HEAT TRANSFER

Principles and Applications

BINAY K. DUTTA
West Bengal Pollution Control Board

Kolkata

PHI Learning PfcO© too1

Delhi-110092

2014
 Contents

Preface ix

Notations xiii

1. Introduction 1-8

1.1 Modes of Heat Transfer 3

1.1.1 Conduction 3
1.1.2 Convection 3
1.1.3 Radiation 3
1.2 Heat Transfer Equipment 4
1.3 Systems of Measurement, Units and Dimensions 4

1.3.1 English Engineering System 5

1.3.2 The International System (SI) of Units

(The Systeme Internationale (SI) de Unites) 6

1.4 Examples of Unit Conversion 6

2. Steady State Conduction in One Dimension 9-49

2.1 The Basic Law of Heat Conduction—Fourier's Law 9

2.2 Thermal Conductivity 10

2.3 Steady State Conduction of Heat through a Composite Solid 12

2.4 Steady State Heat Conduction through a Variable Area 16

2.4.1 The Cylinder 16

2.4.2 The Sphere 23

2.5 Steady State Heat Conduction in Bodies with Heat Sources 25

2.5.1 The Plane Wall 25

2.5.2 The Cylinder 33

2.5.3 The 38
Sphere
2.6 Average Temperature of a Solid 39
2.7 of Conduction Calculation 40
Application
Short Questions 42

Problems 44

References and Further Reading 49

3. Heat Transfer Coefficient 50-97

3.1 Convective Heat Transfer and the Concept of Heat Transfer Coefficient 50

3.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 57

3.2.1 Heat Transfer between Fluids Separated by a Plane Wall 57

3.2.2 Heat Transfer between Fluids Separated by a Cylindrical Wall 59

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iv CONTENTS

3.3 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces—The Fins 74

3.4 Thermal Contact Resistance 80
3.5 Critical Insulation Thickness 82
3.6 Economic (or Optimum) Insulation Thickness 85

Short Questions 89
Problems 90
References and Further Reading 97

4. Forced Convection 98-148

4.1 Forced Convection in Systems of Simple Geometries 98

4.1.1 Flow over a Flat Plate 99
4.1.2 Thermal Boundary Layer 100
4.1.3 Flow across a Cylinder 101
4.2 Dimensional Analysis 103
4.2.1 Statement ofBuckingham Pi Theorem 103
4.2.2 Dimensionless Groups in Convective Heat Transfer to a Fluid Flowing
through a Circular Pipe 104
4.3 Dimensionless Groups in Heat Transfer 105
4.4 Experimental Determination of the Heat Transfer Coefficient 107
4.5 Correlations for the Heat Transfer Coefficient—Internal Flows 108
4.5.1 Laminar Flow through a Circular Pipe 109
4.5.2 Turbulent Flow through a Circular Pipe 109
4.5.3 Flow through a Non-circular Duct 110
4.6 Correlations for the Heat Transfer Coefficient—External Flows 111
4.6.1 Flow over a Flat Plate 111

4.6.2 Flow across a Cylinder 113

4.6.3 Flow past a Sphese 116
4.6.4 Flow across a Bank of Tubes 119
4.6.5 Heat Transfer Coefficient in a Packed and a Fluidized Bed 121
4.7 Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force—Cocurrent and Countercurrent
Operations 122
4.8 Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogies 136

Short Questions 142

Problems 143

References and Further Reading 147

5. Free Convection 149-169

5.1 Qualitative Description of Free Convection Flows 149

5.2 Heat Transfer Correlations for Free Convection 151
5.2.1 Free Convection from a Flat Surface 152
5.2.2 Free Convection from a Cylinder 155
5.2.3 Free Convection from a Sphere 160
5.2.4 Free Convection in an Enclosure 160
5.3 Combined Free and Forced Convection 162

Short Questions 164

Problems 165
References and Further Reading 169
 CONTENTS V

6. Boiling and Condensation 170-206

6.1 The Boiling Phenomenon 170
6.2 Hysteresis in the
Boiling Curve 174
6.3 The Mechanism of Nucleate Boiling 174
6.4 Correlations for Pool Boiling Heat Transfer 178
6.4.1 Nucleate Boiling 178
6.4.2 Critical Heat Flux 179
6.4.3 Stable Film Boiling 180
6.5 Forced Convection Boiling 186
6.6 The Condensation Phenomenon 190
6.7 Film Condensation on a Vertical Surface 191
6.8 Turbulent Film Condensation 194
6.9 Condensation Outside a Horizontal Tube or a Tube Bank 197
6.10 Condensation Inside a Horizontal Tube 200
6.11 Effect of Non-condensable Gases 201
6.12 Dropwise Condensation 202
Short Questions 202
Problems 203
References and Further Reading 205

7. Radiation Heat Transfer 207-274

7.1 Basic Concepts of Radiation from a Surface 208
7.1.1 Blackbody Radiation 209
7.1.2 Planck's Law 210
7.1.3 Wein's Displacement Law 212
7.1.4 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law 213
7.1.5 Kirchhoff s Law 216
7.1.6 Gray Body 217
7.2 Radiation Intensity of
Blackbody
a 220
7.3 Spectral Emissive Power of a Blackbody over a Hemisphere 222
7.4 Radiative Heat Exchange between Surfaces—The View Factor 222
7.5 View Factor Algebra 229
7.6 Rate of Radiation Exchange between Blackbodies 237
7.7 Exchange of Radiation between Diffuse Gray Surfaces 239
7.7.1 Radiation Exchange in a Gray Enclosure 240
7.7.2 Radiation Exchange in a Two-surface Gray Enclosure 242
7.7.3 Emissivity Factor 243
7.7.4 A Gray Enclosure with Re-radiating Surfaces 244
7.7.5 Use of the Network Diagram to Calculate Radiation Exchange 245
7.8 Radiation Shield 254
7.9 Radiation Combined with Conduction and Convection 257
7.10 Absorption and Emission in a Gaseous Medium 261
7.10.1 The Absorptivity and Emissivity of a Gas 261
7.10.2 Radiation Exchange between a Non-luminous Gas and Black Surface
of Enclosing Walls 265
7.11 Greenhouse Effect 267
Short Questions 268
Problems 269
References and Further Reading 274
 CONTENTS

Heat Exchangers 275-360

8.1 Construction of a Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger 275

8.1.1 The Shell 277

8.1.2 The Tubes 277

8.1.3 The Tube Sheets 278

8.1.4 The Bonnet and the Channel 279

8.1.5 The Pass Partition Plate 279

8.1.6 Nozzles 280

8.1.7 Baffles 281

8.1.8 Tie Rods and Baffle 282

Spacers
8.1.9 Flanges and Gaskets 283
8.1.10 283
Expansion Joint
283
8.2 Process Design Considerations
8.2.1 Fouling of a Heat Exchanger—The Dirt Factor or Fouling Factor 284
285
8.2.2 Log Mean Temperature Difference Correction Factor
8.2.3 Temperature Distribution in Multi-pass Exchangers and Temperature
Cross 291
8.2.4 The Caloric Temperature 293

8.2.5 Individual and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 293

8.2.6 Pressure Drop Calculation 298
8.3 Heat Exchanger Design Procedure 300
Double-pipe
8.3.1 Energy Balance and Heat Duty Calculation 301
8.3.2 The Design Procedure 302
8.4 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger—Design Procedure 306

8.5 The Effectiveness NTU'Method of Heat Exchanger Analysis 317

8.6 Other Types of Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 321

8.6.1 322
Floating-head Exchangers
8.6.2 Heat Exchanger with a U-bundle 324
8.6.3 Reboilers and Condensers 324

8.6.4 The RODbaffle Exchanger 326

8.6.5 Air-cooled Exchangers 327
8.7 Classification of Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 327

8.8 Materials of Construction 329

8.9 Cleaning of Heat Exchangers 331
8.10 Heat Transfer in an Agitated Vessel 332

8.10.1 Heating and Cooling Arrangements 332

8.10.2 Thermal Design of an Agitated Vessel 335
8.10.3 Correlations for Individual Coefficients 336

8.11 Compact Heat Exchangers 339

8.11.1 Plate Heat Exchangers 340
8.11.2 Spiral-plateSpiral-tube Heat Exchangers
and 347

8.12 Other Common Heat Exchange Devices 350

8.13 Pipe Tracing 351
8.13.1 Steam Jacketing 351

8.13.2 Electrical Heating 352

8.13.3 Steam Tracing 352
8.14 Heat Transfer Fluids 353

Short Questions 354

Problems 356
References and Further Reading 358
 CONTENTS vii

9. Evaporation and Evaporators 361-420

9.1 Types of Evaporators—Their Construction and Operation 361

9.1.1 Natural-circulationEvaporators 361
9.1.2 Forced-circulation Evaporators 366
9.1.3 Falling-film Evaporators 369
9.1.4 Climbing- or Rising-film Evaporator 371
9.1.5 Agitated Thin-film Evaporators 372
9.1.6 The Plate Evaporator 373
9.2 Evaporator Auxiliaries 374
9.2.1 Vacuum Devices 374
9.2.2 Steam Traps 377
9.2.3 Entrainment Separators 381
9.3 Principles of Evaporation and Evaporators 382
9.3.1 Single- and Multiple-effect Evaporators 382
9.3.2 Capacity and Economy 385
9.3.3 Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) 385
9.3.4 Temperature Driving Force 387
9.3.5 Heat Transfer Coefficient 388
9.3.6 Enthalpy a of Solution 389
9.4 Single-effect Evaporator Calculation 389
9.5 Multiple-effect Evaporators 395
9.5.1 Classification Based on the Mode of Feed Supply 395
9.5.2 Comparison between the Forward and Backward Feed Modes 397
9.5.3 Effect of Boiling Point Elevation in a Multiple-effect Evaporator 398
9.5.4 Multiple-effect Evaporator Calculations 400
9.6 Evaporator Selection 411
9.7 Vapour Recompression 411
Short Questions 415
Problems 418
References and Further Reading 419

10. Unsteady State and Multidimensional Heat Conduction 421-464

10.1 Mathematical Formulation and Initial and Boundary Conditions 422

10.2 Techniques of Analytical Solution 428
10.3 Types of Boundary Conditions 435
10.4 Determination of the Average Temperature of a Solid 443
10.5 Numerical Calculation of Unsteady State Heat Conduction 443
10.6 Unsteady or Steady State Heat Conduction in a Multidimensional Solid 450
10.7 The Graetz Problem 454
10.8 Similarity Solution 455
10.9 Numerical Solution of Heat Conduction Problems 460

Short Questions 461

Problems 461

References and Further Reading 464

viii CONTENTS

11. Boundary Layer Heat Transfer 465-511

11.1 The
Equation of Continuity 465
11.2 The Equation of Motion 467

11.3 Boundary Layer Flow over a Flat Plate 472

11.3.1 DifferentialEquations for Laminar Boundary Layer Flow 472

11.3.2 Solution of the Boundary Layer Equations 474

11.3.3 Boundary Layer Thickness and Drag Coefficient 476

11.3.4 The Momentum Integral Equation 479

11.4 Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Laminar Boundary Layer Flow over a

Flat Plate 483

11.4.1 Boundary Layer Temperature Equation 483

11.4.2 The Energy Integral Equation 491

11.5 Application to Free Convection Heat Transfer 495
11.6 Heat Transfer in Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 498

11.6.1 Mean and Fluctuating Quantities 499

11.6.2 The Concept of Eddy Viscosity 502
11.6.3 The Prandtl Mixing-Length Theory 502

11.6.4 The Prandtl Analogy 506

11.6.5 The von Kantian Analogy 508

Short Questions 509

Problems 510

References and Further Reading 511

Answers to Selected Problems 513

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