgaria 0 0 2 1900
Canada 2 1500 4 4400
China 16 16440 35 37480
Czech Republic 0 0 0 0
Egypt 0 0 1 1000
Finland 1 1600 0 0
France 1 1630 1 1630
Germany 0 0 0 0
Hungary 0 0 0 0
India 6 2976 23 2976
Indonesia 0 0 2 0
Iran 1 915 2 915
Israel 0 0 0 0
 27

Italy 0 0 0 0
Japan 2 2285 13 2285
Kazakhstan 0 0 2 0
North Korea 0 0 1 0
South Korea 5 5350 7 5350
Lithuania 0 0 0 0
Mexico 0 0 0 0
Netherlands 0 0 0 0
Pakistan 1 300 2 300
Poland 0 0 0 0
Romania 0 0 2 0
Russia 9 7130 7 7130
Slovakia 2 840 0 840
Slovenia 0 0 0 0
South Africa 0 0 3 3565
Spain 0 0 0 0
Sweden 0 0 0 0
Switzerland 0 0 0 0
Thailand 0 0 2 2000
Turkey 0 0 2 2400
Ukraine 0 0 2 1900
UAE 0 0 3 4500
United Kingdom 0 0 4 6400
USA 1 1180 11 13800
Vietnam 0 0 2 2000
WORLD 50 45,438 137 151,185

Table 2.3 above showing the statistic of reactors building and ordered or planned
reactors in each countries. There are total of 50 reactor in the building process worldwide
which produce 45,438 MWe. 137 nuclear reactor ordered or planned to built which can
supply 151,185 MWe

TABLE 2.4 : Reactor Proposed and Uranium Required

Country Reactors Proposed Uranium Required

 28

Sept 2009 2009

No MWe
Argentina 1 740 122
Armenia 1 1000 51
Bangladesh 2 2000 0
Belarus 2 2000 0
Belgium 0 0 1002
Brazil 4 4000 308
Bulgaria 0 0 260
Canada 3 3800 1670
China 90 79000 2010
Czech Republic 2 3400 610
Egypt 1 1000 0
Finland 1 1000 446
France 1 1630 10569
Germany 0 0 3398
Hungary 2 2000 274
India 15 20000 961
Indonesia 4 4000 0
Iran 1 300 143
Israel 1 1200 0
Italy 10 17000 0
Japan 1 1300 8388
Kazakhstan 2 600 0
North Korea 0 0 0
South Korea 0 0 3444
Lithuania 2 3400 0
Mexico 2 2000 242
Netherlands 0 0 97
Pakistan 2 2000 65
Poland 5 10000 0
Romania 1 655 174
Russia 37 36680 3537
Slovakia 1 1200 251
Slovenia 1 1000 137
South Africa 24 4000 303
Spain 0 0 1383
Sweden 0 0 1395
Switzerland 3 4000 531
Thailand 4 4000 0
Turkey 1 1200 0
Ukraine 20 27000 1977
UAE 11 15500 0
United Kingdom 4 6000 2059
 29

USA 19 25000 18867

Vietnam 8 8000 0
WORLD 295 303,405 65,405

Table 2.4 above stating that 295 reactor proposed to be built and the total uranium
required for the whole world for their nuclear power plant is 65,405 tonnes.

FIGURE 2.15 : Nuclear Capacity in Current and Future Nuclear Power Countries

Figure 2.15 above gained from Nuclear Century Outlook by World Nuclear
Association (WNA) stating that the current nuclear power countries in low boundary is
around 84% which are 1725 GW and the future nuclear power countries are 16% which
are 325 GW. In the high boundary, current nuclear power countries are 83% which are
9150 GW and 17% which are 1900 GW come from those future nuclear power countries.
Low boundary represent minimum global nuclear capability expected while high
boundary represent maximum nuclear commitment in most nations. From the Nuclear
Century Outlook, expert support that there are few combination of factors that contribute
to the increasing in nuclear usage by many countries in the world. Factors such as new
ore discoveries, advanced mining techniques, more reprocessing, introduction of the
thorium fuel cycle and, ultimately, employment of breeder reactors which will ensure
 30

affordable and continuous of nuclear fuel supplies to produce cheap electricity into the
future.

FIGURE 2.16 : Global Clean Energy Need and Supply

The global population are increasing from 6.6 billion towards 9 billion by year
2050, therefore the demand for electricity by year 2050 will greatly increase to meet
human needs. With the conventional method of producing electricity, it will be
insufficient to provide for future demand and the greenhouse gases that contribute to
global warming must be reduce by 70% in year 2050. Therefore clean energy is
introduced. Clean energy is energy produced without emitting greenhouse gases that will
result in global warming. From the figure 2.16 above, to achieve effective clean energy,
we needs 8000 GW more nuclear power production. Hydropower growth stops at mid-
century while fossil fuel power contribute during the 21st century but does not grow
indefinitely. New renewables energy grow steadily and robustly and in the mean time,
nuclear power grow within the range defined by the WNA outlook boundaries.
 31

2.1.7 Nuclear Reactor Technology

Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the
thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants converts the
energy released from the nucleus of an atom, typically via nuclear fission. A cooling
system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the plant,
where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce electricity or to do other useful
work. Typically the hot coolant will be used as a heat source for a boiler, and the
pressurized steam from that boiler will power one or more steam turbine driven electrical
generators. Reactors are the place where nuclear fission happens and produce massive
heat to transfer to the surrounding coolant.

Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactors that were
developed in the 1950s and improved since.There are many different reactor designs,
utilizing different fuels and coolants and incorporating different control schemes. Some of
these designs have been engineered to meet a specific need. Enriched uranium commonly
used as a fuel as this fuel choice increases the reactor’s power density and extends the
usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear
proliferation than some of the other nuclear fuels.

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are initiated,

controlled, and sustained at a steady rate. The most significant use of nuclear reactors is
as an energy source for the generation of electrical power and for the power in some
ships. Early stage of nuclear reactors are use in the naval ship to power up the engine in
military usage in the United States.

The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways :

 The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these
nuclei collide with nearby atoms.
 Gamma rays produced during fission are absorbed by the reactor in the form of
heat
 32

 Heat produced by the radioactive decay of fission products and materials that have
been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat source will remain for some
time even after the reactor is shutdown.

The heat power generated by the nuclear reaction is 1,000,000 times that of the equal
mass of coal. There are several components common to most of the reactors type :
 Fuel – usually come in pallets form of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to
form fuel rods.
 Moderator – this is a material which installed in the core to slows down the
neutrons released from the fission reaction so that they cause more fission.
Usually is water but heavy water or graphite might be used for different reactor
design.
 Control rods – these are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium,
hafnium or boron and are to inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the
rate of reaction or to stop it if emergency. Totally insert of control rod will stop
the fission reaction immediately.
 Coolant – a liquid or gas circulating the core and to function as a heat transfer
medium. The heat produce in the reactor will be cooled or controlled by the
coolant.
 Pressure vessel or pressure tubes – a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core
and moderator but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the
coolant through the moderator
 Steam generator – part of the cooling system where the primary coolant transfer
heat from the reactor is used to make pressurized steam for the turbine.
 Containment – structure designed around the reactor core to protect it from
outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case
of any malfunction inside such as leak of coolant accident that contain high
radioactive coolant. It is a meter thick concrete and steel structure.
 33

TABLE 2.5 : Nuclear Power Plants in Commercial Operation

Reactor Type Main Countries No. GWe Fuel Coolan Moderator
t
Pressurized Water US, France, 265 251.6 Enriche water Water
Reactor (PWR) Japan, Russia, d UO2
China
Boiling Water US, Japan, 94 86.4 Enriche water Water
Reactor (BWR) Sweden d UO2
Pressurized Heavy Canada 44 24.3 Natural Heavy Heavy
Water Reactor UO2 water water
CANDU (PHWR)
Gas-cooled Reactor UK 18 10.8 Natural CO2 Graphite
(AGR & Magnox) U,
Enriche
d UO2
Light Water Russia 12 12.3 Enriche water Graphite
Graphite Reactor d UO2
(RBMK)
Fast Neutron Japan, France, 4 1.0 PuO2, Liquid None
Reactor (FBR) Russia UO2 sodium
Other Russia 4 0.05 Enriche Water Graphite
d UO2
Total 441 386.5

A cooling source often water but sometimes a liquid metal is circulated past the
reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor
and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is
physically separate from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the
turbines, like the pressurized water reactor. But for boiling water reactor, the water for the
steam turbines is boiled directly by the reactor core.
 34

In some reactors, the coolant acts as a neutron moderator. A moderator increases

the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose
energy and become thermal neutrons. Thermal neutrons are more likely than fast neutrons
to cause fission, so more neutron moderation means more power output from the reactors.
If coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the density of the
coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature coolant
could be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator.

There are several types of reactor in current market which are :

 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
 CANDU Reactor
 Heavy Water Reactor
 Light Water Reactor
 Many more
Reactors divided into 4 generation :
 Generation I reactor (prototype)
 Generation II reactor (most current nuclear power plants)
 Generation III reactor (evolutionary improvements of existing designs)
 Generation IV reactor (technologies still under development)

2.1.8 Inside a Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power plants are similar to conventional power plant such coal-fired power plant.
Beside the common steam turbine, there are other building such as :
 35

FIGURE 2.17 : Typical Nuclear Power Plant Layout

Figure 2.17 above shows that a typical nuclear power plant layout which are
labeled. Nuclear fission reaction happens in C and the fission rate being controlled by B.
Water from the lake or sea will transfer through I as a coolant and the heat dissipate to the
surrounding atmosphere by J. the heat generated by nuclear fission in C transfer to
primary loop through F and D generate pressurized steam to push H to turn. And the
rotating force of H will turn the G to produce electricity. The steam being condenses at I
and being pump back by F to the D and the process repeat itself.

Containment or Drywell Building

A building shown in figure 2.18 was designed to sustain pressures of about 345kPa.
Normally houses the reactor and the related cooling system that contains highly
radioactive fluids. Building is made of steel construction. Sometimes the building is
surrounded by a concrete structure that is designed for much lower pressures. The area
between the steel and concrete building is called the ‘Annulus’. Designs vary. At one
facility there are 1.37 meter concrete walls reinforced with steel. The dome is 0.762 meter
thick and the base 3.66 meter thick. The containment is the 3rd fission product barrier. In
BWRs, the drywell is located in the reactor building.
 36

FIGURE 2.18 : Containment Building

Auxiliary or Reactor Building

A building separate from the containment that houses much of the support equipment that
may contain radioactive liquids and gases. Emergency equipment is also normally located
in this building.

Turbine Building

A building that houses the turbine, generator, condenser, condensate and feedwater
systems shown in figure 2.19.

FIGURE 2.19 : Turbine Building

 37

Intake Structure or Screenhouse

A building that houses the circulating water pumps used to pump water from the river,
lake, sea for cooling the condenser. Trash racks and traveling screens also remove debris
to clean the water so that it can pass through the condenser tubes.

Fuel Building

A building separate from the containment that is used to spent fuel assemblies in steel
racks in a large 12.2 meter deep storage pool shown in figure 2.20. Casks for shipping or
onsite dry storage of spent fuel assemblies will be loaded or unloaded in this pool. A new
fuel storage area is provided for receipt of new assemblies and storage prior to going into
the containment and subsequently into the reactor during a refueling.
 38

FIGURE 2.20 : Fuel Storage Pool

Diesel Generator Building

A building used to house the diesel generators and supporting systems (air, water, radiator
fans, fuel oil, lubricating oil, air conditioning, and ventilation). In some cases, related
electrical switchgear for distributing electrical power produced by the diesel generator.
The Diesel generators that provide backup electrical power to safety and non-safety
systems.

In some plants separate buildings or areas within the buildings mentioned above may
house the following:

 Water treatment systems used to purify water so that it can be used in the power
plant.
 Radioactive waste treatment systems used to purify and store radioactive liquids
and gases.
 Cooling tower pumps used to pump water to cooling towers. Cooling towers are
often used for power plants located on rivers and small lakes so that impact of
temperature of discharged water on fish is minimized. 
 Control Room , related electrical cabling, and ventilation systems (sometimes
called the Control Building) shown in figure 2.21
 Administration Building
 Security
 39

FIGURE 2.21 : Nuclear Power Plant Control Room

2.1.9 Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power

Nuclear power boasts a number of advantages, as well as its share of downright

depressing negatives. As far as positives go, nuclear power's biggest advantages are tied
to the simple fact that it doesn't depend on fossil fuels. Coal and natural gas power plants
emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. With nuclear
power plants, CO2 emissions are minimal.

According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, the power produced by the world's
nuclear plants would normally produce 2 billon metric tons of CO2 per year if they
depended on fossil fuels. In fact, a properly functioning nuclear power plant actually
releases less radioactivity into the atmosphere than a coal-fired power plant. By not
depending on fossil fuels, the cost of nuclear power also isn't affected by fluctuations in
oil and gas prices.

As for negatives, nuclear fuel may not produce CO2, but it does provide its share
of problems. Historically, mining and purifying uranium hasn't been a very clean process.
Even transporting nuclear fuel to and from plants poses a contamination risk. And once
the fuel is spent, you can't just throw it in the city dump. It's still radioactive and
potentially deadly.

On average, a nuclear power plant annually generates 20 metric tons of used

nuclear fuel, classified as high-level radioactive waste. When you take into account every
nuclear plant on Earth, the combined total climbs to roughly 2,000 metric tons yearly. All
of this waste emits radiation and heat, meaning that it will eventually corrode any
container and can prove lethal to nearby life forms. As if this weren't bad enough, nuclear
power plants produce a great deal of low-level radioactive waste in the form of radiated
parts and equipment.
 40

Nuclear waste can pose a problem, and it's the result of properly functioning
nuclear power plants. When something goes wrong, the situation can turn catastrophic.
The Chernobyl disaster is a good recent example. In 1986, the Ukrainian nuclear reactor
exploded, spewing 50 tons of radioactive material into the surrounding area,
contaminating millions of acres of forest. The disaster forced the evacuation of at least
30,000 people, and eventually caused thousands to die from cancer and other illnesses.
Chernobyl was poorly designed and improperly operated. While the plant required
constant human attention to keep the reactor from malfunctioning, modern plants require
constant supervision to keep from shutting down. Still, Chernobyl is a black eye for the
nuclear power industry, often overshadowing some of the environmental advantages the
technology has to offer.

2.2 Nuclear Reactor Development

2.2.1 Nuclear Reactor
Many different designs for power reactors have been proposed and many different
prototypes built. Most of the countries that have developed nuclear power started with
graphite or heavy-water moderated system, since only these moderators allow criticality
with natural uranium. However, most of the power reactors now use slightly enriched
uranium. With such enrichments, other moderators especially light water can be used as
shown in figure 2.22
 41

FIGURE 2.22 : Nuclear Reactor

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Pressurized water reactor (PWR) shown in figure 2.23 is the most widely used type of
power reactors, employ two water loops. The water in the primary loop is pumped
through the reactor to remove the thermal energy produced by the core. The primary
water is held at sufficiently high pressure to prevent the water from boiling. This hot
pressurized water is then passed through a steam generator where the secondary loop
water is converted into high temperature and high pressure steam that turns the turbo-
generator unit. The use of a two-loop system ensures that any radioactivity produced in
the primary coolant does not pass through the turbine for safety purposes. Most of the
today’s advanced nuclear reactor design are based on the PWR basic design philosophy.

FIGURE 2.23 : Pressurize Water Reactor (PWR)

 42

Boiling Water Reactor(BWR)

In a boiling water reactor (BWR) shown in figure 2.24, cooling water is allowed to boil
while passing through the core. The steam then passes directly to the turbine. The low
pressure steam leaving the turbine is then condensed and pumped back to the reactor for
the same process. By having a single loop, the need for steam generators and other
expensive equipment in a PWR can be avoided. By having only single loop on coolant in
the BWR might expose radioactive radiation to the surroundings if there is a leak of
coolant accident occur.

FIGURE 2.24 : Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

 43

Gas Cooled Reactor

In a gas cooled reactor (GCR) carbon dioxide or helium gas is used as the core’s coolant
by pumping it through channels in the solid graphite moderator. The fuel rods are placed
in these gas cooling channels. The use of graphite, which remains solid up to very high
temperatures, eliminates the need for an expensive pressure vessel around the core, the
hot exit gas then passes through steam generators. Magnox Reactor are one of the GCR
which design by United Kingdom which shown in figure 2.25. Magnox Reactor are
pressurized, carbon dioxide cooled, graphite moderated reactors using natural uranium as
fuel.

In another design known as the high-temperature gas cooled reactor (HTGR), the
fuel is packed in many fuel channels in graphite prisms. Helium coolant is pumped
through other channels through the graphite prisms. The hot exit helium gasews then goes
to a steam generator.
 44

FIGURE 2.25 : Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR),Magnox Reactor Design

Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors

Figure 2.26 is a fast reactor, the chain reaction is maintained by fast neutrons.
Consequently, moderator materials cannot be used in the core. To avoid materials of low
atomic mass, the core coolant is a liquid metal such as sodium or a mixture of potassium
and sodium. Liquid metals have excellent heat transfer characteristics and do not require
pressurization to avoid from boiling. However, sodium becomes radioactive when it
absorbs neutrons and also reacts chemically with water. To reduce radioactive sodium
from possibly interacting with the water or steam loop, an intermediate loop of non-
radioactive sodium is used to transfer the thermal energy from the primary sodium loop to
the water or steam loop. The great advantage of such fast liquid metal power reactors is
that it is possible to create a breeder reactor like the one in which more fissile fuel is
produced than is consumed by the chain reaction. There are two designs of the liquid
metal fast breeder reactors which are the :

 Loop type, in which the primary coolant is circulated through primary heat
exchangers external to the reactor tank
 Pool type, in which the primary heat exchangers and circulators are immersed in
the reactor tank.
 45

FIGURE 2.26 : Liquid Metal Cooled Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)

Pressure Tube Graphite Reactors

A once widely used Russian designed power reactor is the Reactory Bolshoi Moshchnosti
Kanalnye (RMBK) shown in figure 2.27 translation in English is high powered pressure
tube reactor. In this reactor, fuel is placed in the fuel channels in graphite blocks that are
stacked to form the core. Vertical pressure tubes are also placed through the graphite core
and light water coolant is pump through these tubes and into an overhead steam drum
where the two phases are separated and the steam passes directly to the turbine.

FIGURE 2.27 : Reactory Bolshoi Moshchnosti Kanalnye (RMBK)

 46

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

The Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor shown in figure 2.28 was build by the
Canadian itself. It was the pressurized heavy water reactor invented in the late 1950s and
1960s. the CANDU reactor design are similar to most of the light water reactors. Fission
reactions in the reactor core heat pressurized water in a primary cooling loop and heat
exchanger transfer the heat to a secondary cooling loop which powers a steam turbine
with an electrical generator attached to it. The excess heat in the steam is rejected to into
the surrounding atmosphere in different was such as to the ocean, river or lake. The main
difference between CANDUs and other water moderated reactors is that CANDU uses
heavy water for neutron moderation.
 47

FIGURE 2.28 : Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR), CANDU

2.2.2 Coolant Limitations

The thermal properties of a power reactor coolant greatly affect the reactor design. By far,
the most widely used coolant is water. Water is inexpensive and engineers have
experience in using it as a working fluid in conventional fossil-fueled power plants. The
disadvantage of using water as a coolant is that it must be pressurized to prevent boiling
at high temperatures. Normal water boiling point is 100 degree Celsius. If water is below
the boiling point, it is called subcooled. Water is saturated when vapor and liquid coexist
at the boiling point, and it is superheated when the vapor temperature is above the boiling
temperature. Above the critical temperature, the liquid and gas phases are
indistinguishable, and no amount of pressure produces phase transformation.
 48

To maintain criticality in a water moderated core, the water must remain in liquid
form. Moreover, steam is a much poorer coolant than liquid water in common sense.
Thus, for water to be used in a reactor, it must be pressurized first to prevent significant
steam formation. For water, the critical temperature is 375 degree Celsius, above which
liquid water cannot exist. Thus, in water moderated and cooled cores, temperatures must
be below this critical temperature. Typically, coolant temperatures are limited to about
340 degree Celsius. This high temperature limit for reactor produced steam together with
normal ambient environmental temperatures limit the thermal efficiency for such plants to
about 34%.

Because steam produced by Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS) is saturated or

very slightly superheated. Expensive moisture separators which are the devices to remove
liquid droplets and special turbines that can operate with ‘wet steam’ must be used. These
turbines are larger and the cost are more expensive than those used in power plants that
can produce superheated steam.

2.2.3 Evolution of Nuclear Power

Basically nuclear reactor are divided in 5 main generations which are :

a) Generation I : Early prototypes

b) Generation II : Commercial power reactors
c) Generation III : Advanced lightwater power reactors
d) Generation III+ : Evolutionary design reactors
e) Generation IV : Conceptual design reactors
 49

FIGURE 2.29 : Evolution of Nuclear Power

Generation I

Generation I reactor were the early stage prototypes developed by many nations. It was
developed in the 1950s and 1960s. It was modified and enlarged from the military
reactors. Those reactors are originally usages are either for submarine propulsion or
plutonium production. Most of the Generation I reactors use natural uranium fuel with
graphite as a moderator. Generation I reactors were characterized by fundamentally
unsafe designs, and kludged layers of afterthought safety systems.Generation I reactors
are small reactor which is under 250MW.

Generation II

Generation II reactor are commercial power reactor that still under operating mode till
today worldwide. Generation II reactors were significantly improved from Generation I
reactors, but these changes were primarily evolutionary. The Three Mile Island disaster
was from Generation II design’s reactor. Most of these reactor use so-called lightwater
technology. They are moderated and cooled with ordinary water. Other Generation II
design reactor uses other coolants and moderators.

Generation III

A more advanced generation of reactors are the Generation III reactors. It is also known
as advanced lightwater technology. These reactors are design to be safety and efficiency
improved from Generation II reactors. These included improved of fuel technology,
superior thermal efficiency, passive safety systems and standardized design for reduced
 50

maintenance and capital costs. These improvement will pro-long the operational life. The
first Generation III reactors were build in Japan.

Generation III+

Generation III+ reactor are the advancement of Generation III. These reactors were
designed to significantly improve on safety and economics perspective over the
Generation III advanced reactor design. Advanced CANDU Reactor (ACR), AP1000,
APR1400, European Pressurized Reactor (EPR), Economic Simplified Boiling Water
Reactor (ESBWR), mPower etc are all categories under Generation III+ reactor and
consider the latest reactor in today’s world market.

Generation IV

Generation IV are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs which are currently being
researched and will not be available in the market before 2030. There is an exceptional
for a version of the Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) called the Next Generation
Nuclear Plant (NGNP) which will be completed by year 2021. This generation of reactors
are improve base on few primary goals which are on nuclear safety, proliferation
resistance, minimize waste, natural resource utilization and to decrease the cost of
building and running a nuclear power plant.

2.2.4 World Nuclear Reactor Development

There are many different reactor designs, utilizing different fuels and coolants and
incorporating different control schemes that we have in the current world. Some of these
 51

designs have been engineered to meet a specific need. A nuclear reactor is a device in
which nuclear chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady state. The
most significant use of nuclear reactors is as an energy source for the generation of
electrical power.

FIGURE 2.30 :World Map of Nuclear Power Reactors 2009

There are total of 436 nuclear power reactor operating and 47 reactors under
construction worldwide. From the map above we can conclude that most of the nuclear
reactor technology is active in 3 main regions which are United State, Europe and Asia
Pacific. United State have 104 reactors, Europe have 196 reactors while Asia Pacific
owns 111 reactors.
 52

From the world map in figure 2.30 above, we can see that most of the nuclear
reactor technology developed actively at 3 region of the world which is United States,
Europe and Asia Pacific. Below are the brief timeline for world nuclear reactor
development.

In 1951, Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 was build at Idaho National Engineering and
Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) produces the world’s first usable amount of
electricity from nuclear energy.

In 1953, BORAX-I, the first of a series of Boiling Reactor Experiment reactors, was built
at INEEL. The series is to designed to test the theory that the formation of steam bubbles
in the reactor core does not cause an instability problem.

In 1955, BORAX-III becomes the first nuclear power plant in the world to provide entire
town with all of its electricity.

In 1957, the first U.S. large-scale nuclear power plant begins operation in Shippingport,
Pennsylvania. The pressurized-water reactor supplies power to the city of Pittsburgh and
much of western Pennsylvania. It was then replaced by a more efficient light-water
breeder reactor in 1977.

In 1960, first Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) was built

In 1962, the first advanced gas-cooled reactor is build at Calder Hill in England. It was
intended to power up the naval vessel but is too big to install on ship and it was then
successfully used to supply electricity for British consumers.

In 1963, Canada’s CANDU reactor using natural uranium in fuel tubes surrounded by
heavy water.

In 1966, the Advanced Testing Reactor at Idaho National Engineering and Environmental
Laboratory come online for material testing and isotopes generation.
 53

In 1969, the Zero Power Physics Reactor (ZPPR), a specially designed facility for
building and testing a variety of types of reactors. Nuclear reactor can be built and tested
in ZPPR for about 0.1% of the capital cost of construction of the whole power plant.

In 1979, Three Mile Island nuclear accident

In 1986, Chernobyl nuclear disaster

In 2000, nuclear power energy production grows, most notably in China, Korea, Japan,
and Taiwan, where more than 28 GW of nuclear power plant capacity is added since the
last decade of the century.

2.2.4.1 United States

FIGURE

Figure 2.31 above showing the location of nuclear reactor in the United States. The
United State is the world largest producer of nuclear power, generate for more than 30%
of worldwide nuclear generation of total electricity output.

There are total of 69 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), 35 Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR) in the United States which provide a total capacity of 100,582 MWe. Almost all
 54

the US nuclear generating capacity comes from reactor that been build from 1967 till
1990. There is no new construction on nuclear power reactor since 1977. Construction of
new reactor stop due to the accident happen in Three Mile Island on 1979, but a further
PWR (Watt Bar 2) is expected to start up by 2013.

Westinghouse designed the first fully commercial PWR of 250 MWe capacity
which start to build on 1960 and operated to 1992. The first commercial plant, Dresden 1
which produce 250 MWe was design and started up in 1960 meanwhile a prototype BWR
ran from 1957 to 1963. Around 1960s, most of the order are being placed for PWR and
BWR reactor units of more than 1000 MWe capacity. Many order and projects of nuclear
power reactor was cancelled or suspended, and the nuclear construction industry went
into the doldrums for two decades ever since the Three Mile Island accident.

Since the Three Mile Island accident, in the 1970s, the US nuclear industry
dramatically improved its safety and operational performance with average net capacity
factor over 90% and all safety indicators exceeding target. US are preparing for the new
build of nuclear reactor which is ABWR, AP1000, ESBWR, APWR, and EPR for the
coming years. US federal government has significantly stepped up R&D spending for
future plants that improve or go beyond current design reactor. Next Generation Nuclear
Plant projected to develop a Generation IV High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor, which
would be part of a system that would produce both electricity and hydrogen gas
massively.

2.2.4.2 Europe
 55

FIGURE 2.32 : Europe Map of Nuclear Power Reactors

As of June 2009 there is a total of 196 nuclear power reactor with an installed electric net
capacity of 169,711 MWe in operation in Europe and 16 unites with 13,625 MWe were
under construction in 6 countries. From figure 2.32, the countries that have nuclear power
plant in Europe are Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany,
Hungary, Lithuania, Netherlands, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakian Republic,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine and United Kingdom. In the 1970s,
nuclear power started up in Europe, reaching a peak between 1980 and 1990, followed by
a period during which development was halted. From 1990s onwards, natural gas and
renewable became important.

TABLE 2.6 : Numbers of reactor built between 1971 and 2005

Period Commission Reactors

1971 – 1975 22
1976 – 1980 37
1981 – 1985 66
1986 – 1990 40
1991 – 1995 7
1996 – 2000 6
2001 - 2005 5
Total 183
 56

TABLE 2.7 : Reactor Type on Different Generation

Today Short to Medium Long Term

Term
Generations I and II III IV
Reactor Type PWR (92)
WWER (22) EPR (PWR) GFR
BWR (19) AP1000 (PWR) LFR
AGR (14) WWER (PWR) MSR
GCR (8) ABWR (BWR) SFR
LWGR (1) ESBWR (BWR) SCWR
PHWR (1) HTR VHTR
FBR (1)

2.2.4.3Asia
 57

FIGURE 2.33 : Asia Map of Nuclear Power Reactors

From the Asia map shown in figure 2.33 above, most of the nuclear power development
happens in Japan and South Korea. There are total of 55 operating nuclear reactor in
Japan and 20 operating nuclear reactor in South Korea.

Japan stated its nuclear research in 1954. Japan imported its first commercial nuclear
power reactor from UK. It was a gas-cooled Magnox reactor. After this unit was
completed, Japan only builds LWR, BWR and PWR. Since 1970s, 28 BWRs and 23
PWRs have been brought into operation. By the end of 1970s, Japan industry had largely
established their own domestic nuclear power production and exports it to East Asian
countries. The first ABWR which started up in 1996-1997 are now in operation.

South Korea started its nuclear power program in the 1970s by licensing PWR
technology from US-based Westinghouse. Since then, as its industrial base has grown,
domestic researchers and firms have updated the System 80 PWR design originally
imported developed South Korean versions of all major components. South Korea has
imported CANDU from Canada and is developing a strategy to re-use PWR fuel in these.
Korean Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP) went on to develop the OPR-1000 and APR-
1400. These 2 reactor are in Generation III+ categories. The first APR-1400 units are
under construction, and operation will begun approximately in 2013 or 2014.
 58

CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON AP1000 AND APR1400

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 The AP600 Reactor

AP1000 reactor are derived from AP600. AP600 are Generation III reactor designed by
Westinghouse Electric Company, US. The AP600 is power plants which produce 600
MWe are considered small power plant compared to current power demand in the world.
The main objectives in its design are the plant uses forces of nature and simplicity of
design to enhance plant safety and operations and reduce construction costs.

The AP600 obtains its emergency cooling from huge water tanks mounted above
the reactor. Electric power or operator actions are needed to start the coolant injection.
One of the large tanks above the reactor serves as a place to deposit heat. Water tanks
pressurized with nitrogen gas provide sprays to cool the atmosphere inside the
containment. There are no pumps needed in the process. AP600 design to be simple by
reducing the number of valves by 60%, large pumps by 50%, piping by 60%, heat
 59

exchangers by 50%, ducting by 35%, and control cables by 80%. It is estimated that the
plant can be constructed in 3 to 4 years. All of these factors contribute to reducing the
cost.

The basic design of the AP600 does not differ that much from a conventional
PWR. The main system consists of a reactor with two cooling circuits, leading hot water
under pressure to the steam generators. New in the design are the emergency core cooling
systems designs, to prevent the overheating and melting of the reactor core in case of a
Loss Of Coolant Accident (LOCA). These systems that contain thousands of cubic meters
of water should supply emergency cooling when the normal cooling fails.

Four tanks are located above the reactor with borated water. In case of a loss of
coolant accident (LOCA) this water (about 50 cubic meters) would enter the reactor. The
borated water would stop the fission reaction. Besides, a water tank with about 1,900
cubic meters is situated in the containment. This amount would be enough to flood the
whole containment building above the level of the reactor core. In that way the reactor
building would be changed into a kind of swimming pool in which the hot reactor could
cool down. Most evolutionary and also most controversial is the passive containment
cooling system shown in figure 3.1. After an accident it is important to keep the
containment intact. With too much pressure on the steam, it would burst and release
radioactivity. To keep the pressure low enough, the AP600 containment is constructed to
lead away the heat by a water-and-air-cooled system.

The AP600 is designed with a single containment. Conventional reactors are

constructed with double containments, a steal and a concrete one. The AP600 has only
one containment to provide maximum heat transport to outside air. Besides, above the
building is a water tank with 1,300 cubic meters is located to spray the iron containment
to cool it down. This water would be enough to cool the containment for three days.
 60

FIGURE 3.1 : AP600 Passive Containment Cooling System

 61

3.1.2 The OPR1000 Reactor

APR1400 are derived from OPR1000 that are Generation III reactor. OPR1000 are design
by KHNP, Korea.OPR1000 produces 1000MWe. It has been in operation since 1998 and
has record in outstanding safety and reliability.The OPR1000 operability improved by
using two larger steam generator which can reduced plant trips due to greater capability to
accommodate the changes of steam generator level at transient conditions.

The Reactor Coolant System (RCS) has two transfer loops forming a barrier to
the release of radioactive materials from the reactor core to the secondary system and
containment atmosphere. The main components of the RCS of OPR1000 are a reactor
vessel, two steam generators, and four reactor coolant pumps. The RCS also includes the
interconnecting piping to auxiliary systems such as the chemical and volume control
system, the safety injection system, the shutdown cooling systems etc. These RCS
components are symmetrically located on opposite sides of the reactor vessel with a
pressurizer on one side, all of the RCS components are located inside the containment
building and connected by pipe assemblies.

A large pressurizer volume to enhanced capability to cope with LOCA. Adoption

of feed water storage tank. Develop Integrated Reactor Vessel Head Assembly to reduce
the refueling time and to enhance maintainability. Uses circulating water system to reduce
the numbers of pumps. Construction period has been dramatically reduced through
repeated construction of the OPR1000. Construction capital cost has been significantly
reduced through duplication and shortened construction period of the OPR1000.
OPR1000 plant arrangement consist of one Compound Building combining five buildings
which are two Secondary Auxiliary Building, two Access Control Buildings and one
 62

Radwaste Building.

3.2 Reactor Coolant System

AP1000

The reactor coolant system (RCS) consists of two heat transfer circuits, with each circuit
containing one steam generator, two reactor coolant pumps, and one hot leg and two cold
legs for circulating coolant between the reactor and the steam generators (SG). The
system also includes a pressurizer (PZR), interconnecting piping, and the valves and
instrumentation necessary for operational control. The RCS arrangement is shown in
Figure 3.2. The reactor containment contains all the RCS equipment. The RCS pressure
boundary provides a barrier against the release of radioactivity generated within the
reactor. The RCS pressure is controlled by the PZR, where water and steam are
maintained in equilibrium by activating the electrical heaters or a water spray, or both.
Steam is formed by the heaters or condensed by the water spray to control pressure
differences due to expansion and contraction of the reactor coolant. Spring-loaded safety
valves are installed above and connected to the PZR to provide overpressure protection
for the RCS. These valves discharge the overpressure into the containment atmosphere.
 63

FIGURE 3.2 : AP1000 Reactor Coolant System

Three stages of RCS automatic depressurization valves are also connected to the PZR.
These valves release steam and water through sprinkler to the in-containment refueling
water storage tank (IRWST) of the passive core cooling system (PXS). All the steam and
water released is condensed and cooled by mixing them with the water in the tank.

APR1400

The APR1400 is a two-loop pressurized water reactor. Its NSSS is designed to operate at
a rated thermal output of 4000 MWth with an electrical output of 1455 MWe. It consist of
two primary coolant loops, each of which consists of one 42-inch hot leg, two 30-inch
cold legs, one SG, and two RCPs. One PZR with heaters is connected to a hot leg of the
RCS. The APR1400 RCS arrangement is shown in figure 3.3. The decrease in
temperature in the hot leg result in decrease in frequency of unplanned reactor trips
during normal operation so that it can enhance the operation flexibility.
 64

FIGURE 3.3 : APR1400 Reactor Coolant System

Additionally, the decrease in the hot leg temperature reduce the ageing of the SG tube due
to stress corrosion by using an advanced tube material, Inconel 690, which is famous to
be more resistant to stress corrosion cracking than Inconel 600, which has been used in
conventional plants in the world now days. The pilot operated safety relief valves
(POSRVs), which replace the conventional spring-loaded safety valves, are used to
perform the functions of PZR safety valves and safety depressurization valves in the same
time. These improvements result in reliable valve operation without the need to remote
manual operation the valves under post-accident conditions.

3.3 Core and Fuel

AP1000

Several important improvements are made based on existing technology. For example,
there are fuel performance improvements, such as Zircaloy grids, removable top nozzles,
and longer burnup features. This optimization of fuel is currently used in approximately
120 operating plants worldwide. AP1000 uses a standard 17 X 17 fuel assembly which
most of the current reactors are using.
 65

FIGURE 3.4 : AP1000 Fuel Assembly

AP1000 has a 157 assembly high power density core and the core is 4.27 meter. The core
design is shown in figure 3.4 above. In addition, movable bottom mounted in-core
instrumentation has been replaced by fixed top mounted instrumentation. Inconel 600 is
not used in the reactor vessel welds. The refueling cycle is about 18 to 24 months.

AP1400

The core consists of 241 fuel assemblies, 93 control element assemblies (CEAs), and 61
in-core instrumentation (ICI) assemblies. The refueling cycle of the core is 18 months
with a maximum discharge rod burn-up of 60,000 MWD/MTU and the thermal margin of
the core has increased to more than 10%. The improvement of this core design has
increase the economic efficiency and safety of the APR1400. The fuel assembly is
arranged by 236 fuel rods containing UO2 pellets in a 16 X 16 array. The core design is
shown in figure 3.5. The absorber materials used for full strength control rods and part
strength control rods are Boron Carbide (B4C) pellets and Inconel 625.
 66

FIGURE 3.5 : APR1400 Fuel Assembly

3.4 Pressurizer

AP1000

The AP1000 PZR shown in figure 3.6 is a main component of the RCS pressure control
system. It is a vertical, cylindrical vessel with hemispherical top and bottom heads, where
liquid and vapor are maintained in equilibrium saturated conditions to control the RCS
pressure. It consist of one spray nozzle and two nozzles for connecting the safety and
depressurization valve inletheaders. Electrical heaters are installed on the bottom head.
Theheaters are removable for replacement or maintenance. The bottom head contains the
nozzle for attaching to thesurge line. This line connects the PZR to a hot leg. The main
function is to provides the flow of reactorcoolant into and out of the PZR during RCS
thermal expansions andcontractions. The PZR safety valves are spring loaded and self-
activated when the pressure in PZR exceeded the limit.
 67

FIGURE 3.6 : AP1000 Pressurizer

APR1400

The PZR is a vertically mounted, bottom supported, cylindrical pressure vessel with
replaceable electric heaters to maintain the RCS pressure as shown in figure 3.7. The PZR
is equipped with nozzles for sprays, a surge, pilot operated safety relief valves (POSRVs),
and pressure and level instrumentation. The PZR of APR1400 has increase several
improvement on operational reliability and maintenance, increase PZR capacity, improve
capability against transient. The main function of POSRV is to have both overpressure
protection and safe depressurization. By discharging the fluid in IRWST through sparger,
it can minimize contamination in containment.
 68

FIGURE 3.7 : APR1400 Pressurizer

3.5 Steam Generator

AP1000

The AP1000 steam generator (SG) is a vertical shell and U-tube evaporator with integral
moisture separating equipment. The AP1000 SG is shown in figure 3.8. Two model
Delta-125 steam generators are used in AP1000. There are some design enhancements on
the AP1000 SG which include nickel-chromium-iron Alloy 690 treated tubes on a
triangular pitch, improved anti-vibration bars, single-tier separators, improved
maintenance features that allows easy access by robotic tooling during maintenance. The
main function of the AP1000 SG is to transfer heat from single-phase reactor coolant
water through U-shaped heat exchanger tubes. The steam generator separates dry and
saturated steam from the boiling mixture, and delivers the steam to a nozzle that will end
up in turbine. Water from the feed water system refills the SG water inventory through
the SG ‘s feed water inlet nozzle. In addition, the secondary side of SG provides water
inventory which will continuously available to absorb heats at the primary side.
 69

FIGURE 3.8 : AP1000 Steam Generator

APR1400

The SG is a vertically inverse U-tube heat exchanger with moisture separators, steam
dryers, and an integral economizer. The APR1400 SG is shown in figure 3.9. It operates
with the RCS coolant on the tube side and the secondary coolant on the shell side. The
increased in feed water inventory of the SG enhances plant safety and reduces the number
of unplanned reactor trips. In addition, the primary outlet nozzle angle of the SG is
modified so that it will improve on the stability during mid-loop operation. The SG tube
reliability is enhanced by the following design improvements:
 Inconel 690, which is known to be a corrosion-resistant material, is used as the SG
tube material.
 The upper tube support bar and plate are designed to prevent vibration due to the
flow of water.
 Automatic control of SG water level for all operating ranges.
 70

FIGURE 3.9 : APR1400 Steam Generator

3.6 Safety System

AP1000

The safety systems for AP1000 include passive safety injection, passive residual heat
removal, and passive containment cooling. All these passive systems meet the NRC
regulatory and standards. The simplification of plant systems result to reduced actions
required by the operator if an accident occurs. Passive systems uses only natural forces
such as gravity, natural circulation, and compressed gas where all these are simple
physical principles we rely on every day. There are no pumps, fans, diesels, chillers, or
other rotating machinery required for the safety systems thus this eliminates the need for
safety-related AC power sources. Since there are no safety-related pumps, the increased
flow was achieved by increasing pipe size. Additional water volumes were achieved by
increasing tank sizes. These increases were made while keeping the plant footprint
unchanged.

The passive core cooling system (PXS) shown in figure 3.11 uses three sources of
water to maintain core cooling through safety injection. These injection sources include
the core makeup tanks (CMTs), the accumulators, and the in-containment refueling water
storage tank (IRWST). These injection sources are directly connected to two nozzles on
the reactor vessel. Long-term injection water is provided by gravity force from the
IRWST, which is located in the containment just above the RCS loops. Usually, the
IRWST is isolated from the RCS by squib valves and check valves. IRWST is designed
for atmospheric pressure. The RCS must be depressurized before the injection can occur.
The RCS is automatically controlled to reduce pressure to around 0.83 bars, when the
level of water in the IRWST overcomes the low RCS pressure or the pressure loss in the
 71

injection lines.

The PXS includes one passive residual heat removal heat exchanger (PRHR HX).
The function of PRHR HX is to protects the plant against transients that will damage the
normal steam generator and feed water systems. The IRWST provides the heat sink to
absorb heat generated for the PRHR HX. The IRWST water absorbs emitted heat for
more than one hour before the water begins to boil. Once boiling starts, steam passes
through the containment. The steam condenses on the steel containment vessel and drains
back into the IRWST by gravity force after collection. The PRHR HX and the passive
containment cooling system provide continuous heat removal capability with no operator
action required.

The passive containment cooling system (PCS) shown in figure 3.10, provides the
safety-related ultimate heat sink for the plant. The PCS cools the containment if an
accident happens so that the design pressure will not exceed the limits. Besides that the
pressure will also reduced rapidly by the PCS. Heat is removed from the containment
vessel by the continuous, natural circulation of air. During an accident, air-cooling is
supply by water evaporation. The water drains by gravity force from a tank located on top
of the containment shield building. In addition, even with failure of water drain, air-only
cooling is capable of maintaining the containment below the predicted failure pressure.
 72

FIGURE 3.10 : AP1000 Passive Containment Cooling System

FIGURE 3.11 : AP1000 Passive Core Cooling System

 73

APR1400

To improve plant safety, severe accidents have been fully considered in the APR1400
design. The measures of the APR1400 to cope with severe accidents are divided into
prevention and mitigation. Severe accident prevention features are summarized as
follows:
 Increased design margins such as a larger PZR, larger SGs, and an increased
thermal margin
 Reliable engineered safety features (ESF) including the SIS, the AFWS, and the
CSS
 Extended ESFs such as the SDVS with IRWST, alternate AC power, and a diverse
protection system
 Containment bypass prevention
Severe accident mitigation features are summarized as follows:
 Hydrogen mitigation system (HMS) such as a passive autocatalytic recombiner
and a glow plug igniter
 Reactor cavity and cavity cooling system
 External reactor vessel cooling system
 The SDVS and the IRWST
 Emergency containment spray backup system
 Robust containment with a large volume

Therefore the safety systems of APR1400 consist of the safety injection system (SIS) as
shown in figure 3.12, the in-containment refueling water storage tank (IRWST), the
safety depressurization and vent system (SDVS), the containment spray system (CSS),
and the auxiliary feed water system (AFWS). The main design concept of the SIS is
simplification to achieve higher reliability and better performance. The SIS is composed
of four independent mechanical trains and two electrical divisions. Each train has one
active safety injection pump (SIP) and one passive safety injection tank (SIT) equipped
with a fluidic device (FD). Additionally, the SIS is designed for safety water to be
injected directly into the reactor vessel.
 74

The IRWST is located in the containment building and the arrangement is made so that
the injected emergency cooling water will returns to the IRWST. This design does not
require operator action to switch the SIP suction from the IRWST to the containment
recirculation reservoir. This new design lowers the susceptibility of the IRWST to
external hazards. The functions of the IRWST are as follows;
 The storage of refueling water.
 A water source for the SIS, the SCS, and the CSS.
 A heat sink to condense steam that discharged from the PZR for rapid
depressurization if necessary in order to prevent high pressure core melting.
 A coolant supply for the cavity flooding system as shown in figure 3.13 in case of
severe accidents in order to protect the core against melting

The SDVS is a dedicated safety system designed to provide safety when depressurizing
the RCS. SDVS will function if the PZR spray is unavailable during plant cool down or a
cold shutdown. The CSS is composed of two trains and takes the suction from the IRWST
by its pump to reduce the temperature and pressure of the containment during accidents
that occur in the containment. The CSS was designed to be interconnected with the SCS
and the pumps of the CSS. SCS are designed to have the same type and capacity as the
CSS.

The AFWS is designed to supply feed water to the SGs for RCS as heat removal in a case
of failure in main feed water supply. In addition, the AFWS refills the SGs following a
LOCA to minimize leakage. The AFWS consist of two motor-driven pumps, two turbine-
driven pumps and two independent safety-related emergency feed water storage tanks
located in the auxiliary building increases the performance reliability of the AFWS.
 75

FIGURE 3.12 : APR1400 Safety Injection System (SIS)

 76

FIGURE 3.13 : APR1400 Cavity Flooding System

3.7 Plant Layout

AP1000

A typical site plan for a single unit AP1000 is shown in figure 3.14 below. The power
block complex consist of five principal building structures which are the nuclear island,
the turbine building, the annex building, the diesel generator building and the radwaste
building. Each of these building structures are constructed on individual basemats. The
nuclear island consists of the containment building, the shield building, and the auxiliary
building, all of which are constructed on a common basemat.

The plant arrangement of the AP1000 consist of the containment that contains a
4.9 meter diameter main equipment hatch and a personnel airlock at the operationg deck
level and a 4.9 meter diameter maintenance hatch and a personnel airlock at grade level.
These large hatches significantly enhance accessibility to the containment during outages
and consequently reduce the potential for congestion at the containment entrances. These
containment hatches located at two different levels, allow activities occurring above the
operating deck to be unaffected by activities occurring below the operating deck. The
containment arrangement provides significantly larger laydown areas than most
conventional plants at both the operating deck level and the maintenance floor level.
Additionally, the auxiliary building and the adjacent annex building provide large staging
and laydown areas immediately outside of both large equipment hatches.

The containment building is the containment vessel and all structures contained
within the containment vessel. The containment building is an integral part of the overall
containment system with the functions of containing the release of airborne radioactivity
following postulated design basis accidents and providing shielding for the reactor core
and the reactor coolant system during normal operations. The containment vessel is an
integral part of the passive containment cooling system. The containment vessel and the
passive containment cooling system are designed to remove sufficient energy from the
 77

containment to prevent the containment from exceeding its design pressure following
postulated design basis accidents. The principal systems located within the containment
building are the reactor coolant system, the passive core cooling system, and the reactor
coolant purification portion of the chemical and volume control system.

The shield building is the structure and annulus area that surrounds
thecontainment vessel. During normal operations the shield building, in conjunction with
theinternal structures of the containment building, provides the required shielding for the
reactor coolant system and all the other radioactive systems and components housed in
the containment. During accident conditions, the shield building provides the required
shielding for radioactive airborne materials that may be dispersed in the containment as
well as radioactive particles in the water distributed throughout the containment. The
shield building is also an integral part of the passive containment cooling system. The
passive containment cooling system air baffle is located in the upper annulus area. The
function of the passive containment cooling system air baffle is to provide a pathway for
natural circulation of cooling air in the event that a design basis accident results in a large
release of energy into the containment. In this event the outer surface of the containment
vessel transfers heat to the air between the baffle and the containment shell. This heated
and thus, lower density air flows up through the air baffle to the air diffuser and cooler
and higher density air is drawn into the shield building through the air inlet in the upper
part of the shield building. Another function of the shield building is to protect the
containment building from external events. The shield building protects the containment
vessel and the reactor coolant system from the effects of tornadoes and tornado produced
missiles.

The primary function of the auxiliary building is to provide protection and

separation for the safety-related seismic Category I mechanical and electrical
equipmentlocated outside the containment building. The auxiliary building provides
protection for thesafety-related equipment against the consequences of either a postulated
internal or externalevent. The auxiliary building also provides shielding for the
radioactive equipment and pipingthat is housed within the building. The most significant
equipment, systems contained within theauxiliary building are the main control room,
 78

I&C systems, electrical power systems, fuelhandling area, mechanical equipment areas,
containment penetration areas, and the mainsteam and feedwater valve compartments.The
primary function of the auxiliary building is to provide protection and separation for
thesafety-related seismic Category I mechanical and electrical equipment located outside
thecontainment building. The auxiliary building provides protection for the safety-
relatedequipment against the consequences of either a postulated internal or external
event. Theauxiliary building also provides shielding for the radioactive equipment and
piping that ishoused within the building.The most significant equipment, systems, and
functions contained within the auxiliary building are the following:

 Main control room

 Class 1E instrumentation and control systems
 Class 1E electrical system
 Fuel handling area
 Mechanical equipment areas
 Containment penetration areas
 Main steam and feedwater isolation valve compartment

The main control room provides the human system interfaces required to operate
the plant safely under normal conditions and to maintain it in a safe condition
underaccident conditions. The main control room includes the main control area, the
operations staffarea, the switching and tagging room and offices for the shift supervisor
and administrativesupport personnel.

Instrumentation and Control Systems is the protection and safety monitoring

system and theplant control system provide monitoring and control of the plant during
startup, ascent to power,powered operation, and shutdown. The instrumentation and
control systems include theprotection and safety monitoring system, the plant control
system, and the data display andprocessing system.
 79

The Class 1E system provides 125 volts dc power for safetyrelated and vital
control instrumentation loads including monitoring and control roomemergency lighting.
It is required for safe shutdown of the plant during a loss of ac power andduring a design
basis accident with or without concurrent loss of offsite power.

The primary function of the fuel handling area is to provide for the handling and
storage of new and spent fuel. The fuel handling area in conjunction with the annex
building provides the means for receiving, inspecting and storing the new fuelassemblies.
It also provides for safe storage of spent fuel as described in DCD Section 9.1,Fuel
Storage and Handling.The fuel handling area provides for transferring new fuel
assemblies from the new fuel storagearea to the containment building and for transferring
spent fuel assemblies from thecontainment building to the spent fuel storage pit within the
auxiliary building.The fuel handling area provides the means for removing the spent fuel
assemblies from thespent fuel storage pit and loading the assemblies into a shipping cask
for transfer from thefacility. The fuel handling area is protected from external events such
as tornadoes and tornadoproduced missiles. Protection is provided for the spent fuel
assemblies, the new fuelassemblies and the associated radioactive systems from external
events. The fuel handlingarea is constructed so that the release of airborne radiation
following any postulated designbasis accident that could result in damage to the fuel
assemblies or associated radioactivesystems does not result in unacceptable site boundary
radiation levels.

The mechanical equipment located in radiological control areasof the auxiliary

building are the normal residual heat removal pumps and heat exchangers, thespent fuel
cooling system pumps and heat exchangers, the solid, liquid, and gaseous
radwastepumps, tanks, demineralizers and filters, the chemical and volume control
pumps, and theheating, ventilating and air conditioning exhaust fans.The mechanical
equipment located in the clean areas of the auxiliary building are the heating,ventilating
and air conditioning air handling units, associated equipment that service the maincontrol
room, instrumentation and control cabinet rooms, the battery rooms, the
passivecontainment cooling system recirculation pumps and heating unit and the
 80

equipmentassociated with the air cooled chillers that are an integral part of the chilled
water system

The auxiliary building contains all of the containmentpenetration areas for

mechanical, electrical, and instrumentation and control penetrations. Theauxiliary
building provides separation of the radioactive piping penetration areas from the
nonradioactivepenetration areas and separation of the electrical and instrumentation and
control penetration areas from the mechanical penetration areas. Also provided is
separation ofredundant divisions of instrumentation and control and electrical
equipment.The main steam and feedwaterisolation valve compartment is contained within
the auxiliary building. The auxiliary buildingprovides an adequate venting area for the
main steam and feedwater isolation valvecompartment in the event of a postulated leak in
either a main steam line or feedwater line.The annex building provides the main
personnel entrance to the powergeneration complex. It includes accessways for personnel
and equipment to the clean areas ofthe nuclear island in the auxiliary building and to the
radiological control area. The buildingincludes the health physics facilities for the control
of entry to and exit from the radiologicalcontrol area as well as personnel support
facilities such as locker rooms. The building alsocontains the non-1E ac and dc electric
power systems, the ancillary diesel generators and theirfuel supply, other electrical
equipment, the technical support center, and various heating,ventilating and air
conditioning systems. No safety-related equipment is located in the annexbuilding.The
annex building includes the health physics facilities and provides personnel and
equipmentaccessways to and from the containment building and the rest of the
radiological control areavia the auxiliary building. Provided are large, direct accessways
to the upper and lowerequipment hatches of the containment building for personnel
access during outages and forlarge equipment entry and exit. The building includes a hot
machine shop for servicingradiological control area equipment. The hot machine shop
includes decontamination facilitiesincluding a portable decontamination system that may
be used for decontamination operationsthroughout the nuclear island.The diesel generator
building houses two identical slide along dieselgenerators separated by a three-hour fire
 81

wall. These generators provide backup power forplant operation in the event of disruption
of normal power sources. No safety-related equipmentis located in the diesel generator
building.

The radwaste building includes facilities for segregated storage of

variouscategories of waste prior to processing, for processing by mobile systems, and for
storingprocessed waste in shipping and disposal containers. No safety-related equipment
is located inthe radwaste building. Dedicated floor areas and trailer parking space for
mobile processingsystems is provided for the following:

− Contaminated laundry shipping for offsite processing

− Dry waste processing and packaging

− Hazardous/mixed waste shipping for offsite processing

− Chemical waste treatment

− Empty waste container receiving and storage

− Storage and loading packaged wastes for shipment

1. containment
2. Turbine
3. Annex
4. Auxiliary
5. Cooling tower
7. Radwaste
10. Diesel generator
13. Fire water storage tank
16. Transformer
17. Condensate storage tank
18. Diesel generator oil storage
tank
19. Dematerialized water storage
tank
20. Boric acid storage tank
22. Turbine laydown area
 82

25. Passive containment cooling

26. Diesel driven fire pump

FIGURE 3.14 : AP1000 Plant Layout

APR1400

The general arrangement of the APR1400 was developedbased on the twin-unit concept
using a slide-alongarrangement with common facilities. The layout of the APR1400 can
be divided into a nuclearisland (NI) and a turbine island (TI). The NI consists of the
reactor containment building (RCB), the auxiliary building (AB), and the compound
building (CB). The TIconsists of the turbine building (TB) and the switchgearbuilding
(SB).The RCB is wrapped around by the AB and is founded on a common basemat with
the AB. The AB accommodatesemergency diesel generators (EDGs) and the fuel
handlingarea (FHA). The layout of the AB, particularly the physicalseparation of the
safety equipment, is designed to improveplant safety. As examples, four-train of safety
injection system (SIS) and two sets ofEDGs are arranged so that each one is placed in a
physicallyseparated division of the AB. This configuration designprevents the
propagation of system damage by internaland external events such as fire, flooding,
security incidents,and sabotage. Other internal structures are also arrangedto improve
maintainability, accessibility, and convenienceof equipment replacement.

The layout of the NI improvesthe structural safety margin against external events
suchas a seismic event.The RCB of the APR1400 is a pre-stressed concretestructure in the
shape of a cylinder with a hemispherical dome specified as seismic category I. It is placed
on acommon basemat with the AB. Theinterior surface of the RCB is steel-lined for leak-
tightness.A protective layer of concrete covers the portion of theliner over the foundation
slab. The IRWST is situated inthe RCB in an annular-shape configuration between
thesecondary shield wall and the containment wall. The safety injection pump
(SIP)always take water from the IRWST without switching itssuction from the IRWST to
the containment sump forlong-term cooling following a leak of coolant accident (LOCA).

As measures to mitigate severe accidents, the reactorvessel cavity is designed in a

manner that allows the moltencore materials to spread out so that the heat transfer area
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isnot less than 0.02 m2/MW and so that these materials arecooled and solidified on the
cavity floor. In addition, theconvoluted vent path of the reactor vessel cavity
preventsmolten core debris from being released into the containmentatmosphere. In order
to improve the convenience ofmaintenance, an equipment hatch, the structural
arrangement,and a polar bridge crane are designed so that an steam generator (SG) canbe
replaced in one piece. Work platforms are installed toenhance the convenience of in-
service inspections of theSGs and maintenance of the reactor coolant pump (RCP).

The AB is a reinforced concrete structure specified asseismic category I. It wraps

around the RCB in a quadrantarrangement. The AB houses the main control room
(MCR),EDGs room, FHA, and the various components related tosafety, such as the
SIS.The systems and internal structures in the AB arearranged to provide physical
separation so as to minimizethe danger from internal and external events such as fireand
flooding without adversely affecting accessibility. Toimprove the actuation reliability, the
safety equipment isspatially separated. Each train of the SIS which consistsof four trains
is located in a separate division. The EDGsare also separated on opposite sides. The
internal layoutof the AB is designed to provide sufficient space and alifting rig to replace
heat exchangers and to replace agenerator of the EDG without removing the outer
wall.This design improves the convenience of operation andmaintenance. The internal
arrangement of components isdivided into a radiation area and a clean area to reducethe
occupational exposure dose.

The TI consists of the TB and the SB arranged in adirection radial to the RCB.
Both buildings are situated ona common basemat and are designed with a steel
structureand a reinforced concrete turbine pedestal specified asseismic category II. The
TB encloses the components thatconstitute the heat cycle and produce the electricity.
TheSB houses the electrical distribution equipment. To reducethe construction schedule,
an underground common tunnelis designed to accommodate underground facilities in
thebase floor of the TB. In addition, demineralizers arearranged at the same level for
effective maintenance.As a common facility for both units, the CB is designedwith a
reinforced concrete structure specified as seismiccategory II. It accommodates an access
control area, aradwaste treatment area, primary and secondary samplinglaboratories, and
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a hot machine shop. This arrangementmakes access from each unit more convenient and
contributesto reducing the size of the power block due to its compactdesign.

FIGURE 3.15 : APR1400 Common Basemat

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CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

4.1 Conclusion

There are several similarities and differences between AP1000 reactor and APR1400
reactor. AP1000 are from the Westinghouse U.S. while APR1400 are from the Korea
Hydro and Nuclear Power.

Their similarities are the plant design life are 60 years, the design of the
pressurizer and steam generator. The material used to manufacture the steam generator
are Inconel 690. Both designs come from the basic Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
design.

AP1000 reactor is more considerable if we are comparing on construction cost and

safety wise due to its plants simplification which reduces overall construction time and
cost and its safety system which uses passive safety system. Passive safety system means
no pumps, diesel or AC related source for the safety system, it only uses force of nature
such as gravity and circulation of air. Hence this reduces the cost of maintenance and
reduces the risk of safety equipment failure. There are spring loaded valves are used in
the AP1000 and this reduces the dependability on operator.
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APR1400 reactor is considerable if we are comparing in the aspect of generating

capacity and safety valves that can greatly reduce the risk of accident happens in the
reactor. The generating capacity of APR1400 are 1400 MWe which are 400 MWe
comparing to AP1000. The safety valve which are the Pilot Operated Safety Relief
Valves which replace the spring loaded vales that are used by AP1000 can greatly reduce
the risk of malfunction when accident happens. The control room will detect a signal
from the Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valves and hence notify the operator to manual
override the Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valves if automatic system failure.

Generally AP1000 have more advantages compare to APR1400 in the aspect of

cost of construction, cost of production, time of construction and safety wise. AP1000
will have more market value compare to APR1400 because in the future, safety will be
the main concern in the world.

4.2 Future Work

This project is about the comparative study on nuclear reactor technology for nuclear
power. The main challenges in doing this project is the lack of information on reactor
technology due to it is a national security issue in the world. For future work, the study on
advanced nuclear reactor in Generation IV can be done and more information should be
gathered to make the project more informative for the references of student in Universiti
Tenaga Nasional or for the public.
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REFERENCES

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[17] World Nuclear Association. World Nuclear Power Reactors & Uranium
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[20] SANG-SEOB LEE, SUNG-HWAN KIM, KUNE-YULL SUH. September
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX

Model of Reactor Coolant System

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