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GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE
C. MUTLUR, CHIDAMBARAM -608102
TAMILNADU, INDIA
OCTOBER – 2019
Dr. S. PRABHA, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.,
Assistant professor
PG & Research Department of Chemistry,
Government Arts College,
C.Mutlur, Chidambaram– 608 102
Tamilnadu, India
===============================================================
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis, entitled “ PREPARATION,
CHARACTERIZATION OF ACTIVATED CHARCOAL SUPPORTED Cd
DOPED CuO NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS”,
submitted to the Thiruvalluvar University, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Philosophy in
Chemistry is a record of original research work done by Miss. A. KAVITHA,
during the period from 2018 to 2019 of her research in the Department of
Chemistry at Government Arts College, Chidambaram under my supervision
and guidance and the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any
Degree / Diploma / Associateship / Fellowship or other similar title to any
candidate of any University.
Signature of the Guide with seal
Head of the Department
Principal
Place :
Date :
DECLARATION
I, A. KAVITHA hereby declare that the thesis, entitled “PREPARATION,
CHARACTERIZATION OF ACTIVATED CHARCOAL SUPPORTED Cd
DOPED CuO NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS”,
submitted to the Thiruvalluvar University, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Philosophy in
Chemistry is a record of original and independent research work done by me
during 2018 - 2019 under the Supervision and guidance of Dr. S. PRABHA,
M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., Assistant professor, PG & Research Department of
Chemistry, Government Arts College, C.Mutlur, Chidambaram and it has not
formed the basis for the award of any Degree / Diploma / Associateship /
Fellowship or other similar title to any candidate in any University.
Place: Signature of the Candidate
Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the LORD for showering all the grace on me in steering through
the path of success in every attempt of my life
I owe my deep sense of gratitude to my respectable research guide
Dr. S. PRABHA, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., Assistant professor, PG & Research
Department of Chemistry, Government Arts College, C.Mutlur, Chidambaram
for her magnanimous support and ineffable encouragement with valuable
suggestions. I remunerate my wholehearted thanks for helping me to make
my research work successful in all possible ways.
It gives me a great pleasure to acknowledge and thank Dr. N. SANTHI,
M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., P rincipal, Government Arts College, C.Mutlur,
Chidambaram for providing valuable support.
I express my heart full heartfelt thanks to D
r. M. SEKAR,
M.Sc., B.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate professor & Head, PG & Research
Department of Chemistry, Government Arts College, C.Mutlur, Chidambaram
for providing me necessary facilities to carryout this work and for his constant
encouragement, support during the course.
I render my sincere thanks to D
r. S. SENTHILVELAN,
M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate professor, PG & Research Department of
Chemistry, Government Arts College, C.Mutlur, Chidambaram, for his
expensive suggestions, useful comments.
I extend my sincere thanks to all STAFF MEMBERS, Ph.D and M.Phil
RESEARCH SCHOLARS, PG & Research Department of Chemistry,
Government Arts College, C.Mutlur, Chidambaram for their constant
encouragement, good support and timely help during the period of my study.
I wish to express my indebtedness to my beloved parents
Shri. M. ANBALAGAN and Smt. A. NAGAVALLI and my brothers for their
invaluable support and constant encouragement. It is the blessing of these
people, which made me to complete this work successfully.
I specially thank to my uncle Shri. V. KARTHIK, B.E., and my friends
R. PRAVEENA M.Sc.,, R. VIJAYALAKSHMI, M.Sc., B.Ed., S.RAJAM, M.Sc.,
B.Ed., R. JAYACHITHRA, M.Sc in supporting to carryout the studies in
excellent manner.
I also thank for the UNIVERSITY AUTHORITIES for providing
necessary facilities to carry out this study successfully.
A. KAVITHA
CONTENTS
S.No. TITLE PAGE No.
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION 1
METAL OXIDE–BASED NANOCOMPOSITES: 3
PROPERTIES OF METAL OXIDE NANOPARTICLES 5
Optical properties 5
Transport properties 6
Mechanical properties 6
Chemical properties 7
Photocatalysis 7
Metal oxides as heterogeneous catalysts 9
GENERAL APPROACHES TO NANOCOMPOSITE 10
FABRICATION
METAL DOPING 11
REVIEW OF IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF METAL 14
OXIDES
BIOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF METAL OXIDES 19
APLLICATIONS OF NANOCOMPOSITES 22
Fuel Tanks: 23
Films: 23
Environmental protection: 24
SCOPE OF THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION AND 24
OBJECTIVES
CHAPTER 2
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 27
MATERIALS 27
METHODS 27
Preparation of AC-supported Cd-doped CuO by 27
precipitation method
CHARACTERIZATION OF NANO COMPISITE 28
X-Ray diffraction (XRD) 28
High resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM) 28
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) 29
Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy 29
Photocatalytic Studies 29
Reactive Orange 4 29
Photoreactor 30
General Mechanistic Action of Photocatalyst 31
Antibacterial studies 34
Determination of antibacterial activity by disk-diffusion 34
method
Antifungal studies 35
Composition of Potato Dextrose Agar medium: 36
Antioxidant Activity 37
Preparation of Control (DPPH) Solution 37
Preparation of standard solution (Ascorbic acid) 37
Preparation of test solutions: 37
CHAPTER 3
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
CHARACTERIZATION OF AC-Cd/CuO 39
XRD analysis 39
HR-SEM analysis 41
EDX analysis 43
FT-IR spectral analysis 45
PHOTOCATALYTIC ACTIVITY OF AC/Cd-CuO 46
Photodegradation of Reactive Orange 4 Dye under UV Light 46
Effect of Solution pH 49
Effect of Catalyst Loading. 50
Effect of Initial Dye Concentration 52
Reusability 54
3.2.6. Mechanism of Photocatalysis at CuO Surface 55
3.2.7 Kinetic analysis 56
Antimicrobial Activity of A/Cd-CuO Nano particles 58
Materials and Method 58
Result and Discussion 62
Antifungal Activity 63
Materials and Method 63
Results and Discussion 67
Antioxidant Activity 68
Results and Discussion 71
CHAPTER 4
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 72
REFERENCE 74
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION:
In a broad sense, the term "composite" means "made of two or more different
parts." Or "A composite[1-2] is a mixture of two or more different materials that
are mixed in an attempt to mix the best properties of both." A composite
material consists of an arrangement of two materials of different natures that
complete and enable us to obtain a material of which the set of characteristics
of the performance is the same.
Mostly composite material consists of one or more dispersed discontinuous
phases in one continuous phase. Hybrid components[3] are those that are of
different natures with several discontinuous stages. Discontinuous phase is
usually harder than continuous phase and has superior mechanical properties.
The "matrix" is called the continuous process The discontinuous step is called
"material for strengthening, or for strengthening."
A nanocomposite is a composite material in which at least one of the
components has a nanoscopic dimension of about 10-9 m. Scaling might be
helpful[4]: a coin is 1-2 mm thick or 10-3 m thick; a carbon fiber, widely used
as a protection for sporting products, is about 7 μm in diameter or 10-6 m; a
carbon-chemical boundary, the basic unit of life, is about 1.5 or 10-10 m thick.
A composite / nanocomposite material consists of a matrix and a fiber
reinforcement. The matrix itself consists of a resin and filler which aims to
improve resin characteristics while reducing the cost of production. The
filler-resin method functions as a homogeneous substance from a mechanical
point of view, and the composite is known to be made of a matrix and a
reinforcement.
The reinforcement brings its greater mechanical strength to the composite
material, whereas the matrix's function is to transfer the external mechanical
load to the fiber and to protect the fibers against external attack.
The type of matrix association for reinforcement depends on the constraints
imposed on the designer: high mechanical properties, good thermal stability,
expense, corrosion resistance, etc. Most of the nanocomposites that have been
developed and have demonstrated technological significance have been
composed of two phases and can be microstructurally categorized into three
main types: (a) nanolayered composite composed of alternating layers of
nanoscale dimension; (b) nanofilament composites composed of a matrix with
embedded (and usually aligned) filaments of nanoscale diameter;
As with conventional composites, the properties of nanocomposites can
display synergistic improvements individually over those of the component
phases. Nonetheless, peculiar and often improved properties can be realized by
reducing thephase(s) physicaldimension(s) down to the nanometer-length scale.
An important microstructural feature of nanocomposite is its large interphase
area-to-volume interaction ratio.
Depending on the type of filler, i.e. the nano-scale content of the
nanocomposites, they are classified into: (1) metal oxide-based nanocomposites,
(2) polymer-based nanocomposites, (3) carbon-based nanocomposites and (4)
noble-metal-based nanocomposites Because of their large aspect ratios (i.e.,
size-to-volume ratios), submicrometer size and specific properties Certain
important areas for nanocomposite applications are the catalysis, isolation,
sorption, and fuel cells. Nanocomposites can be considered as solid structures
with nanometer-scale repeated dimensional distance between the various
phases. Nanocomposites are usually known as inorganic matrix, organic filler in
organic, and hybrid materials, i.e. organic in organic or inorganic matrix.
1.2 METAL OXIDE–BASED NANOCOMPOSITES:
Nanocomposites may be centered on a matrix of metal oxide in which
the filler often includes metal oxide nanoparticles, nanowires, etc. As is now well
known, the metal oxides are important semiconductors that can be used in chemical
sensors as sensing materials. The benefits offered by wide-band semiconductor
oxides include their air stability, relatively inexpensive, and ultra-dispersed state
easy preparation. Because porous metal oxides have attractive properties such as
preparation simplicity, adjustable porosity, good chemical stability, low-temperature
encapsulation, negligible swelling, mechanical and biodegradable stability, and high
sensitivity at lower operating temperatures to detect reducing and oxidizing gases,
they have been used in the manufacture of chemical sensors and biosensors.
Nanocomposites based on metal oxides may be prepared using
different methods. There are certain approaches which can be used, such as
mechanical and chemical. By using a mechanical method that can grind the metal
and give very small size of the grain and also give homogeneous mixture (ball
milling)[5]. Alloying occurs in this process as a result of repeated breaking-up and
joining (welding) of particles in the piece. The method will prepare highly metastable
structures with high versatility including amorphous alloys and nanocomposite
structures. In a gas-sensing application materials prepared using this process were
used. For example, it was found that nanocomposite sensors based on Fe2O3 (Sn,
Ti, Zr) prepared this way showed an improved sensitivity to ethanol and
hydrocarbons. For this mechanical alloying process, the scaling up of synthesized
materials[6] to industrial quantities is easily achieved, but the pureness and
homogeneity of the structures created remain a challenge. In addition to erosion and
agglomeration, high-energy milling can cause chemical reactions which can affect
nanocomposite properties. Sol-gel processes can also be used to prepare metal
oxides–based nanocomposites[7]. Aerogels are ideal starting material for use in
nanocomposites due to their high porosity structure Aerogel nanocomposites can be
processed in different ways, depending on when the second phase is inserted into
the aerogel material. The second component may be applied to the metal oxides
during sol-gel processing (before supercritical drying). It can also be added to the
vapor phase (after supercritical drying), or reactive gas treatments can be used to
effect chemical modification of the aerogel particles. These approaches generally can
produce many varieties of nanocomposites. Nanocomposites can also be successfully
deposited from the aerosol phase and laser ablation or pulsed laser deposition.
PROPERTIES OF METAL OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
Current knowledge of metal oxide materials makes it possible to say that most
of their physico-chemical properties of particular relevance in chemistry are linked
to industrial use as sensors, ceramics, absorbents and/or catalysts.
Optical properties Optical conductivity is one of the important properties of
metal oxides, and can be derived experimentally from measurements of reflectivity
and absorption. Reflectivity is obviously size-dependent, because when the oxide
characteristic size (primary / secondary particle size) is within / out the photon
wavelength range, scattering will make drastic changes. Light absorption becomes
both discrete and size-dependent due to containment of the quantum size[8]. For
nanocrystalline semiconductors, both linear (one exciton per particle) and nonlinear
optical (multiple excitons) properties arise as a result of discrete or quantized
electronic level transitions between the electron and the hole.
Transport properties The ionic or mixed ionic / electronic conductivity of
metal oxide materials can be present. It is well known experimentally, that both can
be affected by the solid's nanostructure. According to Boltzmann statistics, the
number of electronic charging carriers in a metal oxide, is a function of the band gap
energy. The electronic conduction is called p-type, which depends on whether
electrons or holes are the main charging carriers. The number of an oxide's "free"
electron-holes can be increased by adding non-stoichiometry, in such a case the less
mobile oxygen or cation vacancies are much balanced. Analogously, hoping-type
conduction occurs when ions may hop within a crystal lattice as a result of thermal
activation from site to site[9, 10].
Mechanical properties Mechanical properties lead to observables of low (yield
stress and hardness) and high (superpasticity) temperature. Oxide nanomaterials
knowledge is scarce and primarily devoted to studying sinterability, ductibility, and
electronic rates are quantized for superpasticity[11].
Chemical properties In the context of catalysis absorption metal oxides are
used for both redox and acid / base properties. The three key characteristics are
important for their application as absorbents or catalysts such as I surfaceatom
co-ordinating environment, ii) redox properties, and iii) surface layer oxidation state.
Both redox and acid / base properties are interrelated, and there are many attempts
to create correlations of both properties in the literature[12, 13]. In a simple
classification, oxides are s or p electrons which tend to be more effective for acid /
base catalysis in their valence orbitals, while those with d or f outer electrons find
wider uses. The solid in a given reaction conditions undergoing simultaneous
reduction and reoxidation by giving out oxygen anions to the surface lattice and by
taking oxygen from the gas phase known as redox catalyst. Mars Van Krevelen
devoted the commonly accepted mechanism and suggests that redox systems
require high electronic conduction cations to control the mobility of electrons and
high oxygen-lattice.
Photocatalysis Photocatalysis can be characterized by the presence of a
catalyst as acceleration of the photoreaction[14, 15]. Photocatalysis is a mixture of
photocatalyst and UV, or visible light for wastewater and gaseous contaminants
treatment. Various organic compounds (e.g., aromatic, organochloride and
organophosphorous compounds) may be oxidized and mineralized at the
photocatalyst surface or oxidized in solution under ambient and atmospheric
conditions when lighting a photocatalyst using UV or visible light. That's because
the photocatalyst surface contains heavy oxidation and reduction sites. This is
because at the appropriate wavelength, the surface is illuminated with light.
Surface-forming radicals dissolve in solution and then react with pollutants[ 16, 17].
It has often been shown that under the influence of vast amounts of free solar
energy, different organic compounds can be photocatalytically oxidised.
Photocatalysis is one of the most important advanced technologies for oxidation. It
can be used not only for oxidative wastewater treatment, but also for reduction
therapy such as reduction in wastewater deposition.
Fig 1.1: Pictorial representation of general mechanism of photocatalyst
Metal oxides as heterogeneous catalysts Heterogeneous photocatalysts
are solids which can promote reactions in the presence of light and not be
consumed in the overall response. Semiconductor materials are typically
catalysts used in photocatalytic reactions. The semiconductors of
chalcogenide used as photocatalysts include several metal oxides such as
TiO2, ZnO, SiO2, SnO2, ZrO2, Fe2O3, CeO2, WO3, etc.[18];
Metal and its oxides control the vast panorama of heterogeneous
catalysis. Metal oxides are usually formed through calcinations out of their
corresponding hydroxides. The three key features of metal oxides,
important for their use in catalysis, are: a) surface atom coordination
environment; b) oxide redox properties; and c) surface oxidation state.
Metal oxide can be widely applied in both redox and acid-base catalytic
reactions because they can show both transporting electron and polarizing
properties in surfaces. For the oxidation of toxic material the redox
properties of oxides are important.
electro-spinning, etc. A template is characterized in the creation of
nanostructured materials as a central structure within which a network is
built in such a way that removal of the template creates a filled cavity with
morphological and/or stereochemical characteristics specific to the
template[20]. Model synthesis requires the preparation of a variety of
required morphology micro-and nanomaterials and thus provides a route to
enhancing nanostructure order. The individual components interact in
non-template self-assembly to create a larger structure, without the
assistance of external forces or spatial constraints.
METAL DOPING
One of the main drawbacks associated with photocatalysis is the
rapid, inherent recombination of the electron-hole pair which is produced
after light absorption. This undesired process can be disrupted by using
surface traps which increase the photocatalyst's efficiency by introducing
alternative electron transfer paths, this suppression of the recombination
rate of the electron-hole[21]. This can be achieved by using a metal or
non-metal ions on the semiconductor surface[22,23].
The modification of pure photocatalyst materials with metal ions, in
particular block metal ions such as Fe3+ and Cr3+, results in the addition
of energy levels of impurity between parent conduction and valence bands.
Technically, doping is the introduction into the parent photocatalyst of
foreign elements without giving rise to a new crystallographic shape,
phases or structures and the goal is to increase the net separation of
photogenerated charges[24].
Electrons will start migrating from the semiconductor into the metal
as the Fermi-levels are matched due to the metal's higher work function
relative to the semiconductor. The metal surface acquires an undue
negative charge, while due to electron transfer the semiconductor is
unnecessarily positive charged. Schottky barrier forms an interface that
serves as an electron trap and facilitates the separation of charges within
the semiconductor[25-26].
Cadmium is one that is often used in a real situation, it can adsorb on
the surface of the photocatalyst and alter photocatalytic behavior. The
adjustment can be positive, leading to doping. Hence this thesis
investigates the impact of cadmium doping on the photocatalyst for metal
oxide.
Also, cadmium ions can serve as load trapping sites and thus
minimize recombination of electron-hole sites. The effect of doping on the
photocatalyst's operation depends on many factors, such as the form and
dopant concentration, the structure and initial dye concentration, the
catalyst's physico-chemical property[27,28].
The use of activated carbon as support for catalysts is based mainly
on their porous structure and functional surface groups. The porous
structure influences the supply of active surface sites, and thus the degree
of dispersion of the catalyst. Dispersion of the catalyst plays a key role in
catalysis processes as it improves its performance. Activated carbons are
characterized by a very wide distribution of the pore size ranging from
molecular to several hundred nanometres. The catalyst distributed in small
pores would be more or less efficient depending on the size of the reactant
and the product molecules. Hence the distribution of pore size is an
important consideration when selecting the appropriate carbon to be used
as a support[34]. On the other hand, textural properties such as surface
area and porosity have a notable impact not only on the dispersion of
catalysts but also on the reduction of metal chemical species on the
activated carbon surface.
REVIEW For IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF METAL OXIDES
Semiconductor photocatalysis is a new field of science and technology that has
grown significantly with industrial development to effectively remove various
contaminants in both aqueous and air systems. Heterogeneous photocatalysis is
an innovative oxidation process that has been subject to comprehensive air
cleaning and water purification studies due to its inexpensive and non-toxicity.
They show tunable properties such as reduction in size, surface properties,
significant stability and durability[35].
In addition to TiO2, many other binary metal oxides have been examined to
establish their properties as a photocatalytic oxidation[36]. The synthesized
reduced graphene-coated ZnO composite was found to have an improved ability
for RhB adsorption and an improved photocatalytic behavior for RhB degradation
as opposed to tidy ZnO NPs[37]. Number of researchers reported
surfactant-assisted chemical synthesis of ZnO nanorods and as-synthesized ZnO
nanorods as an effective photocatalyst for MB dye degradation, showing ~90
percent degradation of methylene blue (MB). Sobana and Swaminathan[38] have
successfully reported that ZnO's enhanced photocatalytic activity has been mixed
with different proportions of activated carbon for the Direct Blue 53 solar-assisted
photocatalytic degradation. The synergistic effect observed that prolonged
adsorption of DB 53 was photocatalytically degraded on activated carbon followed
by its transition to ZnO. The synergistic effect is responsible for AC-ZnO's
improved photocatalytic activity as opposed to bare ZnO.
Zhang et al.[39] prepared a hybrid substance dispersed on the ZnO surface by
monomolecular-layer polyaniline. The hybrid photocatalysts were exhibiting
promising photocatalytic behavior to degrade the MB. The high separation
between the photogenerated electron and holes on the hybrid ZnO interface.
Etacheri et al.[40] successfully synthesized Mg doped ZnO NPs exhibited a
blue-shift in the near-band edge photoluminescence (PL) emission, PL intensities
decreased, and superior photocatalytic decomposition of MB induced by sunlight
was good compared to undown ZnO.
Rashad et al.[41] used methanol as organic solvent to successfully synthesize ZnO
with SnO2 doped by solvothermal process. The effect of ZnO / SnO2 molar ratios
on crystal structure, microstructure, optical and photocatalytic properties was
investigated. Results indicated that the highest photocatalytic activity for MB
photodegradation was shown by Zn2 + doping at 0.3 (ZnO):0.7 (SnO2) molar ratio.
Milenova et al.[42] have successfully synthesized ZnO NPs in copper doped form.
The results showed that the ZnO and Cu-doped ZnO NP crystallite sizes were
within the range of 45-49 nm. The photocatalytic activity was tested under UV
irradiation in the reaction to Reactive Black 5 decolouration.
Paulauskas and Modeshia investigated the photocatalytic activities of a series of
TiO2 dependent NPs, synthesized via flame spray pyrolysis (FSP),[43]. Metal ion
effects such as aluminium, tin, and platinum. Photocatalytic studies of methyl
orange (MO) dye degradation under UV irradiation have shown that adding Al and
Sn has a negative effect on catalytic efficiency, while adding0,7 percent Pt to each
sample has increased photocatalytic activity.
He et al.[44] used a mechanochemical method to prepare successfully synthesized
Co and Mn doped ZnO NPs with up to 5 per cent at doping level. Co-doping
significantly reduced photocatalytic activity, and Mn-doping increased
photocatalytic activity at low levels of doping.
The iron doped TiO2 NPs were synthesized by Safari et al.[45]. The degradation of
Reactive Orange 16 (RO 16) dye under UV irradiation was examined on the
photocatalytic behavior of samples. The results showed that the photocatalytic
activity of iron-doped TiO2 was purer than that of TiO2, due to smaller crystal size
and greater surface area of BET and higher absorption capacity of light.
Welderfael et al.[46] co-doped ZnO NPs using a one-step impregnation technique
synthesized with Ag-N. Methyl red dye photocatalytic degradation was used to
synthesize the photocatalysts and was irradiated with UV irradiation. Modified
ZnO photocatalysts display higher photocatalytic activity under solar as well as
UV irradiations compared with pure ZnO. Among the undoped, ag-doped and
n-doped Nainani et al.[47] synthesized noble metal doped TiO2 the highest
catalytic activity was reported for Ag-N co-doped zinc oxide (ANZ). The absorption
in the visible light for Ag-TiO2 and as prepared TiO2 was found to be improved
from the UV-visible measurement and shifted to longer wavelength. The results
obtained show that Ag-TiO2's photocatalytic efficiency was better than that of
TiO2 prepared for methyl orange photodegradation.
Bismuth (Bi)-doped ZnO nanocomposite by precipitation method was successfully
synthesized by Senthilvelan et al.[48]. The Bi-doped ZnO's increased
photocatalytic activity is demonstrated under UV-light irradiation by
photodegradation of Congo Red (CR). CR degradation rate increases as catalyst
loading increases. Under UV-light it exhibited fair activity and showed better
activity compared to undoped nanomaterial ZnO.
Oh[49] recorded titanium (VI) n-butoxide (TNB) fe-containing AC (activated
carbon)/TiO2 composites as a titanium source to Fe treated AC by impregnation
process. The effect of the textured surface properties shows that the surface area
of the BET has a slight decrease with an increase in the amount of Fe being
processed. The results of photodegradation for piggery waste showed excellent
degradation behavior for chemical oxygen demand (COD) due to photocatalysis of
the assisted TiO2, radical reaction of Fe species and porous carbon adsorptivity.
Yuan and Xu[50] synthesized constant temperature hydrolysis of SnO2,
hydrolysis of the microwave, chemical precipitation, and reaction of the solid
state. Nano-oxides photocatalytic activities have been studied using Methyl
Orange(MO) as organic pollutant mode. Doped photocatalysts were tested with
different metal ions and the pH of MO liquid. This shows that well-crystallized
SnO2 with a particle size of 30-40 nm can be prepared by constant sintered
temperature hydrolysis at 800 C and decoloration of MO reaches 97% at 120 min,
showing higher photocatalytic activity for MO than other methods.
Cendrowski et al.[51] were developed for the transportation of titanium dioxide by
the silica nanospheres. The photocatalytic degradation of nanostructures was
investigated through the decomposition of phenols and the synthesis of hydrogen.
A strong improvement in photoactivity was contrasted with commercial
TiO2-Degussa P25 in both reactions.
SnO2 NPs were prepared by Wang et al.[52] which are coated on nitrogen-doped
carbon nanotubes. It investigated the photocatalytic activity of prepared
SnO2/CNT for Rhodamine B degradation under UV light irradiation. The results
show that nanocomposites from SnO2/CNT exhibit a higher photocatalytic activity
than pure SnO2.
Through microwave solvothermal process, he and Zhou[53] synthesized SnO2
spheres through degrading Rhodamine B under UV light illumination. Results
showed that these products with a diameter of about 1-2 mm and extended
reaction time would shift the surface of the SnO2 spheres to rough and then
smooth when the time is even longer. The product shows the higher photocatalytic
activity and red shift in UV-Vis absorption, with nanorods on its surface.
Greene et al.[54] have successfully synthesized magnetic nanostructures of the
core-shell CoFe2O4@SiO2@TiO2. The core shell was sintered at 600 μC and used
under UV light as a catalyst in methylene blue photo-oxidation reactions. It is
expected that these NPs will be used in photocatalysis and possibly in biomedical
applications including antibacterial control systems. Eslami et al.[55] studied
photocatalytic degradation of methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) in contaminated water
from the ZnO NPs.
Davis and Gainer[56] used TiO2/UV to treat the dyes-containing municipal
wastewater. It was found that the demand for chemical oxygen could be decreased
by eliminating the sewage colour.
BIOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF METAL OXIDES
Nanoparticles of metal and metal oxide are synthesized and stabilized by
chemical and mechanical methods[57,58], electrochemical techniques[59],
photochemical reactions in reverse micels[60] and nowadays by green chemistry
method[61]. The biological synthesis method elucidates the significance of metal
microbe interaction in several biotechnological applications including the field of
bioremediation, biomineralization, bleaching, and microbial corrosion[62].
Metal oxide nanoparticles have recently been shown to demonstrate excellent
biocidal and biostatic action against Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria[63]. In the cosmetic and sunscreen industries, nanoscale ZnO materials
are used because of their transparency and their ability to reflect, disperse and
absorb UV radiation and as food additives[ 64,65,]. Already considered for use in
biological applications of the next decade are ZnO nanomaterials, including
antimicrobial agents, drug delivery and bio-imaging samples[66,67,68].
Nanoparticles show promise in clinical care, consumer products and industrial
applications for pathogen control[ 69, 70, 71]. The antibacterial properties of zinc
oxide nanoparticles have been studied and developed against a wide range of
microorganisms as antibacterial agents to monitor and prevent the spread and
persistence of bacterial infections[72].
ZnO's antibacterial activity was measured and the effect was more pronounced
with the Gram-positive than with the Gram-negative bacteria, and ZnO
nanoparticles also exhibited a preferential ability to kill cancerous HL60 cells
compared to normal peripheral mononuclear blood cells[73]. The most probable
mechanism of ZnO NP's antibacterial activity is due to ZnO nanoparticles '
photochemical properties. The photo-induced charging carriers (electrons and
holes) interact with oxygen and H2O molecules that are adsorbed on the surface
of ZnO nanoparticles to create reactive oxygen species (ROS)[ 74, 75, 76, 77].
TiO2 has three phases which are crystalline: anatase, rutile and brookite.
Thermodynamically, the most stable form of rutile is. Anatase's use in
photovoltaic cells[78] and photocatalysts[79] and its antimicrobial properties has
received significant interest. Thanks to their novel and fascinating optical,
dielectric and photocatalytic properties from size quantization[80], TiO2
nanoparticles have become a new generation of advanced materials. TiO2 is
commonly used as surface coating materials which are self-cleaning and
self-desinfecting. Owing to its photo-induced super-hydrophobicity and
antifogging effect, titanium dioxide plays a more helpful role in environmental
purification[81].
Hashimoto et al.[82] studied the antibacterial activity of TiO2 photocatalyst on
ceramic tiles and their detoxification behavior. Numerous photocatalytic
inactivation experiments have been carried out on a wide spectrum of species
including cancer cells, phages, viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa.
Semiconductors with wide band gaps, such as TiO2, ZnO, SnO2 and SiO2, are
suitable photocatalytic materials[83-84]. An essential n-type metallic oxide
semiconductor with wide band gap (3.6 eV) is among those SnO2s. Due to its
unique properties in mechanical, optical, electrochemical and catalytic form.
SnO2 is commonly used in solar cells, transparent conducting electrodes,
solid-state sensors, Li rechargeable batteries and electronic optical
designs[85,86].
A nanocomposite is a composite material in which the nanometer size scale of at
least one of the dimensions of one of its constituents is. The term also generally
implies the combination of two (or more) distinct materials, such as a ceramic
and a polymer, rather than phase-segregated structures spontaneously. The
challenge and interest in developing nanocomposites[87] is to find ways of
creating macroscopic components which benefit from the unique physical and
mechanical properties of very small objects inside them.
Nanocomposites can be used in a number of sensing schemes to improve sensing
system performance and to open up new horizons in their applications.
Nanoparticles, nanowires, and nanotubes from different materials have already
had an effect on the chemical sensor market, ranging from gas sensors to glucose
enzyme electrodes. Nanocomposite-based protocols are currently being used for
protein identification, acid, toxic gases, etc. These devices are imparted high
selectivity by the property associated with nanowires and nanotubes that allow
us to modify them with other elements such as polymers or a silica matrix.
Nanocomposite-based sensors are expected to have a major impact on clinical
diagnosis, environmental monitoring, security surveillance, and ensuring the
safety of our food.
APLLICATIONS OF NANOCOMPOSITES
The number of nanocomposite applications[88] has risen at a rapid rate.
Worldwide production is expected to reach 600,000 tons and will cover the
following key areas over the next five to ten years: / Drug delivery systems /
Anti-corrosion barrier coatings / UV protection gels / Lubricants and scratch
resistant paint / New fire retardant materials / New scratch / abrasion
resistance products / Superior resistance fabrics and films These include
potential for use on various types of vehicles as mirror housing, door handles,
engine coverings and intake manifolds, and timing belt coverings. More general
applications currently under consideration include use as impellers and blades
for vacuum cleaners, housings for power tools, mower hoods and covers for
portable electronic devices such as mobile phones, pagers.
Fuel Tanks: The ability of nanoclay incorporation has been shown to minimize
solvent transmission across polymers such as polyamides. Data available shows
significant reductions in fuel transmission by polyamide-6/66 polymers through
nanoclay filler incorporation.
Films: It has also been shown that the presence of filler incorporation at
nano-level has a significant effect on film's clarity and haze properties. Compared
to polymers which are filled conventionally. This effect has been shown to be due
to changes in the crystallization activity brought about by the nanoclay particles
with polyamide-based composites.
Likewise, when used to cot polymeric transparency materials, nano-modified
polymers have been shown to enhance both the durability and strength of these
materials without interfering with the characteristics of light transmission. It has
also been demonstrated the ability to withstand high velocity impact combined
with substantially improved abrasion resistance.
Environmental protection: Atmosphere laden with water has long been
considered one of the most harmful conditions that polymeric materials can
experience. Thus a major advantage can be the ability to minimize the extent to
which water is absorbed.
Data available suggest that the incorporation of nanoclay could significantly
reduce the water absorption in a polymer. Similar effect might also be achieved
with nanocomposites based on polyamide.
1.9. SCOPE OF THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION AND OBJECTIVES
Climate warming and the problem of electricity are now considered the two
biggest problems facing human society. Semiconductor photocatalysis is planned as
a highly promising technique for both harvesting solar energy and breaking down
unwanted organics by solar light irradiation in water and air.
For the past couple of decades, a review of literature reports shows that doping in
metal oxide can alter both its electronic and electrical properties. The shift in
electronic property can easily affect its band gap by adjusting the valence band
(VB) and conduction band (CB) location or creating a mid-gap state. Metal oxide
CuO, a very good catalyst for this oxide. Post-treatment methods to improve
metal oxide photocatalyst's ability to decompose organic pollutant molecules
have been introduced. The nanopowders of metal oxide have been modified by
loading metal, the cadmium having activated charcoal with supporting material.
Photocatalytic experimental results showed that the capabilities of charged metal
particles inhibit the recombination of the electron-hole pair depends on the
relative positions between their work functions and the metal oxide's conductive
band location.
The above issues were tackled systematically to address the above-mentioned
problems. The main objectives of the present work are therefore: to prepare Cd
doped CuO metal oxides assisted by Bare CuO and AC.
To characterize the prepared nano composite by X-ray diffraction powder
(XRD), High-resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM) with energy
dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR)
spectroscopy,• To test the photocatalytic behavior of (a) Bare CuO b) AC /
Cd-CuO by photocatalytic decomposition of RO 4 dye in aqueous slurry under
UV irradiation.
Proposing an appropriate photo-assisted degradation mechanism for the dye
mediated by (a) Bare CuO b) AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles under UV irradiation.
To show antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria of (a) Bare CuO b) AC / Cd-CuO.
To show (a) Bare CuO b) AC / Cd-CuO antifungal activity against various
fungal strains.
To demonstrate antioxidant activity by DPPH method of (a) Bare CuO b) AC /
Cd-CuO nanoparticles.
CHAPTER 2
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
MATERIALS
The precursors from Sigma Aldrich., Copper acetate
monohydrate, Cadmium acetate dihydrate, Activated charcoal, hydrochloric
acid, sodium hydroxide, conc. nitric acid and ethanol were used as received.
Double distilled water was used preparation of Activated charcoal supported
Cd dopped CuO nano composite material. Chemicals peeled potato,
dextrose, agar, peptone, sodium chloride, distilled water were used for
antibacterial and antifungal studies.
METHODS
Preparation of AC-supported Cd-doped CuO by
precipitation method
AC-Supported Cd-doped CuO metal oxide was prepared by precipitation method. Initially
cadmium acetate dihydrate (0.2 M) and activated charcoal were dissolved in anhydrous
ethanol (solution A). 2 mL of copper acetate monohydrate is dissolved in ethanol is taken as
another solution B. The solution B is added to solution A and stirred well. To this 2-3 drops
of conc. HNO3 and 4 mL of double distilled water was added at room temperature under
vigorous stirring until the precipitate formed [89,90]. The obtained precipitate was washed
with water and ethanol. Then the precipitate was collected and dried in oven at 100 °C for
12 h. The resulting
powder was finally calcined at 450 °C at 2 h in a muffle furnace to obtained
AC-supported Cd-doped CuO.
CHARACTERIZATION OF NANO COMPISITE
X-Ray diffraction (XRD)
X-Ray diffraction analysis were taken for all the synthesized
photocatalysts using the X’Pert Pro model X-ray diffractometer from PAN
analytical instruments operated at a voltage of 40 kV and a current of 30 mA
with CuKα radiation (wavelength = 1.5406 nm). The diffractograms were
recorded in 2θ range between 10 and 80° in steps of 0.02° with count time
of 20 s at each point. The average crystalline size of catalysts were
determined using Scherrer’s equation [91, 92, 93].
are called as environmental HR-SEM. HR-SEM measurements one can easily
go down to the resolution of 10 nm in a perfect instrumental condition.
HR-SEM images show the surface topography and morphology of the
catalyst.
2.3.3 . Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
The energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) attached usually with
HR- SEM gives the elemental composition of the catalyst. HR-SEM with EDS
analysis was carried out on a FEI Quanta FEG 200 High Resolution
Scanning Electron Microscope with EDX analyzer facility at 25 °C. Most
elements are detected at concentrations on the order of 0.1%.
2.3.4. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy
FT-IR spectra for the photocatalysts were recorded on a FT-IR
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu FT-IR) using KBr pellet technique. About 5 mg
of catalyst was mixed with 50 mg of IR grade KBr, ground and pressed using
hydraulic press under a pressure of 5 tons into wafer of 13 mm diameter.
This pellet was used to record the infrared spectra in the range of 4000-400
cm-1 . The spectra were recorded as percentage transmittance against
wavenumber
Photocatalytic Studies
Reactive Orange 4
Reactive Orange 4 is a heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound with
molecular formula (Figure. 2.1) with the chemical name trisodium, 2 - [ (2E)
- 2 - [6 - [ (4, 6 - dichloro - 1,3,5 triazin - 2 - yl) - methylamino] – 1 oxo – 3 –
sulfonatonaphthalen – 2 - ylidene] hydrazinyl] naphthalene - 1,5 -
disulfonate.
Fig 2.1: Chemical structure of RO4 Dye
Photoreactor
Heber multilamp photoreactor model HML-MP 88 (Figure. 2.2) was
used for photodegradation. This model consists of eight medium pressure
mercury vapour lamps (8 W) set in parallel and emitting 365 nm wavelength.
It has a reaction chamber with specially designed reactors made of highly
polished aluminium and built in cooling fan at the bottom. It is provided
with magnetic stirrer at the center. Photoreactor box is 50 cm in height, 41
cm outer diameter and 30 cm inner dia. Open borosilicate glass tube of 50
mL of capacity, 40 cm height and 20 mm dia was used as the reaction vessel
with the total light exposure length of 330 mm. The irradiation was carried
out using four parallel medium pressure mercury lamps in open air
condition. The UV power of the four lamps is 32 W. The solution with
prepared nano materials and dyes was continuously aerated by a pump to
provide oxygen and for complete mixing of reaction solution[92].
Fig 2.2: Schematic diagram of photoreactor
In a typical experiment, aqueous suspensions of dye and the
photocatalyst was loaded in the reaction tube. In all experiments 50 mL of
reaction mixture was irradiated. Before irradiation, the experimental solution
stirred for 30 min. The concentration of dye after the stirring is taken as
concentration at zero time[93]. At specific time intervals 3 mL of the sample
was withdrawn and centrifuged to separate the catalyst. 1 mL of the centrifugate
was suitably diluted and its absorbance at 295 and 600 nm were measured. The
absorbance at 600 is to the colour of the dye it is used to
due solution and
monitor the decolourization of dye. The absorbance at 295 nm represents
the aromatic content of dye and the decrease of indicates the
absorbance
degradation of aromatic part of dyes. All photocatalytic experiments were
carried out under identical conditions. UV spectral measurements were made
using SHIMADZU UV 1650 PC UV-Visible spectrophotometer. pH of the
solution was measured by ELICO (LI-10T model) digital pH meter.
General Mechanistic Action of Photocatalyst
In heterogeneous photocatalysis, semiconductors can act as
photocatalyst. The semiconductor photocatalytic effect was first reported as
Honda-Fujishima effect in the early stage of 1970’s. The heterogeneous
photocatalysis utilizes semiconductor photocatalysts such as SiO2, SnO2 and
CuO, which have a very narrow band gap, in conjunction with incident UV-
irradiation. The semiconductor absorbs UV light and generates hydroxyl
radicals, mainly from adsorbed water on the surface of the photocatalyst
[94].
characteristics. The corresponding threshold wavelength required
for excitation of a semiconductor is governed by the
following equation:
These electrons and holes can move to the surface of the catalyst
under light energy and can react with other substances. In addition, they
can react with oxygen and water in suspended liquid and produce hydroxyl
radicals with high chemical activity, which can oxidize the organic
pollutants into CO2, H2O and N2 and attain a purpose of reducing the COD
of waste water.
The photogenerated holes, having affinity for electrons, are very strong
oxidizing agents. After migration to the surface of the semiconductor, they
oxidize an adsorbed water molecule (or) hydroxide ion.
h+ + H2O
(ads) OH + H+
∙
O2
Antibacterial studies
The synthesized metal oxide nanoparticles were screened for the
antibacterial activity against one Gram-positive bacteria viz., Bacillus
subtilis and two Gram-negative bacteria viz., Escherichia coli and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa by using the disc diffusion method. Ciprofloxacin
was used as reference standard for comparing the results. Nutrient broth
was used for the preparation of inoculum of the bacteria and nutrient agar
was used for the screening method[95-96].
Composition of Nutrient agar (NA) medium:
Peptone 5.0 gm
Sodium chloride 5.0 gm
Beef extract 1.5 gm
Yeast extract 1.5 gm
Agar 15.0 gm
Distilled water (q.s) 1000
ml pH 7.4±
0.
Determination of antibacterial activity by disk-diffusion method
The test organisms were subcultured using nutrient agar medium.
The tubes containing sterilized medium were inoculated with the respective
bacterial strain. After incubation at 37ºC ±1ºC for 18 hours, they were
stored in a refrigerator. The nutrient agar medium was sterilized by
autoclaving at 121ºC (15 lb/sq.inch) for 15 min. The petriplates, tubes and
flasks plugged with cotton were sterilized in hot-air oven at 160 ºC, for an
hour. Into each sterilized petriplate (20 cm diameter), was poured about 125
ml of molten nutrient agar medium which was already inoculated with the
respective strain of bacteria (5 ml of inoculum to 250 ml of nutrient agar
medium) aseptically. The plates were left at room temperature aseptically to
allow the solidification. After solidification, Discs measuring 10.0 mm in
diameter were punched from Whatman no.1 filter paper. The discs of each
compounds was placed individually on nutrient agar medium with fresh
bacteria respectively using ciprofloxacin as the standard.
Each test compound (5 mg) was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (5 ml
Analar grade) to give a concentration of 100 µg/ml. ciprofloxacin solution
was also prepared to give a concentration of 100 µg/ml in sterilized distilled
water. The pH of all the test solutions and control was maintained in
between 2 to 3 by using concentrated HCl. All the compounds were tested at
dose levels of 100
µg/ml and DMSO(dimethyl sulphoxide) used as a control. The solutions of
each test compound, control and reference standard were added separately
in the plates were kept undisturbed for atleast 2 hours in a refrigerator to
allow diffusion of the solution properly into nutrient agar medium. Petri
dishes were subsequently incubated at 37±10 C for 24 hours. After
incubation, the diameter of zone of inhibition surrounding each of the dishes
was measured with the help of an antibiotic zone reader.
Antifungal studies
All those compounds screened earlier for antibacterial activity were
also tested for their antifungal activity[95-96]. The fungi employed for the
screening were Aspergillus niger, and Trigoderma viride. Amphotericin -B
was employed as standard to compare the results. The test organisms were
sub-cultured using Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). The tubes containing
sterilized medium were inoculated with test fungi and kept at room
temperature for obtaining growth. After that, they were stored at 4 ºC in a
refrigerator.
Composition of Potato Dextrose Agar medium:
Peeled potato 50.0 gm
Dextrose 5.0 gm
Agar 4.0 gm
Distilled water upto 200 ml
The test organisms were sub cultured using PDA medium. The
tubes containing sterilized medium were inoculated with respective fungal
strain and kept aside at room temperature for growing the organism. After
confirming the growth, they were stored in a refrigerator. The inoculum was
prepared by aseptically transferring 10 ml of sterile water into freshly sub-
cultured slants of the test fungi and making a suspension by scraping the
growth with an inoculation medium.
Each test compound was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide to give a
concentration of 100 µg/ml. Amphotericin -B solution was also prepared at
a concentration of 100 µg/ml in sterilized distilled water. The pH of all the
test solutions and control was maintained at 2 to 3 by using conc. HCl. All
the compounds were tested at dose levels of 100 µg (0.2 ml) and DMSO used
as a control. The solution of each test compound, control and reference
standards were added separately in the cups and the plates were kept
undisturbed for at least 2 hours in a refrigerator to allow diffusion of the
solution properly into the PDA medium. Petri dishes were subsequently kept
at room temperature for 48 hours. After that, the diameter of zone of
inhibition in mm surrounding each of the dish was measured with the help
of an antibiotic zone reader.
Antioxidant Activity
Preparation of Control (DPPH) Solution
10 mg of DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) was dissolved in 10 ml
of methanol. From this stock solution dilutions were made to obtain
concentrations of 50,100,150 µg/ml. The absorbance was recorded for these
dilutions at 516 nm.
Preparation of standard solution (Ascorbic acid)
10 mg of ascorbic acid was dissolved in 10 ml of methanol. From this
stock solution dilutions were made to obtain concentrations of 50,100,150
µg/ ml. 1 ml from each of these solutions was taken in different volumetric
flasks to which 1 ml of DPPH solution (300 µg/ ml concentration) was added
and
volume was made up to 10 ml. The absorbance was recorded for these
dilutions at 516 nm after 30 mins duration.
CHAPTER 3
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
CHARACTERIZATION OF AC-Cd/CuO
XRD analysis
In this chapter, we have discussed the characterization of
activated charcoal (AC) supported cadmium doped Cupper Oxide
(AC-Cd/CuO) and bare CuO NPs in following pages
reveal information about the crystal structure, chemical composition, and physical properties
of material and thin films. These technique are based on observing the scattered intensity of
an X ray beem hitting a sample as a function of incident and scattered angle, polarization, and
wavelength or energy[99].
XRD study was carried out XRD pattern AC-Cd/CuO are shown in Figs. 3.1b. The powder
reflections with 2θ values of 17.91, 32.28, 36.83, 49.72°, 65.08°, and 70.31°, are observed
corresponding to
(002), (110), (103), (200), (112) and (201) suggesting the face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal
structure of the nanoparticle. Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) was
used as a reference to assign the lattice planes according to the peaks obtained. The mean
crystalline size of a powder sample is estimated from the full width at half-maximum
(FWHM) of the diffraction peak according to Scherer’s equation. Then the crystallite size is
calculated by using Debye Scherrer equation, dhkl = 0.9λ/βCos2θ (1) , Where λ is the X-ray
wave length, β is the line broadening at half the maximum intensity in radians, θ is the Bragg
angle. From the
calculations the average crystallite size of the bare and AC-Cd/CuO NPs is 52 and 45 nm .
The average crystalline size of the AC-Cd/TiO2 metal oxides can be calculated from the
The diffraction peaks of AC-Cd/CuO are sharper and broader. The smaller particle
size of the catalysts shows the larger surface area, and the higher activity [98]. Generally in
active sites per square meter and this leads to higher reactivity. This can be explained in terms
of an increase in the number of active sites per square meter as well as greater absorbance of
Fig 3.1b XRD patterns of AC-Cd/CuO
HR-SEM analysis
The texture and morphology of prepared CuO catalysts are very
important parameters and might influence the low photocatalytic activity.
Fig. 3.2a.The particles are agglomerated due to calcination and drying
process.
The HR-SEM images [100, 101, 102] of prepared AC-Cd/CuO are
shown in Fig. 3.2b.The particles are agglomerated due to calcination and
drying process.
AC-Cd/CuO catalysts exhibited nanoparticles like structure and
average diameter of particles ~85 nm (Fig.3.2b). This structure of the
catalysts having a large number of cavities on surfaces may enhance the dye
adsorption on surface, and favour for active dye degradation.
From the examination, particle size of AC-Cd/CuO was hardly
specified in terms of the average value because it is a wide range of particle
size distribution between 80 nm, as determined from the diameters of
randomly selected 30 particles.
Fig 3.2b.HR-SEM images of AC-Cd/CuO
EDX analysis
Shows the EDX
Figs: 3.3a and images of the
b.
as prepared
Fig 3.3a. EDS image of CuO
FT-IR spectral analysis
FT-IR Spectra were recorded for all the prepared AC-Cd/CuO
nanocomposite materials at room temperature in IR frequency region 600-
4000 cm-1 and the spectra is shown in Figure:3.4. Metal oxides generally
give absorption bands below 1000 cm-1 that arise from interatomic
vibrations and by observing frequencies helps in the confirmation of particle
formation[103]. Figure 4 represent the FT-IR spectra of undoped and AC
supported Cadmium doped CuO nanoparticles. It is clear that all the
samples exhibit vibrations in the region 400–600 cm-1 [104], which can be
attributed to the vibrations of Cu(II) - O bond.
Fig 3.4: FT-IR analysis of (a) Bare CuO NPs (b) AC-Cd/ CuO NPs
The broad absorption peak at around 3396 cm-1 is caused by the
absorbed water molecules since the nanocrystalline materials exhibit a high
surface to volume ratio and thus absorbs moisture. No impurity phase is
recognized. Regarding functional groups, the band at ~3740 cm−1 is related
to the existence of hydroxyl groups (O-H) while the band at 1362 cm−1 is
due to the presence of C–O. The two frequency peaks at 593cm-1 and
527cm-1 relate to Cu-O stretching vibration and confirms the presence of
monoclinic phases.
When bare CuO NPs was used under the same conditions, 24% of
degradation and 27% of decolourization occurred, at a time of 60 min. This
shows that AC/Cd-CuO nano particles obtained is more efficient in RO4 dye
degradation and decolourization than bare CuO NPs. It was observed that
there was a decrease in absorbance of RO4 dye solution with increasing time
of exposure. In the present case, the degradation followed the first-order
reaction kinetics.
Degradation of RO4 was observed at λ = 660 nm. A graph plotted
between log Absorbance v/s time was a straight line, which shows that
photocatalytic degradation of RO4 follows pseudo-first order kinetics. The
rate constant for degradation of dye was calculated by the following
expression.
K = 2.303 × slope
Table 3.1: Photodegradation study of RO 4 dye under UV-light irradiation
at 365 nm by (a) Dark (b) Nil catalysis (c) Bare CuO NPs and (d)
AC/Cd-CuO NPs
% Dye degradation
Time (min) Dark Nilcatalyst Bare- CuO AC/Cd-CuO
0 0 0 0 0
20 1 3 5 25
40 2 5 16 41
60 2.5 8 24 73
Fig 3.5: Photodegradation study of RO 4 dye under UV-light irradiation at
660 nm by (a) Dark (b) Nil catalysis (c) Bare CuO NPs and (d) AC/Cd-CuO
NPs
Table 3.2: Photodecolorization study of RO 4 dye under UV-light
irradiation at 660 nm by (a) Dark (b) Nil catalysis (c) Bare CuO NPs and
(d) AC/Cd-CuO NPs
% Dye decolourization
Time (min) Dark Nilcatalyst Bare CuO AC/Cd-CuO
0 0 0 0 0
20 1.5 4 7 27
40 2.5 7 19 45
60 5 10 27 77
Fig 3.6: Photodecolorization study of RO 4 dye under UV-light irradiation
at 660 nm by (a) Dark (b) Nil catalysis (c) Bare CuO NPs and (d)
AC/Cd-CuO NPs
Table 3.3 and Fig 3.7.
The
percentage degradation was determined in the pH range 3-9 and the
photocatalytic degradation of RO4 was found maximum at pH 7. It has been
observed that with an increase in pH, the photocatalytic degradation of dye
increases from 3 to 7. On further increasing the pH above 7 resulted into a
decrease in the percentage of photocatalytic degradation. This observation
can be explained on the basis that as the pH of the solution was increased,
more O2•− radicals are generated by abstraction of an electron by dissolved
oxygen, which are considered responsible for reduction of dye molecules.
After a certain pH value, more O2•− will make the surface of semiconductor
negatively charged and it restricts the approach of neutral dye molecules
towards the semiconductor surface. This will result in a decrease in the rate
of photocatalytic degradation of dyes.
Table 3.3: The effect of pH (a) Bare CuO NPs and (b) AC/Cd-CuO NPs
% Dye degradation
pH Bare CuO AC/Cd-CuO
3 4 10.5
5 8 17
7 24 73
9 2 7
Fig 3.7: The effect of pH (a) Bare CuO NPs and (b) AC/Cd-CuO NPs
Effect of Catalyst Loading.
The amount of semiconductor also affects the process of dye
degradation. different amounts of photocatalyst were used (0.04 to 0.10
g)/50ml and the results are presented in Table 3.4 and Fig 3.8. It has been
observed that as the amount of semiconductor was increased, the
percentage of photodegradation of dye increases but ultimately, the
percentage of photodegradation become virtually constant after a certain
amount (0.08 g) of the semiconductor. This may be due to the fact that as
the amount of semiconductor was increased, the exposed surface area also
increases, but after a certain limit, if the amount of semiconductor was
further increased; there will be no increase in the exposed surface area of
the photocatalyst. It may be considered like a saturation point above which
any increase in the amount of semiconductor has negligible or no effect on
the percentage of
photocatalytic degradation of dye, as any increase in the amount of
semiconductor after this saturation point will only increase the thickness of
the layer at the bottom of the vessel. It was observed that the saturation
point was increased on using vessels of higher dimensions.
Table 3.4: The effect of Catalyst loading (a) Bare CuO NPs and (b)
AC/Cd-CuO NPs
% Dye degradation
Catalyst loading (g) Bare CuO AC/Cd-CuO
0.04 13 32
0.06 9 21
0.08 24 73
0.1 2 7
Fig 3.8: The effect of Catalyst loading (a) Bare CuO NPs and (b)
AC/Cd-CuO NPs
Effect of Initial Dye Concentration
Effect of variation of dye concentration was also studied by taking
different concentrations of dye i.e. 1 to 3 x 10-4 M. The results are tabulated
in Table 3.5 and represented in Fig 3.9. From the observed data, it is
evident that the percentage of photocatalytic degradation increases with
increasing concentration of the dye. The percentage of photocatalytic
degradation was found optimum at 1 x 10-4 M. It was decreased on further
increasing the dye concentration. This may be attributed to the fact that as
the concentration of dyes was increased, more dye molecules were available
for excitation followed by inter system crossing and hence, there was an
increase in the photocatalytic degradation. The photocatalytic degradation
was found to decrease with an increase in further concentration of the dye.
Here, the dye molecules starts acting as filter for the incident light and they
do not permit the desired light intensity to reach the semiconducting
particles and thus, results in decrease in the the photocatalytic degradation
of dye.
Table 3.5: T he effect of Concentration (a) Bare CuO NPs and (b)
AC/Cd-CuO NPs
% Dye degradation
Dye concentration x10-4 Bare CuO AC/Cd-CuO
1 24 73
2 9 27
3 2 7
Fig 3.9: The effect of Concentration (a) Bare CuO NPs and (b) AC/Cd-CuO
NPs
Reusability
The reusability of photocatalyti activity of bare CuO NPs and
AC/Cd-CuO NPs the photocatalytic degradation properties of the
photocatalyst was investigated by repeating RO 4 dye photocatalytic
degradation experiments six times. After each cycle, the photocatalysts were
washed thoroughly with water, and a fresh solution of RO 4 dye was made
before each photocatalytic run in the photoreactor under UV- light and the
results are shown in Fig 3.10. Complete degradation 90 min report in
occurred in the bare CuO NPs and AC/Cd-CuO NPs 6th cycles obtained in
(bare CuO NPs 65 %) and (AC/Cd-CuO NPs 88 % ). The results indicated the
prepared photocatalysts are stable and reusable. Also indicates that the
photocatalytic efficiency of AC/Cd-CuO NPs was decreased slowly with
increase the repetition of the cycles. After the sixth
cycle the efficiency of catalysts decreased about compared to the total
degradation of RO 4 dye. There is no significant change in reaction, indicating
the stability of photocatalyst. This photocatalyst is nontoxic wastewater
treatment. This is due to the loss of catalysts, during the water washing of
catalysts, which was not observed
Thus
in the naked eye. suggests that
AC/Cd-CuO NPs photocatalysts reusability for completion of
have excellent stability and
Fig 3.10: Reusability on RO 4 dye degradation; (a) AC/Cd- CuO NPs and
(b) Bare CuO nanoparticles by 1to 6th cycles
Mechanism of Photocatalysis at CuO Surface
Degradation of dye at the photocatalyst (AC/Cd- CuO) involves the
following steps Photoexcitation of semiconductor valence band electron
creating hole (h+ ) and free electron (e- )
AC/Cd- CuO + hυ → e− CB + h+ VB
Adsorbtion of oxygen on photocatalyst surface to form superoxide
radical (O2•− )
(O2)ads + e− CB →
O2•−
valence band hole (h+ VB) with adsorbed H2O or HO- ions to give HO• radicals
H2O
OH− + H+
AC/Cd- CuO (h+ VB) + H2O
→ AC/Cd- CuO + HO• +
H+ AC/Cd- CuO (h+ VB) + OH− → AC/Cd- CuO +
HO•
Neutralization of superoxide radical (O2•− ) by protonation forming HO2• radical
O2•− + H+ → HO2•
Formation of hydrogen peroxide
AC/Cd- CuO (e− CB) + HO2• + H+ → CuO + H2O
2
Cleavage of H2O2 to form HO• radicals
H2O
2 + hυ → 2 HO
•
Degradation of substrate (RO4 dye) of valence band hole (h+ ) or by HO•
radical AC/Cd- CuO (h+ VB) + Dye → Dye•+ → oxidative
degradation of the substrate (dye)
HO• ads + Dye → oxidative degradation of the substrate (dye)
Various reaction involved in the photocatalytic degradation of dye at
AC/Cd- CuO surface are also displayed in Fig 3.11.
Kinetic analysis
The efficiency of this catalyst for RO 4 dye degradation was
investigated. The degradation was highly effective with AC/Cd- CuO NPs,
and the influence of operational parameters had been carried out to find out
the most advantageous conditions. The degradation of RO 4 dye using
AC/Cd- CuO NPs obeys pseudo-first-order kinetics. At a low initial dye
concentration, the rate expression is given by
d[C]/dt =
k′
[ C] where k is the pseudo-first-order rate
constant.
Fig 3.11: Schematic illustration of AC/Cd- CuO nanoparticles mechanism for
photocatalytic process
The dye is adsorbed onto the AC/Cd-CuO NPs surface, and the
adsorption−desorption equilibrium is reached in 60 min. After adsorption
the equilibrium concentration of the dye solution is determined and taken as
the initial dye concentration for kinetic analysis. Integration of eq. (with the
limit of C = C0 at t = 0 with C0 being the equilibrium concentration of the
bulk solution) gives eq.
ln (C0/C) = k. t
where C0 is the equilibrium concentration of dye and C is the
concentration at time t. Photonic efficiency under optimum conditions for
RO 4 dye degradation by catalyst was calculated using the reported
[108-110].
Antimicrobial Activity of A/Cd-CuO Nano particles
Antibacterial agents are vital to fight infectious diseases. However,
emergence of bacterial resistance to antibacterial drugs has become a major
problem because of their broad use and abuse. Bacteria developed
resistance against many common antibacterial agents and thus infectious
diseases continue to be one of the greatest health challenges worldwide.
Bacterial drug resistance mainly includes mutation. Once resistance is
acquired by bacteria, it can share, exchange and transfer its property
vertically or horizontally by transduction, transformation or by
conjugation[111-112]. Moreover, drawbacks for conventional antimicrobial
agents are not only the development of multiple drug resistance, but also
adverse side effects. Drug resistance also enforces high-dose administration
of antibiotics, often generating intolerable toxicity. This has prompted the
development of alternative strategies to treat bacterial diseases. Among
them, nanoscale materials have emerged as novel antimicrobial agents.
Materials and Method
Antibacterial activities of the AC/Cd-CuO nano particles and bare
CuO NPs were determined in comparison with Ciprofloxacin, using the disc
diffusion assay method, is a means of measuring the effect of an
antimicrobial agent against bacteria grown in culture. The bacteria in
question are swabbed uniformly across a culture plate. A filter-paper disk,
impregnated with the compound to be tested, is then placed on the surface
of the agar. The compound diffuses from the filter paper into the agar. The
concentration of the compound will be highest next to the disk, and will
decrease as distance from the disk increases. If the compound is effective
against bacteria at a certain concentration, no colonies will grow where the
concentration in the agar is greater than or equal to the effective
concentration.
Thus, the size of the zone of inhibition is a measure of the compounds
effectiveness, the larger the clear area around the filter disk, the more
effective the compound. Approximately (20 mL) of molten and cooled media
was poured in sterilized Petri dishes. The plates were left overnight at room
temperature to check for any contamination to appear.
The bacterial test organisms were grown in nutrient broth for 24 h. A
nutrient broth culture of each bacterial organism was used to prepare
bacterial lawns. Antibiotic disks of 5 mm in diameter were impregnated with
AC/Cd-CuO nano particles and bare CuO NPs solution.The plates were
incubated at 37ºC and were examined for the evidence of zones of inhibition,
which appeared as a clear area around the wells. The diameter of such
zones of inhibition was measured using a meter ruler and the mean value
for each organism was recorded and expressed in millimeter.
Fig 3.12: Antibacterial activity of prepared AC/Cd-CuO nano particles
and bare CuO NPs
Table 3.6: Antibacterial activity of AC/Cd-CuO nano particles and bare CuO
NPs nanoparticles by disc diffusion method
Zone of inhibition (mm)
S. No. Bacteria Antibiotic Bare AC/Cd- CuO
Disk* CuO (1) (2)
1 Bacillus subtilis 21 07 13
2 Escherichia coli 20 14 16
3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 20 15 15
*ciprofloxacin
Chart 3.1 : Antibacterial activity of AC/Cd-CuO nano particles and bare CuO
NPs by disc diffusion method
Result and Discussion
Antibacterial activity results revealed that AC/Cd-CuO NPs acted as
excellent antibacterial agents against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria when compared bare CuO nano particles. It is clear from the XRD
and SEM results that AC/Cd-CuO NPs are smaller in size when compared to
bare CuO nano particles. Fig 3.12 shows the zone of inhibition produced by
AC/Cd- CuO NPs and bare CuO against both Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacterial strains.
AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles have been studied extensively for their wide
antimicrobial applications. The small size and large surface area of
nanoparticles is important in its antimicrobial activity. AC/Cd-CuO
nanoparticles can have strong antibacterial activity towards both gram
positive and gram negative bacteria. AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles have been
reported to attack gram negative bacteria by anchoring and penetrating the
cell wall, leading to structural changes in the cell membrane and increase in
cell
permeability. This facilitates the uncontrolled transport through cytoplasmic
membrane followed by cell death[113-116].
Antifungal Activity
Excessive use of the conventional antibiotics has led to the emergence
of microbial resistance to antimicrobial drugs which has become a major
public health concern particularly in developing countries. This has become
the biggest challenge in the treatment of infectious diseases. Resistance is
most often based on evolutionary processes taking place during, for
example, antibiotic therapy, and leads to inheritable resistance. In addition,
horizontal gene transfer by conjugation, transduction or transformation can
be a possible way for resistance to build up. This has prompted the
development of alternative strategies to overcome the microbial resistance.
Metal oxide nanoparticles have emerged as novel antimicrobial agents.
Several classes of antimicrobial nanoparticles and nanosized carriers for
antibiotics delivery have proven their effectiveness for treating infectious
diseases, including antibiotic- resistant ones. The use of nanoparticles is
gaining impetus in the present century as they posses defined chemical,
optical and mechanical properties. Metal oxide nanoparticles also have a
large contact area with a microorganism owing to their small sizes and
higher surface area to volume ratio. This feature enhances biological and
chemical activity, and therefore, renders nanoparticles higher antibacterial
activity as compared to their bulk counterparts.
Materials and Method
All those bare and AC/Cd-CuO nano particles obtained were screened
earlier for antibacterial activity were also tested for their antifungal activity.
The fungi employed for the screening were Aspergillus Niger and Trigoderma
viride. Amphotericin - B was employed as standard to compare the results.
The test organisms were sub-cultured using Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). The
tubes containing sterilized medium were inoculated with test fungi and kept
at room temperature for obtaining growth. After that, they were stored at 4
ºC in a refrigerator.
Fig 3.13: Antifungal activity of prepared AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles and
bare by disc diffusion method
Table 3.7 : Antifungal activity of AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles and
bare [disc diffusion method]
Zone of in
S. No. Fungal Bare CuO
Amphotericin - B (1)
1 Aspergillus niger 20 11
2 Trigoderma veride 15 08
Chart 3.2:
Antifungal
activity of
prepared
AC/Cd-CuO
nanoparticles
and bare by disk
diffussion
method
67
Results and Discussion
A filter paper disc method was employed for the in- vitro s tudy of
antifungal effects against Aspergillus niger and Trigoderma viride. T he
results of this evaluation were compared with Amphotericin – B as
reference standard. The antifungal activity of the bare CuO (1) and
AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles (2) nano particles are presented in Fig 3.13
and the zone of inhibition values are tabulated in Table 3.7. The
clustered column chart 5.2. Showed that the bare CuO (1) and
AC/Cd- CuO (2) nano particles posses significant activity with the
standard Amphotericin – B. Thus the particle size plays a vital role in
imparting enhanced antifungal activity to the nano materials. The
screening results indicate that AC/Cd-CuO (2) nano particles was
found to be active against Aspergillus niger (14mm) and Trigoderma
viride (10mm). At the same time nano materials bare CuO (1) was
found to be moderately active against Aspergillus niger(11mm) and
Trigoderma viride(08mm).
high concentration of Cu2+
in cell surroundings, causing promising
antibacterial effects.
Antioxidant Activity
Excess free radicals generated in the body play key roles in
many degenerative diseases of aging such as cancer, cardiovascular
disease, cataracts, a weak immune system and brain dysfunction.
Anti-oxidants are capable of deactivating free radicals before they
attack cells and biological targets to cause various diseases [117].
Inorganic nanoparticles have been found to be effective at scavenging
oxygen based free radicals. Furthermore, the study of antioxidant
property against CuO nanoparticles is meager. Hence, the present
study was planned to investigate the antioxidant activities of bare
CuO nanoparticle and AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles.
Table 3.8: Antioxidant activity of bare CuO nanoparticle
and AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles
Percentage inhibition (%)
S. No Concentrations Standard ascorbic Bare CuO nano AC/
(µL) acid particles
1 50 µL 33.24 ± 0.38 19.31 ± 0.08 24
2 100 µL 52.57 ± 0.19 31.61 ± 0.18 3
3 150 µL 76.39 ± 0.56 54.17 ± 0.35 5
Chart 3.3: Antioxidant activity of
3.5.1. Results and Discussion
The DPPH radical scavenging activities were 19.31 ± 0.08, 31.61 ±
0.18 and 54.17 ± 0.35 in 50, 100 and 150 µL for bare CuO nano particles,
24.47 ± 0.19, 36.29 ± 0.56 and 58.47 ± 0.20 in 50, 100 and 150 µL for
AC/Cd-CuO nanoparticles. The results obtained in the DPPH assay
showed effective free radical inhibition by bare CuO and AC/Cd-CuO
nano particles. The radical scavenging potential is dependent on various
factors such as particle size, morphology, defects etc. Thus, the
antioxidant assays suggest that AC/Cd-CuO nano particles are good
radical scavengers than bare CuO nano particles due to decrease in
particle size and increase in surface area.
CHAPTER 4
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Metal oxide nano particles CuO and activated charcoal supported
Cd doped CuO were prepared and they were characterized by FT-IR,
XRD, HR-SEM and EDX analysis. The result proves that the synthesized
photocatalysts are crystalline, nanosized and possesses absorption in the
UV region. The photocatalytic activities of the metal oxide nano particles
synthesized were evaluated by following photocatalytic degradation of the
aqueous slurry of the Reactive orange 4 dye under UV irradiation. It was
observed that the AC-Cd/CuO photocatalyst had higher photocatalytic
activity.
Metal oxide nano particles AC-Cd/CuO and bare CuO NPs were
screened for their antioxidant activity by employing DPPH method. The
results revealed that the AC-Cd/CuO nano particles are found to be good
radical scavengers than the bare CuO nano particles. The enhanced
radical scavenging activity may be due to decreased particle size and
increased surface area.
The result reveals that the AC-Cd/CuO nano crystalline metal oxide
found to served as efficient photo catalyst.
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