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Name: Ronald Caliguid Solomon Rating: _____________

Section: 51-E Remarks: ___________
Date Submitted: February 11, 2020

The Skeletal System

I - Introduction

The human body is actually an amazing coalition of many different systems that work together to
keep everything functioning correctly. For example, some systems handle food and energy, while others
focus on taking in oxygen and moving it around the body. By learning about the different systems
working inside the body, you can understand how everything works together to keep you healthy,
growing, and strong. Our body system is a collection of parts able to work together to serve a common
purpose growth, reproduction and survival. Each part of a system depends on the other parts to perform
tasks that can’t be achieved by single parts acting alone. Each individual system works in conjunction
with other systems to improve our chances of survival by maintaining a stable internal body
environment. This stable environment is known as homeostasis. According to Vitruvian Man, Leonardo
da Vinci’s drawing of the Vitruvian Man on 1847 shows his interest in proportion. He believed the
workings of the human body to be an analogy for the workings of the universe.

II – Function

 Cardiovascular system
-The heart and blood vessels make up this system. The heart is a pump forcing blood into a
network of blood vessels allowing it to travel to organs and delivery sites requiring oxygen
gas for respiration nutrients and the removal of waste substances.
 Digestive system
-This system resembles a long tube with attached organs. Ingested food is broken down into
constituent nutrient molecules that are then absorbed into the bloodstream. Indigestible
remains are then egested.
 Endocrine system
-Composed of a number of small organs distributed throughout the body, the endocrine
system coordinates the metabolic activity of body cells by interacting with the nervous
system. Endocrine glands produce hormones chemical messengers released into the blood
and transported to target sites around the body.
 Excretory system
-The excretory system is composed of the kidneys (urine-forming organs), the bladder
temporary storage for urine and channels for moving this liquid waste around. Kidneys are
blood purifiers filtering liquid from the bloodstream, removing undesirable substances (such
as toxins) and returning those still required to the blood.
 Immune system
-The immune system is a protection mechanism composed of specialized cells, cell products,
tissues, organs and processes within an organism that protect against pathogens.
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 Integumentary system
-Commonly known as the skin, this system wraps the body in a protective covering with a
number of functions such as UV protection and temperature regulation, taking it well
beyond being just a mere covering.
 Musculoskeletal system
-The skeleton provides a framework on which the human body is arranged. It is articulated
to allow free movement in conjunction with the skeletal muscles. They control movement,
posture and assist the body with heat generation. Our bodies are held together by
connective tissue
 Respiratory system
-Our bodies are made up of countless cells all requiring oxygen to carry out the important
process of respiration. In this process cells use oxygen gas and produce carbon dioxide gas –
a waste product that must be removed from the body. The process of breathing allows these
gases to be exchanged between the blood and lungs.
 Reproductive system
-The human body has a system of organs that work together for the purpose of
reproduction. The biological purpose of this process is the continuation of life.
 Nervous system
-The nervous system is made up of a network of specialized cells, tissues and organs that
coordinate and regulate the responses of the body to internal and external stimuli.
 Skeletal System
-The bones, tendons, and ligaments in the body make up the skeletal system. This system is
in charge of supporting the body and all of the systems in it. Teeth are also part of the
skeletal system. Bones are strong so they can protect fragile organs inside the body. The ribs
are in place in the chest to protect the heart and lungs.
 Circulatory System
-The circulatory system has the job of transporting substances throughout the body. With a
system of veins and arteries, blood moves continuously all over the body. Blood carries
chemicals to the places they need to go, and it also transports waste products to be
eliminated from the body. The circulatory system is very important because it works
together with every other system and organ in the body.

III – Components

 Different organs can work together to perform a common function, like how the parts of
your digestive system break down food. We refer to an integrated unit as an organ system.
Groups of organ systems work together to make complete, functional organisms, like us!
There are 11 major organ systems in the human body.
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IV – Structure

1. Bones

A. Long bones

B. Short bones
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C. Flat bones

D. Irregular bones

E. Compact bones

F. Spongy bones
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G. Axial skeleton

I. Skull

II. Auditory Ossicles

III. Hyoid
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IV. Vertebral column

V. Thoracic Cage

H. Appendicular skeleton I. Pectoral girdle

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II. Upper limb

III. Lower Limb

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2. Joints

A. Fibrous joints

I. Sutures

II. Syndesmoses

III. Gomphoses

B. Cartilaginous joints

C. Synovial joints

I. Plane joints / Gliding joints

II. Saddle joints

III. Hinge joints

IV. Pivot joints

V. Ball & socket joints

VI. Ellipsoid joints

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V – Physiology & Mechanisms

A. Discuss the histology of bones

B. Discuss the process of bone ossification, growth, remodeling and repair.

C. Discuss bone formation in fetus

D. Describe the two systems for classifying joints

The strength, shape and stability of the human body are dependent on the musculoskeletal
system. The most robust aspect of this unit is the underlying bony architecture. Bone is a modified form
of connective tissue which is made of extracellular matrix, cells and fibers. The high concentration of
calcium and phosphate-based minerals throughout the connective tissue is responsible for its hard-
calcified nature. The histological structure, mode of ossification, cross-sectional appearance, and degree
of maturity influences the classification of bony tissue. In addition to discussing the cellular constituents
of bone and the architectural arrangement of their products, this article will also address the
embryology and mechanisms of ossification as well. Furthermore, some prominent bone-related
pathological processes will also be addressed. Bone is the primary anatomical structure comprising of
the human skeletal system. Functionally, it assumes a significant mechanical role by the skeleton, and
represents a stock of mineral salts to mobilize for maintenance of calcium and phosphorus homeostasis.
It protects several vital organs skull, vertebrae and rib cage. Through the medullary spaces, it hosts, the
bone provides structural and functional support for hematopoiesis

There are three main functions of the human skeletal system classified into the mechanical,
formation of hematopoietic cells, and metabolism. Mechanical: Bones provide a frame for other sof
tissues of the musculoskeletal system to attach to such as muscles, tendons, and ligaments. These allow
for support as well as the movement by contracting and relaxing of the muscles which then, in turn,
result in flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and other forms of movement. They also help form a
mechanical barrier to different structures within the human body. For example, the rib cage and the skull
help shield our vital organs, the heart/lungs, and the brain, respectively, from trauma. Formation of
hematopoietic cells: The marrow is found in the trabecular portions of bones and is responsible for
hematopoiesis, or the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Metabolism: The
bone matrix can store several minerals, chiefly calcium and phosphorus as well as iron in the form of
ferritin. Chondroitin sulfate, a carbohydrate moiety, is also a commonly found element in the matrices.
Specific growth factors, including insulin-like growth factor, are housed in bone and then released
periodically. pH balance is also regulated as bones may alter the composition of alkaline salts in the
serum to maintain the optimal pH level. Moreover, osteocytes can engulf toxic molecules and heavy
metals from the serum as a means of detoxification. As a specialized connective tissue, bone is
comprised of mainly type 1 collagen fibers and inorganic salts. Type 1 collagen is a non-calcified matrix
designed to resist the tension experienced by the weight-bearing functions of bone. It forms from
osteoblasts, the main cellular component of bone
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VI – Pathophysiology

 Heart disease - refers to conditions that involve the heart, its vessels, muscles, valves, or
internal electric pathways responsible for muscular contraction. Common heart disease
conditions include the Coronary artery disease, Heart failure, Cardiomyopathy, Heart valve
disease, Arrhythmias, Coronary artery disease is the main cause of heart attacks. It is the
most common kind of heart disease in the U.S.

 Bone cancer - can begin in any bone in the body, but it most commonly affects the pelvis or
the long bones in the arms and legs. Bone cancer is rare, making up less than 1 percent of all
cancers. In fact, noncancerous bone tumors are much more common than cancerous ones.
Some types of bone cancer occur primarily in children, while others affect mostly adults.
Surgical removal is the most common treatment, but chemotherapy and radiation therapy
also may be utilized. The decision to use surgery, chemotherapy or radiation therapy is based
on the type of bone cancer being treated.

 Type 1&2 Diabetes - Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in children and young adults. It
develops when the body’s immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells, the only cells in
the body that make the hormone insulin, which regulates blood glucose. Type 2 diabetes is
the most common form of diabetes. The causes of type 2 diabetes are multi-factorial and
include both genetic and environmental elements that affect beta-cell function and tissue
muscle, liver, adipose tissue, and pancreas, insulin sensitivity. In type 2 diabetes, either the
body does not produce enough insulin or the cells ignore the insulin. It usually begins as
insulin resistance, a disorder in which the cells do not use insulin properly. As the need for
insulin rises, the pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce it. Only 5% of people with
diabetes have this form of the disease. To survive, people with type 1 diabetes must have
insulin delivered by injection or a pump.

VI – Association to Other Systems

 The integumentary system is all about protection. The system protects your body from
disease by providing a barrier to viruses and bacteria. The system protects your body from
physical damage by offering a thick barrier that both contains your internal organs and stops
large objects, like a rock from entering your body. The system also protects your body from
dehydration, overheating, or freezing. The layer of skin can sweat and help your body cool or
surround a layer of fat that keeps warmer temperatures inside. Did you know your skin
makes up over fifeen percent of your body weight and is the largest organ in your body?
Yes, your skin is considered an organ. How does the integumentary system work with other
systems? We already spoke about your skin as one of the first defense mechanisms in your
immune system. Your skin has tiny glands that secrete sweat and oil. Those glands are
termed exocrine glands and are not like the glands of your endocrine system. While it may
feel a bit slimy, those fluids decrease the pH on the surface of your skin and kill
microorganisms. There are even enzymes in your sweat that can digest bacteria.
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VII – Questions to Answer

1. In what ways is the structural makeup of compact and spongy bone well suited to their respective
functions?

* Compact, Bone is much heavier a dense, so it does a good job at protecting against fractures. Spongy,
has holes in it that make it lighter, this allows for the bone to distribute weight. The bone also supports
the functions they perform. They are also both found in most bones but their distribution Is done in a
way that functions are not disturb. The Protostomes all but Arthropod, Biology of Cnidaria Morphology,
two basic body forms, the polyp and medusa a sedentary and mobile form, many cnidarians have both
forms in their life cycle, in others, one form predominates.

2. What is the difference between closed reduction and open reduction? In what type of fracture would
closed reduction most likely occur? In what type of fracture would open reduction most likely occur?

* A fracture is a broken bone. It will heal whether or not a physician resets it in its anatomical position. If
the bone is not reset correctly, the healing process will keep the bone in its deformed position. When a
broken bone is manipulated and set into its natural position without surgery, the procedure is called a
closed reduction. Open reduction requires surgery to expose the fracture and reset the bone. While
some fractures can be minor, others are quite severe and result in grave complications. For example, a
fractured diaphysis of the femur has the potential to release fat globules into the bloodstream. These
can become lodged in the capillary beds of the lungs, leading to respiratory distress and if not treated
quickly, death. There is also a lot of types of Fractures. Compare healthy bone with different types of
fractures: closed fracture, open fracture, transverse fracture, spiral fracture, comminuted fracture,
impacted fracture, greenstick fracture, and oblique fracture.

3. An individual with very low levels of vitamin D presents themselves to you complaining of seemingly
fragile bones. Explain how these might be connected.

* Individual with very low levels of Vitamin D is required for calcium absorption by the gut. Low vitamin
D could lead to insufficient levels of calcium in the blood so the calcium is being released from the
bones. The reduction of calcium from the bones can make them weak and subject to fracture. Because,
Calcium is not only the most abundant mineral in bone, it is also the most abundant mineral in the
human body. Calcium ions are needed not only for bone mineralization but for tooth health, regulation
of the heart rate and strength of contraction, blood coagulation, contraction of smooth and skeletal
muscle cells, and regulation of nerve impulse conduction. Example of disease is Hypocalcemia, a
condition characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium, can have an adverse effect on a number of
different body systems including circulation, muscles, nerves, and bone. Without adequate calcium,
blood has difficulty coagulating, the heart may skip beats or stop beating altogether, muscles may have
difficulty contracting, nerves may have difficulty functioning, and bones may become brittle. The causes
of hypocalcemia can range from hormonal imbalances to an improper diet. Treatments vary according to
the cause, but prognoses are generally good.
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4. Describe the effects caused when the parathyroid gland fails to respond to calcium bound to its
receptors.

* Calcium is a chemical element that cannot be produced by any biological processes. The only way it
can enter the body is through the diet. The bones act as a storage site for calcium: The body deposits
calcium in the bones when blood levels get too high, and it releases calcium when blood levels drop too
low. This process is regulated by PTH, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Cells of the parathyroid gland have
plasma membrane receptors for calcium. When calcium is not binding to these receptors, the cells
release PTH, which stimulates osteoclast proliferation and resorption of bone by osteoclasts. This
demineralization process releases calcium into the blood. PTH promotes reabsorption of calcium from
the urine by the kidneys, so that the calcium returns to the blood. Finally, PTH stimulates the synthesis of
vitamin D, which in turn, stimulates calcium absorption from any digested food in the small intestine.
When all these processes return blood calcium levels to normal, there is enough calcium to bind with the
receptors on the surface of the cells of the parathyroid glands, and this cycle of events is turned off.

5. The skeletal system is composed of bone and cartilage and has many functions. Choose three of these
functions and discuss what features of the skeletal system allow it to accomplish these functions.

 Blood Cell Production- Blood cells are produced by bone marrow. Bone marrow stem cells develop
into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

 Protection- Bones provide protection for numerous vital organs and sof tissues of the body. For
example, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord, and the thoracic rib cage protects the heart
and lungs.

 Storage- Bones store important minerals and mineral salts, including calcium, phosphorus, and
calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate gives bone its firmness. Bone also stores fat in yellow bone
marrow.
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Explanation of each part of joints:

 Long bones are hard, dense bones that provide strength, structure, and mobility. The thigh bone
femur is a long bone. A long bone has a shaf and two ends. Some bones in the fingers are classified
as long bones, even though they are short in length. This is due to the shape of the bones, not their
size. Long bones contain yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow, which produce blood cells.

 Short bones are shaped roughly as a cube and contain mostly spongy bone. The outside surface is
comprised of a thin layer of compact bone. Short bones are located in the hands and feet. The
patella (kneecap) is also considered a short bone.

 Flat bones are somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin, it is also
ofen curved. Examples include the cranial skull bones, the scapulae shoulder blades, the sternum
breastbone, and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and ofen protect
intern.

 Irregular bones are one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not fit
any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that
support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the
ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones.

 Skull is a bony structure that supports the face and forms a protective cavity for the brain. It is
comprised of many bones, formed by intramembranous ossification, which are joined together by
sutures fibrous joints. These joints fuse together in adulthood, thus permitting brain growth during
adolescence. The bones of the skull can be divided into two groups: those of the cranium (which can
be subdivided the skullcap known as the calvarium, and the cranial base) and those of the face.

 Auditory Ossicle are any of the three tiny bones in the middle ear of all mammals. These are the
malleus, or hammer, the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup. Together they form a short chain
that crosses the middle ear and transmits vibrations caused by sound waves from the eardrum
membrane to the liquid of the inner ear. The malleus resembles a club more than a hammer,
whereas the incus looks like a premolar tooth with an extensive root system. The stapes does closely
resemble a stirrup. The top or head of the malleus and the body of the incus are held together by a
tightly fitting joint and are seated in the attic, or upper portion, of the eardrum cavity.

 Hyoid bone is U-shaped bone situated at the root of the tongue in the front of the neck and
between the lower jaw and the largest cartilage of the larynx, or voice box. The primary function of
the hyoid bone is to serve as an anchoring structure for the tongue. It has no articulation with other
bones.

 Vertebral Column or spine is made of 33 individual bones stacked one on top of the other. This
spinal column provides the main support for your body, allowing you to stand upright, bend, and
twist, while protecting the spinal cord from injury. Strong muscles and bones, flexible tendons and
ligaments, and sensitive nerves contribute to a healthy spine. Yet, any of these structures affected by
strain, injury, or disease can cause pain.
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 The thoracic cage (rib cage) is the skeleton of the thoracic wall. It is formed by the 12 thoracic
vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and associated costal cartilages and the sternum. The thoracic cage takes
the form of a domed bird cage with the horizontal bars formed by ribs and costal cartilages. It is
supported by the vertical sternum or breastbone anteriorly and the 12 thoracic vertebrae
posteriorly. The thoracic cage can also be described as an osteocartilaginous cage formed by the
sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and costal cartilages, 12 thoracic vertebrae and the intervertebral discs
interposed between them.

 Pectoral girdles are responsible for providing structural support to your shoulder region on the lef
and right side of your body. They also allow for a large range of motion, connecting muscles
necessary for shoulder and arm movement. The pectoral girdles on either side of your body aren’t
joined together. This allows for your shoulder and arms to move and function independently. The
pectoral girdle consists of the two bones that make up your shoulder the clavicle, or collarbone and
scapula, or shoulder blade.

 Upper and Lower Limb are divided into three regions. The thigh is that portion of the lower limb
located between the hip joint and knee joint. The leg is specifically the region between the knee
joint and the ankle joint. Distal to the ankle is the foot. The lower limb contains 30 bones. These are
the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges. The femur is the
single bone of the thigh. The patella is the kneecap and articulates with the distal femur. The tibia is
the larger, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the leg, and the fibula is the thin bone
of the lateral leg. The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior portion of the
foot is formed by a group of seven bones, each of which is known as a tarsal bone, whereas the mid-
foot contains five elongated bones, each of which is a metatarsal bone. The toes contain 14 small
bones, each of which is a phalanx bone of the foot.

 Fibrous joints are also called fixed or immovable joints because they do not move. A joint is the
location at which two or more bones make contact. They are constructed to allow movement (except
for skull bones), provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally.
Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional
classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice,
there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications. Fibrous joints are joined by
dense irregular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers. Fibrous joints are connected by dense
connective tissue consisting mainly of collagen. These joints are also called fixed or immovable joints
because they do not move. Fibrous joints have no joint cavity and are connected via fibrous
connective tissue. The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints called sutures. The skull bones of a
fetus are unfused so that they can move over each other slightly to compress skull size during birth.
Afer birth, the bones slowly begin to fuse to become fixed, making the skull bones immovable in
order to protect the brain from impact. A suture is a type of fibrous joint synarthrosis bound by
Sharpey’s fibers that only occurs in the skull cranium. The fibrous connective tissue found at a suture
to bind or sew strongly unites the adjacent skull bones and thus helps to protect the brain and form
the face. In adults, the skull bones are closely opposed and fibrous connective tissue fills the narrow
gap between the bones. The suture is frequently convoluted, forming a tight union that prevents
most movement between the bones.
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 Cartilaginous joints are those in which the bones are connected by cartilage. There are two types of
cartilaginous joints, synchondroses and symphyses. In a synchondrosis, the bones are joined by
hyaline cartilage. Synchondroses are found in the epiphyseal plates of growing bones in children. In
symphyses, hyaline cartilage covers the end of the bone, but the connection between bones occurs
through fibrocartilage. Symphyses are found at the joints between vertebrae and between the pubic
bones. Amphiarthroses allow only slight movement; therefore, either type of cartilaginous joint is an
amphiarthrosis.

 Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining bones. This space,
referred to as the synovial or joint cavity, is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the
joint, reducing friction between the bones and allowing for greater movement. The ends of the
bones are covered with articular cartilage, a hyaline cartilage. The entire joint is surrounded by an
articular capsule composed of connective tissue. This allows movement of the joint as well as
resistance to dislocation. Articular capsules may also possess ligaments that hold the bones together.
Synovial joints are capable of the greatest movement of the three structural joint types, however,
the more mobile a joint, the weaker the joint. Knees, elbows, and shoulders are examples of synovial
joints. Since they allow for free movement, synovial joints are classified as diarthroses. Synovial
joints allow for many types of movement including gliding, angular, rotational, and special
movements. Gliding movements occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. They
produce very little rotation or angular movement of the bones. There are several different types of
angular movements, including flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and
circumduction. Flexion, or bending, occurs when the angle between the bones decreases. Moving
the forearm upward at the elbow or moving the wrist to move the hand toward the forearm are
examples of flexion. In extension, the opposite of flexion, the angle between the bones of a joint
increases. Straightening a limb afer flexion is an example of extension. Extension past the normal
anatomical position is referred to as hyperextension. This includes moving the neck back to look
upward or bending the wrist so that the hand moves away from the forearm. Rotational movement
is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its longitudinal axis. Rotation can be toward the
midline of the body, which is referred to as medial rotation, or away from the midline of the body,
which is referred to as lateral rotation. Movement of the head from side to side is an example of
rotation. Some movements that cannot be classified as gliding, angular, or rotational are called
special movements. Inversion involves moving the soles of the feet inward, toward the midline of the
body. Eversion, the opposite of inversion, involves moving of the sole of the foot outward, away from
the midline of the body. Protraction is the anterior movement of a bone in the horizontal plane.
Retraction occurs as a joint move back into position afer protraction. There is also a bone and joints
disorder we can discover when we get older for example Osteoarthritis is the most common type of
arthritis is osteoarthritis, which is associated with aging and wear and tear of the articular cartilage.
Risk factors that may lead to osteoarthritis later in life include injury to a joint; jobs that involve
physical labor, sports with running, twisting, or throwing actions, and being overweight. Other one is
Gout is a form of arthritis that results from the deposit of uric acid crystals within a body joint.
Usually only one or a few joints are affected, such as the big toe, knee, or ankle. The attack may only
last a few days, but could return to the same or another joint. Gout occurs when the body makes too
much uric acid or the kidneys do not properly excrete it. A diet with excessive fructose has been
implicated in raising the chances of a susceptible individual developing gout.