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generation and loads, capable of operating in grid-connected

Abstract—DC microgrids are gaining attention worldwide
over the past few years. The benefits of using DC distribution in
comparison to AC distribution has been identified in various
studies. The development in the concept of DC microgrids has
enhanced the charging operation of electric vehicles and has
reduced the charging time to a great extent. This paper presents
the review of DC microgrids including their design, control,
energy management and protection. A significant focus is made
on review of DC microgrid based electric vehicle charging
stations and their architecture.
Keywords—Electric vehicles; AC microgrid; DC microgrid
I. INTRODUCTION
The change in climatic conditions and reliance of automobile
sector on fossil fuels has caused severe environmental
problems[1]. The situation is getting worst due to strict
regulations on carbon dioxide and other harmful emissions in
the countries worldwide. The exploration of an alternative
solution has brought into limelight the use of plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEVs) and plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs)
[2]. However, in spite of numerous benefits, there are several
obstacles to the adoption of electric vehicles. The predictable
growth of electric vehicles mandates a simultaneous
advancement in their charging facilities [3]. At present, there
is a lack of proper charging stations. Furthermore, present
charging stations have several impacts on electric grids like
fluctuations, voltage outages, harmonics etc.[4,5,6]. Also, the
integration of electric vehicles into the existing grid leads to
an additional burden especially during peak hours. All these
factors have enhanced the interest of researchers in utilizing
renewable energy sources as an alternative source for an
electrical vehicle charging station. Recent studies in literature
are evident for preferring photovoltaics for electric vehicle
charging [7-8]. Lately, due to improved penetration of
renewable energy systems, the conception of microgrids has
been projected as a method for distributed generation
integration. Moreover, the improvement in the power
electronic circuitry has further enriched this prospect [9].
To the researchers, microgrid is a well-known concept and can
be designed to support direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC) [10-12]. Many authors defined microgrid as a
small-scale low or medium voltage grid integrating distributed
or islanding mode [13].
Until recently, direct current power systems were mainly
confined to particular applications such as shipboard, tractions
and HVDC transmission system [14-15]. However, over the
years considerable advancements has been made in power
electronic circuitry technology and this has led to increase in
number of DC loads and power converters for diverse DC
applications [16]. The comparison between AC and DC
microgrids has been provided in [17-19] in terms of control,
protection and power losses. Lotfi et al. focused on potential
benefits of using dc microgrids than ac microgrids keeping in
view the increasing ratio of distributed energy resources and
dc loads [10]. Donald J Hammerstorm et al. addressed the
conversion efficiency cost of adopting various premise DC
and AC distribution system topologies [16]. Y.Huang et al.
evaluated the efficiencies of two different EV charging
stations namely AC bus and DC bus. It was found that the
operating efficiency of DCECS was considerably greater than
that of ACECS [11]. The detailed analysis of all parameters
for AC and DC microgrid has been reviewed in [12-14]. After
various studies, the authors found that DC microgrids have
significant advantages in terms of low system cost, simple
arrangement and a better efficiency. Also, they need less
power conversion stages as compared to AC microgrids [20-
22].
II. DC MICROGRIDS
A. Overview
Microgrid is a system of energy source (that encompass
distributed energy sources solar, wind, etc.), a proficient
energy storage unit and connection to loads that are able to
operate in parallel with or without the contribution of utility
grid. Enormous benefits of microgrids to their owners, as well
as to the utility grids were discussed in the literature which
encouraged their use on a wide scale [23]. Different authors
covered diverse aspects of microgrids including their design,
protection, control and energy management. Figures 1 and 2
show the basic architecture of AC and DC microgrids.

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AC Microgrid DC Microgrid
Fig. 1. General Architecture of a Microgrid
B. Designing a DC Microgrid
The design of a direct current microgrid has been explored in
quite a few studies [20-28]. Foremost requirement of a reliable
and efficient design of a microgrid is to attain a simplified
model that express the performance of load under DC
operations. Lasseter et al. discussed the basic architecture of a
microgrid. They emphasized on operation of microgrids in
islanding as well as non-islanding mode [24-25]. S Akshatha
et al. proposed a novel Unified AC-DC microgrid model [23].
A Mohamed et al. proposed a DC microgrid that may be used
for supporting voltage along with the use of its ability to inject
reactive power as an additional service[26]. Tomislav
Dragicevic et al. reviewed various design aspects of a DC
microgrid considering different power hardware topologies
and their appropriateness for numerous upcoming applications
of a smart grid [27]. Ahmed T elsayed et al. presented a
thorough assessment for their efforts made on direct current
microgrids and DC distribution systems [28]. It was observed
that the viability of adopting direct current power systems
became obvious specially with huge penetration of DC loads
and availability of highly developed and efficient power
electronics technology [23-28].
C. Control and Energy Management in DC Microgrids
The advancements in DC microgrids and networks depend
mainly on the implementation of suitable control strategies
and efficient management of energy amongst various elements
of the microgrid. A proficient management of energy ensures
a efficient power supply with minimum fluctuations in
voltage, efficient dispatching of energy between power
sources and the load, identical and stable current sharing
among various sources and power exchange between the grid
and the utility in optimal economic and technical conditions
[29]. Numerous work has been addressed in literature related
to the control strategies and management of energy in the
microgrid [30-35]. The work in [31,32,36] described diverse
control methods for a DC microgrid systems. Li zhang et al.
proposed a control strategy to maintain a power balance in the
DC microgrids using DC bus voltage as a reference voltage
[36]. E Barklund et al. presented a system for management of
energy in a stand-alone droop-controlled microgrid [29].
‹,(((
Hristiyan Kanchev et al. proposed an energy management
scheme for a microgrid including highly developed
photovoltaic generators along with embedded gas micro-
turbine and storage units [30]. K.T Tan et al. implemented an
algorithm for management of energy for coordinating various
operations of distributed generation units in a microgrid for
both islanded and non-islanded modes [31]. A novel model
predictive control algorithm was employed in [31], which
optimized the steady state and transient control problems by
enabling rapid computational time for bulky power systems.
D. Protection of DC Microgrids
Although DC microgrids have become an ideal networking
model of distributed generation, DC fault location and
protection is the major issue that need to be resolved. Over the
years, numerous protection schemes has been proposed in the
literature [37-47]. Protection schemes can be categorized as
unit protection and non unit protection. Unit protection
scheme aims at protecting a specific area of the system like a
transformer, a generator, a bus bar etc. under fixed constraints
whereas a non-unit protection scheme is not confined to any
such constraint. D.A Fletcher et al. optimized the role of unit
and non-unit protection methods in DC microgrids along with
optimizing the installation cost [37]. A meghawani et al.
proposed a non-unit protection scheme for DC microgrids
based on usual character of DC and its 1st and 2nd derivatives
under faulty transients. The proposed system was analyzed for
a ring type distributed generation microgrid architecture under
various fault conditions [38]. Snehamoy Dhar et al. proposed a
differential current based schemes for fast detection of fault
and location for multiple photovoltaic based DC microgrids
[42]. In [43-44], study was conducted on short-circuit fault
detection and protection in microgrids.
The IEC has given certain specifications for the selection of
voltage levels namely low, medium and high voltages. So far
numerous protection schemes has been developed for low
voltage or medium voltage microgrids. In ref. [39-41,45-51]
various protection schemes for low voltage and medium
voltage microgrids has been reviewed. Chen Yuan et al.
presented the protection strategy for a MV (medium voltage)
direct current microgrid at a isolated site used for mining [50].
Huimin Li proposed an algorithm to improve the safety and
reliability of a MV direct current power distribution systems
on board of all electric ships [51]. Another aspect of microgrid
protection addressed in literature classifies it into centralized
or decentralized protection schemes. In a centralized
protection scheme, microgrid has one centralized unit and the
low voltage microgrid is connected to the medium voltage
network through a delta-star transformer [49]. Mehndi Monadi
et al. presented a communication assisted method for fault
detection with a fault isolation technique and centralized
protection coordination for a medium voltage microgrid [46].
Meng Xu et al. proposed a centralized protection and control
scheme to identify the faulty region in the microgrid.
Intelligent circuit breakers were encompassed that
communicated with each other to send real-time information
by channels to the central protection and control system for

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fault analysis [49]. The work in [46,50] addresses various
communication based protection strategies for medium
voltage direct current microgrids. Apart from this, some work
has been addressed in literature based on decentralized
protection control strategies [47,48].
III. MICROGRID BASED EV CHARGING STATIONS
The crucial part of operation of electric vehicles is the
recharging of their energy storage unit. The process of
charging an electric vehicle is carried conductively or
inductively. Conductive charging make use of electrical
contact between the charger and charging port of the vehicle,
in order to transfer energy in the battery packs. Inductive
charging on the other hand uses wireless energy transfer
through an emf coupling [52]. Conductive charging has
already been adopted worldwide in the field of electric
vehicles while inductive charging is still at initial stages of
development. As far as the rated power is considered, the
charging systems are classified as normal, medium and high
power. They are also classified as slow, quick or fast charging
based on their time of charging [3].
The charging time span of electric vehicles should be as short
as possible as compared to the internal combustion engine
vehicles. Thus, it is obvious that EV penetration is coupled to
the advancement of commercial Fast Charging Stations
composed by a number of high power points of charging [53-
55]. The FCS presents two topologies, the first one is based on
a common AC bus which feeds every AC-DC EV charger and
the second one is based on a common DC bus feeding
different DC-DC charger [55]. Besides charging a battery car
to 80% of its SOC in a considerably less time, fast charging
also increases productivity and decrease operating costs. Also,
fast chargers are known to be more resourceful than
conventional chargers and charging with less overcharging
increase the battery efficiency [56].
TABLE I: CHARGING SPECIFICATIONS
Level AC Power (kW) DC Power (kW)
Level 1 1.9 kW (120 V@16A) 36kW (200-450V@80A)
Level 2 19.2kW(240V@80 A) 90kW(200-450V@200A)
Level 3 >20 kW (TBD) 240kW(200600V@400A)
TBD-To be determined
A. Renewable Energy Sources
A photovoltaic system employ solar panels each consisting of
a number of solar cells which generate electrical power. Solar
cell is the fundamental element in photovoltaic solar panels
and works resourcefully at low ambient temperatures. It is an
electrical power source device which convert light energy
directly into electric energy by photovoltaic effect [2,9,30].
Solar photovoltaic has specific benefits as a power source
since its operation does not generate any kind of pollution or
harmful greenhouse gas emissions, once installed it show
simple scalability in respect of power needs. Also, silicon is
available in abundance in the earth’s crust. The power
efficiency of a solar cell vary negligibly with the growth in the
temperature [54]. This variation in temperature and irradiance
‹,(((
results in non-linear V-I and P-V characteristic curves. There
exists a unique point of maximum power, at any point of time,
that varies with the change in irradiance or temperature. Thus,
a maximum power point tracker is desired to guarantee that
maximal power is extracted by a DC-DC converter in all
weather conditions [57,58]. To attain this objective a MPPT
algorithm is designed to match the maximum power point with
the operating voltage and current of a converter.
So far, numerous MPPT strategies have been observed in
literature [58-69]. They can be categorized as offline methods,
online methods and hybrid methods. The work in [59] reviews
the offline methods which include open circuit voltage
method, short circuit current and artificial intelligence
methods, online methods which include perturbation and
observation method (P&O), incremental conductance method
and extremum seeking control method and hybrid methods.
The perturb and observe (P&O) MPPT algorithm is the most
widely used due to ease in its execution. N Femia et al.
proposed a P&O technique for MPPT in which the MPPT
parameters could be modified according to the dynamic
performance of the specific converter [60]. Jubaer Ahmed et
al. proposed a novel method to enhance the efficiency of P&O
MPPT by reducing steady state oscillations and eliminating
the possibility of algorithm to lose its tracking direction [62].
D.K Sharma et al. proposed a MPPT algorithm by increasing
the number of perturbation steps to get closer to MPPT with
minimum possible oscillations [63]. Fathabadi proposed a
novel MPPT technique under different shading conditions.
The technique achieved a dynamic response with the
convergence time of 12ms and an efficiency of 99.60% [65].
Several other P & O MPPT techniques has been addressed in
literature by various authors. [12,60,61,64,66-69].
B. DC Bus Arrangement
The application of DC bus was first reported by Traube J et al.
They proposed a DC bus to connect the photovoltaic array, the
energy storage unit and the electric vehicle battery pack along
with the dc powered circuitry [66]. The implementation of DC
bus in comparison to AC bus leads to enhanced system
efficiency and reliability. Furthermore, it reduces the
necessary stages needed for power conversion, thereby
reducing the losses and simplifying the control algorithm
[12,67,68]. The DC bus provides fault less management of
energy and encourage the prospect of integrating more
renewable energy sources [12].
C. Power Electronic Circuitry
The selection of power electronics circuitry for charging of
electric vehicles is based on various factors like ratings of
current and voltage, power losses during switching operations
and several other dynamic characteristics. These devices
should be highly efficient to enhance the charging facilities of
electric vehicles [70-72]. Figure 2 describes the various power
electronic devices needed for the electric vehicles.

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Fig. 2. Classification of Power electronic devices used in EVCS
Earlier, for high-voltage applications, most researchers
preferred conventional DC-DC boost converters. However,
because of transfer gain ratio the power converter suffered
restricted output voltage. Also, the self-parasitic nature of the
power circuit components reduces the output voltage and
efficiency [73-75]. Nowadays, voltage-lift technology i.e.
inclusion of an additional conductor or inductor component in
the circuit is integrated to a dc-dc power circuit system
[70,71,75]. This enables the design of an extra high voltage
(EHV) DC-DC power circuit, obtained from a classical DC-
DC buck power converter configuration [72-76].
Furthermore, many solutions are provided in literature, to
enhance the output voltage, especially for isolating the load
side in order to guarantee high voltage operation of a dc-dc
converter [74-76]. Padmanaban et al. proposed a DC-DC step-
up boost converter that substantially improved the output
voltage with the use of a voltage lift technology using a closed
loop PI controller [70]. Hiba Al Sheikh et al. presented a
model of a bi-directional half-bridge DC-DC converter
appropriate for power electronic interface between the electric
traction drive and main energy storage system in HEVs[71].
Ching Ming Lai studied a bi-directional DC-DC converter
topology with a HV conversion ratio for batteries of EVs
connected to a DC microgrid. It was observed that a high
efficiency of 96% and 95% respectively, were achieved in
charging and discharging rates [72]. Sebastian Rivera et al.
proposed an architecture for DC charging of PEVs at MW
level, using a grid-tied neutral point clamped converter. The
proposed converter reduced the step down efforts on DC-DC
fast chargers [73]. A balancing mechanism which allowed
handling of any variation on dc loads was also proposed in
[73].
D. Impacts of Charging Station on Grid
The adoption of PEVs and PHEVs is gaining popularity in
countries worldwide. These vehicles are charged either by
means of electric power generation or by plugging into electric
outlets. However, the charging of electric vehicles cause
various impacts on the distribution grid since they consume
huge amount of electrical power and may lead to additional
burden and undesirable peak load demands. Hussain Shareef
et al. reviewed the various impacts of electric vehicles. They
categorized these impacts as adverse impacts and positive
impacts. Adverse impacts include: increase in peak demand
and power losses, voltage instability, deterioration in quality
of power, overheating of a transformer and overloading.
Positive impacts include benefits of vehicle to grid technology
‹,(((
[77]. The study in [78-79] discussed the impacts of electric
vehicle loads on voltage stability of power systems. Kristein
Clement-Nyns et al. proposed coordinated charging to
decrease the power losses and to maximize the main grid load
factor [4]. In [77-79] researchers described the various power
quality problems related to electric vehicles. Alexander Lucas
et al. discussed the harmonic impacts of multi electric vehicle
fast charging on utility grid [78]. In [79] C.H Dharmakeerthi
et al. discovered that the integration of electric vehicle fast
charging reduces the voltage stability of power grid in steady
state. Different other studies in literature has been addressed to
inspect the impacts of vehicle charging on peak demand and
on the electric grid [67,68].
IV. CONCLUSION
World concerns of climatic changes and degradation in quality
of air caused by exhaustive gases, rapid vanishing of global
crude oil and noise pollution caused by automobiles ensures a
steady platform to replace noisy ICE based vehicles by salient
EVs worldwide in the coming decades. In this context, the
focus has been made on advancement in charging facilities for
electric vehicles using a DC microgrid. This paper reviews
and discusses various control, protection and energy
management schemes in DC microgrids. Researchers cover
numerous aspects for efficient and reliable operation of
electric vehicle charging stations. It has been observed from
this study, that the integration of electric vehicles and
renewable energy sources in the DC microgrid for satisfying
the charging demands of electric vehicles is an emerging and
promising technology. It is seen that DC microgrids can
enable charging of electric vehicles with high voltage ratings
and a shorter time period and offers a lot of scope for future
research.
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