What We Learned While Determining VOD’s in Underground Small Hole Blasting

Scott Rosenthal, P.E., Montana Technological University,

Associate Professor Mining Engineering
&
Kyle Murphy, Montana Technological University,
Mining Engineering Graduate Student

Abstract
This paper discusses the trials and tribulations of obtaining Velocity of Detonation (VOD) readings in
small diameter blast holes in an underground mine. Montana Technological University (Montana Tech)
obtained a time-domain reflectometer (TDR) type VOD monitoring unit. Purchase of the VOD monitor
was justified on verifying explosives performance used in Montana Tech’s practical underground mining
class and provide a teaching aid for the school’s rock fragmentation class. Before demonstrating the unit
to students, we figured we better learn how to use it first so we give the students an appropriate experience.
Our first learning was in obtaining the correct coaxial cable for the VOD monitor and how to properly
terminate the cable. Once the cable was on-site and terminated, VOD testing could commence. Use of
the VOD monitor was tested underground in small diameter holes (1.5-inch, 38 millimeter) pneumatically
loaded with ANFO. After a few failed trials, and follow-up discussions with the supplier, VOD readings
were obtained for the ANFO loaded holes. Additional readings were obtained for a pre-split product and
detonating cord to satisfy our curiosity that the unit was performing as specified by the manufacturer. This
paper will share our learnings in the hopes that others can benefit.

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Introduction
Velocity of detonation (VOD) is the speed a detonation wave travels through a column of an explosive
(ISEE, 2011). Every explosive used in the mining industry has an ideal VOD ranging from 1,524 meters
per second (m/s) to 7,620 m/s (5,000 feet per second (fps) to 25,000 fps ) and, in extreme cases of
experimental explosives, can range as high as 9,754 m/s (32,000 fps). When discussing any parameter of
explosive properties, it is worth mentioning that there are both ideal and non-ideal explosives. Ideal
explosives are defined as those that the reaction zone is very small, and all chemical reactions take place
at the detonation front. Ideal explosives are commonly single molecule explosives like TNT or PETN
(ISEE, 2011). VOD of Non-Ideal explosives, e.g. ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO), is affected by
confinement, diameter of the explosive’s column, and particle size.

Montana Technological University (Montana Tech) has an on-campus underground lab and research
facility where students perform drilling, blasting, and ground support activities. Tying the classroom
study of explosives with field experimentation led the university to obtain a VOD monitoring unit as a
teaching aid and to verify the performance of explosives being used. An internet literature search for
underground VOD measurement returned no results so the authors’ experience in learning and using the
VOD monitor is shared here.

Background
VOD can be calculated through a few different methods; however, most methods or theories suffer from
a few flaws and these are that they either only reflect ideal reactions or are overly fundamental for ease of
use but do not reflect real world applications. (Esen, 2006). These models also ignore in-hole conditions
such as confinement, improper explosive mixtures, and explosive degradation due to ground conditions.
Testing done in this respect found that the results of theoretical calculations matched those of actual ANFO
and bulk explosives. Re-pumpable emulsion caused numerous errors due to differences in loading and
mining practices (Louw, Saracino, & Vather, 1993).

Testing on site with the explosives in use provides a direct measure of VOD. Direct testing of VOD is not
without its challenges as blast holes vary in diameter and length with complete detonation in milliseconds
after ignition. A machine to measure VOD must be robust enough to survive, fast enough to measure, and
accurate enough to be reliable. There are a few different methods of measurement that can track the
velocity such as the following:
• Dautriche Method: In this method two detonation wave propagating from both the ends of explosive
column via a detonating fuse bound on an aluminum plate collide. The distance of collision mark from
mid-point is measured. This distance is directly proportional to Velocity of Detonation. This method
of VOD measurement is suitable for unconfined space where the explosives are used in cartridge form.
• Photographic Method: Another method in the category is photographic method, where detonation
wave is monitored continuously using Streak and framing (high speed) camera. Explosion is an auto-
luminous process. The light emitted is captured continuously in real time. The VOD can be easily
calculated from the motion video.
• Discrete Points (Point to Point Electrical Method): Point to point VOD systems are basically
supported by electronics start and stop timer. The one end of sensor cable is inserted into the explosive
column at varying distance and other end to the VOD recorder where the start and stop signals are
recorded. When detonation reaches the first sensor timing clock is started, and the following sensor
cable sends the stop signals when detonation reaches it. The distance between sensor cables are known

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 and thus VOD can be calculated. This method is limited in providing information for critical
experiments because of discontinuity of the sensor cable in the explosive column.
• Resistance Wire Continuous VOD Method: This method was developed in early 1960s by the United
States Bureau of Mines (USBM) this method basically follows the Ohm’s Law (E=RI) where
E=Voltage, R=Resistance and I=Current. In this method ionization caused by explosion provides
electric short continuously causing the voltage drop monitored by the instrument which is equivalent
to the change in resistance value and the constant current. Thus, a voltage drop can be measured
instantaneously at any point in time. In this method single wire or two twisted wire of known resistance
can be acted as single or double sensor respectively at the same time. It is observed in the
experimentation that if in this method sensors are not ruggedized or distance with the return path is
not maintained properly for shorting during detonation then the results are usually undeciphered or no
readings are obtained.
• SLIFER Continuous VOD system: The SLIFER (Shorted Location Indication by Frequency of
Electrical Resonance) system was originally developed by Sandia National Laboratories to measure
the propagation of shock waves from nuclear explosion. It consists of a shorted length of coaxial cable
as a sensor in the explosive column which is connected to the oscillator circuit. This small device
shows the frequency which is controlled by length of sensor in the explosive column. As the wire
length decreases, frequency of oscillation increases. By monitoring this frequency as a function of
time, the rate of cable length change can be determined, leading directly to the measurement of VOD.
This system has been limited to laboratory work. The restriction with the SLIFER system is that
recording cable length with the oscillator is 66m per channel, moreover each sensor must have
oscillator connected in a line which should be placed close to the hole or shot area.
• TDR Continuous VOD System: The TDR system originally developed by the Los Alamos National
Laboratory to test and verify nuclear reaction yields and stress velocities into the surrounding medium.
This system can also be called as CORRTEX system later changed to the VODR-I when the system
was declassified for commercialization. In this system narrow electric pulse is sent through the cable
sensor and return or reflected path is detected which is from the other end of sensor. This method does
not require the sensing cable to be shorted to acquire data. This is one of the safest to use with any
commercial or military explosive.
• Method based fiber-optic: In this method optical fiber is used which can detect and transmit a light
signal accompanying the detonation wave front. This method is point to point to type wherein the first
cable signals the start whereas the second cable placed at a known fixed distance stops the timing
clock. The fixed distance between probes divided by the timed clock directly gives the VOD value.
(Tete, Deshmukh, & Yerpude, 2013)

Having acquired a TDR Continuous VOD System, the authors set about testing it in various scenarios.

VOD Testing
The TDR unit used for these tests is shown in Figure 1.

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 Figure 1. TDR Machine Used for Tests

This TDR unit utilizes standard coax cable (either RG6U or RG59 Mini) with a maximum length of 305
meters (1000 feet) and a minimum, unusable or dead zone, length of 40 meters (131 feet) using standard
cable connections (BNC). The benefits of each cable vary as the RG6U is more durable and will sustain
greater impact before loss of measurement capability. RG59 Mini works better in small hole applications
where space is limited. The standard coax cables are relatively inexpensive and is immune to noise in the
line. The second advantage of using coax cable is that components are a hardware store away and require
little outside knowledge to assemble, unlike some of the specialty units. The manufacturer of the TDR
unit notes it works with electronic detonators and is not affected by wet holes. Wet holes were encountered
during surface testing and did not cause any issues in the one test completed.
The TDR unit was easy to setup at the blast site. When testing underground, multi-holes instrumentation
did not work due to disruption of the signal caused by fly-rock. There is additional cable loss when
instrumenting underground VOD measurements from fly-rock. A key thing testing underground is that
the 0 hole must be the test hole otherwise the test is doomed from the beginning without quite a lot of
armor on the cable.
Software for the TDR system is fairly simple and visually basic, Figure 2. This software downloads all
data from the testing equipment and can either run a point to point or least squares analysis. Then the
result is dropped into a format that can be readily used and analyzed by the testing organization. The report
is tagged with a time stamp and location that the equipment was set up so long as GPS is available. Figure
3 is an example of a filtered result showing a time/distance graph from one of the tests performed.

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 Figure 2. Screen shot of TDR software

Figure 3. Example of a filtered result showing a time/distance graph.

Figure 4 shows an example of VOD next to filtered data. Note the graph shows better VOD mid hole
and loses velocity at the end when the collar began to yield.

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 Figure 4. Example of VOD, left, next to filtered data, right.
Figure 5 demonstrates a near steady state powder column detonation until approaching the area at the
top of the blasthole where loss of confinement is occurring due to using drill cutting for stemming in a
surface blast hole.

Figure 5. Surface blast hole result.

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Example of exported data is in Figure 6 displaying the raw data graph and the calculated values from the
tests. This data was recorded in imperial units and cannot be altered after recording.

Figure 6. Example exported data.

For the underground tests, 38-millimeter (1.5-inch) holes drilled using jackleg drills with Long Period
Nonel initiation system and an 8 gram (0.3 ounce) cast booster. Explosives were primarily bagged
ANFO pneumatically placed, however tests were conducted with decoupled presplitting agent and
detonating cord. Rock for underground tests was granite (locally known as Butte quartz monzonite).
VOD tests that were performed:
• Top hole priming: This test was an error in the testing parameters with an outside source loading the
test hole. For obvious reasons a top primed blast hole will not make a recordable test.
• Multi hole underground test: Multiple tests were conducted to attempt to achieve a multi hole
measurement underground. During testing it was proven that an unarmored cable is not capable of
surviving any location from flyrock.
• Single hole underground test: Single hole underground testing proved to be possible so long as the test
was conducted on the first hole to detonate in the pattern. As shown in Figure 7, a consistent and
plausible result was achieved for ANFO.

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 Figure 7. Underground small diameter VOD measurement for ANFO.
• Pre-split product: De-coupled presplitting agent does not yield a VOD of the explosive itself but of
the Detonating Cord inside based on site measurements, Figure 8. The manufacturer states that the
VOD of the blasting agent is 5,000 m/s (16,400 fps) the tests, however, yielded a result of 6,339 m/s
(20,799 fps). The estimated velocity for Det Cord from various manufacturers ranges from 6,300 m/s
(20,669 fps) to 6,700 m/s (21,981 fps). Presplitting agent cannot be accurately tested unless it is sans
Det Cord.

Figure 8. De-couple presplitting agent VOD measurement.

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• Detonating cord test: To test both the accuracy of the machine and the age-based durability of
Detonating cord a test was conducted, Figure 9. This test yielded a VOD of 7,552.6 m/m (21,779
fps). The material tested has a nominal manufacturer’s velocity of greater than 7,000 m/s (22,965.8
fps). Velocity tested shows a difference of 7% above the minimum.

Figure 9. Detonating cord VOD measurement.

Successful VOD tests for small diameter blastholes underground, ANFO shows a VOD of 2,689 M/S (+/-
9 M/S std deviation, 8,822 fps +/- 30 fps std deviation) using a least squares analysis. A simple point to
point calculation rendered a VOD of 2,627 M/S (8,619 fps). This difference can be attributed to the fact
that Point to Point calculations yield a simple overall time over distance. Least squares gives a better
analysis point as it includes the intermediate data from the hole and accounts for variations in the blast
column. Small hole ANFO test results performed align with Figure 11.8 in the Blasters Handbook for
VOD shown below as Figure 10 (ISEE, 2011). The Blasters’ Handbook estimates the VOD for a 38mm
(1.5 inch) hole at 2,438.4 M/S (8,000 fps). The deviation between the test results and the estimate is about
10%.

Figure 10. Borehole diameter vs. VOD for ANFO (Source: ISEE Blasters’ Handbook, 17th Ed.

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Conclusions and Future Work
Velocity of detonation is the most scientific field test that a blasting engineer has at their disposal. As
VOD is directly related to the energy being applied to the rock and is affected by the confinement of the
blast hole, VOD is a direct harbinger of blast performance. Testing results revealed some lessons learned.
Information such as the inability to test pre-splitting agent due to the internal det-cord over riding the
blasting agent velocity. For standard testing methods top or double priming will not work. Yet other tests
confirmed expectations set forth in the Blaster’s Handbook such as small hole ANFO VOD.

Additional testing to be conducted will be in various larger hole sizes underground to demonstrate to
students the actual performance of ANFO. Multiple explosives mixtures (e.g. emulsion blends) should be
used to ascertain how they react to the smaller blasting volume and critical diameter. Alternative methods
to conduct underground testing should be explored; such as different testing equipment types to figure out
which one reacts best to the underground mining atmosphere, methods that can measure holes that are top
or multi-primed, and wireless cable transmitters. Also, it should be explored methods to protect the testing
apparatus and cable in the heading or wireless transmitters so multi hole testing could be completed. Multi-
hole testing should show how the later holes in the blasting pattern are impacted by lower blast hole
confinement attributed to the rock yielding allowing for charges to be tailored to reduce over break
damage.

Acknowledgements
The author’s wish to thank Montana Technological University for use of the underground lab, the students
involved with drilling and loading blastholes while we mucked around. We would also like to
acknowledge the contributions of Stefan Miller of ShotTrack with the assistance on using the equipment
and data analysis software.

References
Esen, S. (2006). A Non-Ideal Detonation Model for Evaluating the Performance of Explosives in Rock
Blasting. The Netherlands: Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering.
ISEE. (2011). Balsters' Handbook (18th Edition). Cleveland, Ohio: International Society of Explosives
Engineers.
Louw, M., Saracino, R., & Vather, S. (1993). A comparison of the theoretical and measuerd velocities of
detonation for selected explosives. Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, 14-153.
Tete, A. D., Deshmukh, D. A., & Yerpude, D. R. (2013). Velocity of detonation (VOD) measurement
techniques practical approach. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 259-265.

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