Week 10: Earth Pressures

CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain the various earth pressure theories.
• Conduct Total Stress and Effective Stress Analyses. 
• Calculate the active and passive earth pressures 
acting on a retaining wall.
• Calculate the thrust (force) acting on the retaining 
wall.

2
 Topic 1: Earth Pressure Theories
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

Lateral Earth Pressure

It is often necessary in geotechnical

engineering to retain masses of soil:
• Retaining unstable soil next to road
or railway
• Creation of underground space
(MRT stations, basements of
shopping malls etc.)
• Seawalls
• Bridge abutments
The design of all these structures
requires a knowledge of the stresses
imposed by the soil mass on these
structures, in particular, the lateral Source: Assoc Prof Goh Teck Chee, Anthony | NTU

pressures and forces.

4
Types of Lateral Earth Pressure
From CV2014  Three types of lateral earth pressure:
Lecture Notes

At‐rest Condition Active Condition Passive Condition

No soil movement Wall moving away from the soil Wall moving into the soil 

′h = K0′v ′a = Ka′v ′p = Kp′v

 

h (at‐rest) h (active) h (passive)

Soil  Soil 
failure  failure 
wedge wedge

Height = H Height = H Height = H

At-rest Active Passive

Nature of lateral earth pressure on retaining wall. 5

Lateral Earth Pressure vs Wall Movement
Typical Values of △La/H and △Lp/H
Soil Type △La/H △Lp/H
Loose sand 0.001– 0.002 0.01
Dense sand 0.0005 – 0.001 0.005
Passive Soft clay 0.02 0.04
Stiff clay 0.01 0.02

Active

Variation of the magnitude of lateral 
earth pressure with wall tilt Height = H
6
 Topic 2: Total and Effective Stress Analyses
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

Definitions

Type of Analysis

Clay Sand

• Total Stress: • Effective Stress:
o Short term (end of construction) o Exception is earthquakes

o Undrained analysis using cu and u = 0 o Drained analysis using c' and '

• Effective Stress:
o Long term

o Drained analysis using  c' and '

o Requires information on pore water 

pressure u

f  c' ' tan ' ; '   - u

8
 Topic 3: Active and Passive Earth Pressures
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory
From CV2014 
Lecture Notes
H
H/3
Assumptions:
The soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
Failure surface is a plane.
Ground surface is a plane.
Wall is infinitely long i.e. plane strain condition.
Sufficient wall movements to develop active or passive state.
Wall is vertical.
Wall is perfectly smooth.
The resultant force is parallel to the ground surface.
The resultant force is acting at H/3 above the wall bottom. 10
Rankine Active Earth Pressure in Sand (c = 0)

No wall movement
(– sin ')
'h = K0 'v Ka = -----------------
(+ sin ')
‐ h will decrease until failure 
is triggered. 
‐ At that point, h will become 
'
the minor principal stress.
 ‐ Vertical stress v remains 
the major principal stress,
‐ Mohr circle will touch the  '
failure envelop. ’a 'h ’v 
'a = Ka 'v

Here we are dealing with 
 effective stress only – dry soil 
Wall moved away from soil or drained analysis.
11

Rankine Active Earth Pressure in Sand (c = 0)

'a = Ka 'v (– sin ')

Ka = -----------------
(+ sin ')

Active earth pressure

You are expected to know how to 
Soil failure 
wedge
determine Rankine coefficients Ka
and Kp in the quiz/exam.
45 + '/2

Failure plane at active state
12
Rankine Passive Earth Pressure in Sand  (c = 0)


'
'P = KP 'v

‐ h will increase until  '
failure is triggered. 'v 'P 
Passive Earth Pressure ‐ At that point, h will 
become the major
principal stress.
‐ Vertical stress v
Soil failure 
remains the minor 
wedge
principal stress. (+ sin ')
‐ Mohr circle will touch  KP = -----------------
(- sin ')
45 - '/2 the failure envelop.

Failure Plane at Passive State
13

Topic 4: Force Acting on Retaining Walls
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

14
Example 1 (Rankine) 

Assume Rankine Ka = 1/3 Active pressure q = Ka’v

surcharge q = 10 kPa = Ka(q) = (1/3)10 = 3.3 kPa
z (m)
0

=18 kN/m3
’=30o c’=0
+ Paq
Ka = (1- sin')/(1+sin')
= 1/3 Pa1
H/2 = 3 m
H/3 = 2 m

6
Active pressure = Ka’v
= Ka(H) = (1/3)[(18)6 = 36  kPa
Total active force Pa = Pa1+Paq = 0.5x6x(36) + 6x3.3 =  127.8 kN/m
15

Example 2 (Rankine)

Assume Rankine
z (m)
0 'a = 0.361(16)5 = 28.9 kPa
 =16 kN/m3
’=28o c’=0

5
'a = 0.283(16)5 = 22.6 kPa
=19 kN/m3
’=34o c’=0

10
'a = 0.283[(16)5 + (19)5] = 49.5 kPa

’ = 28o, Ka = (1 - sin')/(1 + sin') = 0.361

’ = 34o, Ka = (1 - sin')/(1 + sin') = 0.283

16
Example 2

z (m)
0
 =16 kN/m3
’=28o c’=0 Pa1
'a = 28.9 kPa
5
'a = 22.6 kPa
=19 kN/m3 Pa2
’=34o c’=0
Pa3
10
'a = 49.5 kPa
Pa1= 0.5(28.9)5 = 72.3 kPa

Pa2= (22.6)5 = 113.0 kPa

Pa3= 0.5(49.5 – 22.6)5 = 67.3 kPa

17

Active and Passive Earth Pressure in Clay (Rankine)
From CV2014
Under long term drained condition using c' and ' Lecture Notes
(-) 
'
'a = Ka'v – 2 c'√Ka

(+)
c'
Active earth pressure 'a 'v 

'p = Kp'v + 2 c'√Kp (– sin ') (+ sin ')

Ka = ----------------- Kp = -----------------
(+ sin ') (- sin ')

Here we are dealing with effective 
Passive earth pressure stress only
18
Rankine’s Earth Pressure for c'‐ ' soil

Tension Crack
Ignore Negative Pressure
water pressure
-
z0o
Tension crack
wzo

+
'a = Ka'v – 2 c'√Ka

where Ka = (1 - sin') / (1 + sin')

19

Active Earth Pressure in Clay (Rankine)

Under short term undrained condition using cu and u = 0
(– sin )
Ka = -----------------  For u = 0, Ka = Kp = 1.0
(+ sin )
a = Kav - 2cu
h = 'h + u 
a = a + u = (v - 2cu) + u
= K0'v + u u
cu
= v + u - 2cu = v - 2cu

a h v 
(-)

a = v – 2 cu cu = ½ (v - a)
(+) a = v - 2cu

Wall moved away from soil Here we are dealing with total stress
20
Passive Earth Pressure in Clay (Rankine)

Under short term undrained condition using cu and u = 0

(+ sin ) For u = 0, Ka = Kp = 1.0

Kp = ----------------- 
( sin )
cu u

h v p 

p = v+ 2cu
cu = ½ (p - v)
p = v + 2cu

Wall moved towards soil Here we are dealing with total stress
21

Total Active Earth Pressure on Wall in Clay (Dry condition)

Dry Condition Ignore Negative Pressure
- z0 Tension Crack
z

Clay  cu
a= z – 2cu

Earth Pressure
How do you determine depth z0?
a = z0 – 2cu = 0  z0 = 2cu/

22
Total Active Earth Pressure on Wall in Clay (with water in crack)

Ignore Negative Pressure
water pressure
- z0 Tension Crack
z  wz 0

Clay  cu
a= z – 2cu

Earth Pressure
How do you determine depth z0?
a = z0 – 2cu = 0  z0 = 2cu/ Assumption of water in tension crack will be 
clearly stated in the quiz/exam if required.

23

Summary – Rankine Active Earth Pressure Theory

Case 1 ‐ Sand backfill (c = 0)
Backfill a = Kav
WT
a = a + u = Kav + u

Impermeable (no flow) Case 2 ‐ backfill is c’, ’ soil

a = Kav - 2cKa
a = a + u = (Kav - 2cKa) + u
(– sin ')
Ka = -----------------
(+ sin ') Case 3 ‐ backfill is saturated undrained 
clay (u = 0) i.e. Ka = 1.0
a = v - 2cu
(+ sin ')
KP = ----------------- a = a + u = (v - 2cu) + u
(- sin ')
= v + u - 2cu = v - 2cu
24
Example 3 

Assume Rankine  = 28o, Ka = (1 - sin)/(1 + sin) = 0.361

z (m) a = Kav

0
a = 0.361(16)5 = 28.9 kPa
 =16 kN/m3
 = 28o c = 0

Pw

10

impermeable u = 5w = 50 kPa

a = 0.361[(16)10 - 5w] = 39.7 kPa

25

Total Active Earth Pressure on Wall in Layered Soil

When using , water pressure needs to be considered separately (since

using effective vertical stress to compute effective active pressure).

Sand ’ 'a = Ka'v

u
+
Water Pressure
Clay
cu, u = 0
a = v – 2cu
Lateral Earth Pressure

When using cu, water pressure need not be considered separately (since
using total stress in calculations).
26
Total Active Earth Pressure on Wall in Layered Soil (Example 4)

When using , water pressure needs to be considered separately (since using effective vertical
stress to compute effective active pressure).

'a = Ka'v = (1/3)(18x3) = 18 kPa

3m Sand  = 18 kN/m3
'a = Ka'v = (1/3)(18x4 – 1xw) = 20.67 kPa
Ka = 1/3
1m
+ Water Pressure
u = 1xw = 10 kPa
Clay  = 15 kN/m3
5m
a = v – 2cu = (4x18) – 2(20) = 32 kPa
cu = 20 kPa, u = 0

a = v – 2cu = (4x18 + 5x15) – 2(20) = 107 kPa

Lateral Earth Pressure
When using cu, water pressure need not be considered separately (since using total stress in
calculations).

27

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

 is the friction between the wall and the soil 

Assumptions:

The soil is homogeneous and isotropic. Pa
Failure surface is a plane. H 

Ground surface is a plane. H/3 

Wall is infinitely long i.e. plane strain condition.
Sufficient wall movements to develop active or passive state.
Wall can be inclined ( 0).
From CV2014 
Wall can be rough (  0). Lecture Notes

The resultant force is acting at an angle  with the normal to wall.
28
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure

Each trial wedge will yield one P value.
Try different wedges to find the highest P.

Alternatively, ∂P/∂= 0 and solve for P.
29

Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure

 =  – 90o 
Pa= ½ Ka H2


Pa Pah = Pa cos (+ )

H 
Pav Pa Pav = Pa sin (+ )
H/3 
Pah

Charts/Coulomb 
equations will be 
provided in the 
quiz/exams if 
required.

30
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure

c' -' Soils

a = KaH – Kacc' p = KpH + Kpcc'

Kac = 2[Ka(1+cw/c')]
for Coulomb and Log‐spiral coefficients
Kpc = 2[Kp(1+cw/c')] cw = adhesion between the wall and 
the soil

31

Example 5 

=10o
Use Coulomb’s 
Pa Equation:
=20°
 = 18 kN/m3
5°
6 m ’ = 35o c’ = 0

=95o = 20o

= 0.32

Pa = 0.5KaH2 = 0.5x0.32x18(6)2 = 103.7 kN/m

Horizontal component Pah = Pa cos(+ 5°) = 94 kN/m
32
Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure 


Pp= ½ Kp H2

Pph
Pp Pph = Pp cos (- )
H Ppv

Ppv = Pp sin (- )
H/3 Pp


33

Comparison of Methods of Analysis 

Charts/Coulomb 
equations will be 
 = 20 kN/m3
provided in the 
Pav Pa quiz/exams if 
5m  required.
Pah

Theory '  Ka Pa (kN/m) Pah (kN/m)

Loose Sand
Rankine 30 0 0.33 83.3 83.3
Coulomb 30 20 0.30 75 70.5
Dense Sand
Rankine 40 0 0.22 55 55
Coulomb 40 30 0.20 50 43
34
Log‐spiral Method on Lateral Earth Pressure

When  > /3, curvature of failure surface must be

taken into account or the passive resistance will be
significantly overestimated, representing an error on
the unsafe side. The Log‐spiral Method assumes that
the failure surface is a log‐spiral curve.

Note: Some charts 
give the value the 
horizontal component 
Pa= ½ KaH2 Pp= ½ KpH2 of the earth pressure 
Ka and Kp are 
directly.  You should 
Pah = Pa cos  Pph = Pp cos  obtained from 
Tables or charts. pay attention to such 
Pav = Pa sin  Pav = Pp sin  differences.
35

Eurocode 7 Annex C

1.0 Charts/Coulomb 
Eurocode 7  0.9 equations will be 
0.8 provided in the 
Annex C:  0.7
quiz/exams if 
required.
Kah ‐ Horizontal  0.6
Component of 
Horizontal Component, Kah

0.5
Horizontal 
Active Earth  0.4
surface
β =0
Pressure 
0.3

0.2
/’ = 0
Kav = Kah tan()
/’ =0.66
Kpv = Kph tan() /’ = 1.0
0.1
5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
’

36
Eurocode 7 Annex C

100
Charts/Coulomb 
EC7 Annex C:  90
80 equations will be 
70
provided in the 
Kph ‐ Horizontal  60
50 exams if required.
40
Component of  30
/’ = 1.0
Passive Earth  20 Horizontal 

Horizontal Component, Kph

/’ =0.66 Surface
Pressure =0
10.0
9.0 > 0
8.0
7.0
6.0
/’ = 0
5.0
4.0
3.0

2.0

1.0
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
’

37

Summary
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

38
Summary

Given here are the key takeaways from this lecture.
The three main types of earth pressure theories are Rankine’s Earth Pressure 
Theory, Coulumb’s Wedge Theory and Log‐spiral Theory.

Total stress analysis uses the undrained shear strength properties of the soil. The 
effective stress analysis uses the drained shear strength properties of the soil.

Active pressure is the condition in which the earth exerts a force on a retaining 
system when the wall moves away from the backfill. Passive pressure is a condition 
when the wall moves into the backfill soil. Since soils have a greater passive 
resistance, the earth pressures are not the same for active and passive conditions. 

39

Summary

Given here are the key takeaways from this lecture.

Active and passive earth pressure evaluation is required for the design of 
geotechnical structures such as retaining walls, sheet piles, basements, and 
tunnels. The force acting on a retaining wall is dependent of many parameters. The 
theories proposed by Coulomb and Rankine remain the fundamental approaches 
to analyse the active and passive earth pressures.

40
 Appendix – Charts on Horizontal Earth Pressure 
Coefficient in Eurocode 7 (EC7) Annexes

CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

A/P Anthony Goh
Office: N1‐01b‐41
Email: ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg
Phone: 6790‐5271

41

Chart of Kah

Active Ka Figure C.1.1

1.0
0.9 ( = 0)
0.8
0.7
0.6
Horizontal Component, Kah

Horizontal 
0.5 Surface
β =0
0.4 

0.3

0.2
/’ = 0

/’ = .667
/’ = 1.0
0.1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
 is the friction between
Design Value of ’ the wall and the soil
42
Chart of Kph

Passive Kp
100
90
Figure C.2.1
80
70
60
( = 0)
50
40
30
/’ = 1.0 Horizontal 
Horizontal Component, Kph

20 Surface
/’ = .667  β =0

10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0 /’ = 0
5.0
4.0
3.0

2.0

1.0
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°

Design value of ’

43

EC7 Annex C: Kah – Horizontal Component of Active Earth Pressure

1.0 Figure C.1.2

0.9
0.8 ( = 0)
0.7
0.6
Horizontal Component, Kah

β/’ = 1.00
0.5 Inclined 
β Surface
0.4 β>0
β/’ = 0.80
β/’ = 0.60 >0
0.3
β/’ = 0.40
β/’ = 0.20
0.2 β/’ = 0.00
β/’ = -0.20
β/’ = -0.40
β/’ = -0.60
β/’ = -0.80
0.1 β/’ = -1.00
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
Design value of ’

44
EC7 Annex C: Kah – Horizontal Component of Active Earth Pressure

Figure C.1.3
1.0
0.9 ( = 0.66)
0.8
0.7
0.6
Horizontal Component, Kah

β/’ = 1.00
0.5 Inclined 
β surface
0.4 β>0
β/’ = 0.80
β/’ = 0.60 >0
0.3
β/’ = 0.40
β/’ = 0.20
0.2 β/’ = 0.00
β/’ = -0.20
β/’ = -0.40
β/’ = -0.60
β/’ = -0.80
0.1 β/’ = -1.00
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
Design value of ’

45

EC7 Annex C: Kah – Horizontal Component of Active Earth Pressure

Figure C.1.4
1.0
0.9 ( = 1)
0.8
0.7
0.6
Horizontal Component, Kah

β/’ = 1.00
0.5 Inclined 
β surface
0.4 β>0
β/’ = 0.80
β/’ = 0.60 >0
0.3
β/’ = 0.40
β/’ = 0.20
0.2 β/’ = 0.00
β/’ = -0.20
β/’ = -0.40
β/’ = -0.60
β/’ = -0.80
0.1 β/’ = -1.00
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
Design value of ’
46
EC7 Annex C: Kph – Horizontal Component of Passive Earth Pressure

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
β/’ = 1.00
30
β/’ = 0.80
Horizontal Component, Kph

20 Inclined 
β/’ = 0.60
β surface
β/’ = 0.40 β>0
10.0
9.0 β/’ = 0.20
8.0
7.0
6.0 β/’ = 0.00 >0
5.0
4.0 β/’ = -0.20
3.0
β/’ = -0.40
2.0

β/’ = -0.60
Figure C.2.2 1.0
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
( = 0) Design value of ’
47

EC7 Annex C: Kph – Horizontal Component of Passive Earth Pressure

β/’ = 1.00
100
90
80
70 β/’ = 0.80
60
50
40 β/’ = 0.60
30
β/’ = 0.40
Horizontal component, Kph

Inclined 
20
β/’ = 0.20 β surface
β>0
β/’ = 0.00
10.0
9.0 β/’ = -0.20
8.0
7.0 >0
6.0
5.0 β/’ = -0.40
4.0
3.0 β/’ = -0.60
2.0
β/’ = -0.80
Figure C.2.3
1.0
( = 0.66) 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°

Design value of ’
48
EC7 Annex C: Kph – Horizontal Component of Passive Earth Pressure

β/’ = 1.00
100 β/’ = 0.80
90
80
70 β/’ = 0.60
60
50
β/’ = 0.40
40
β/’ = 0.20
30
Inclined 
Horizontal Component, Kph

20 β/’ = 0.00 β surface

β>0
β/’ = -0.20
10.0
9.0
8.0
β/’ = -0.40 >0
7.0
6.0
5.0 β/’ = -0.60
4.0
3.0
β/’ = -0.80
2.0

Figure C.2.4
( = 1) 1.0
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
Design value of ’ 49