3.
organisms are not unique
CLONING
DEFINITION:
 the process of producing a clone (replica)
 to produce a copy or imitation of
 process of producing similar populations
of genetically identical individuals
 processes used to create copies
of DNA fragments
USES:
 Creates a copy of
 DNA
 cell
 organ
 organism
 Provides cure to some disease
 Provides more useful products( genetically
modified organisms)
TYPES:
ORGANISM/ REPRODUCTIVE CLONING
 involves making an identical copy of an entire
organism. asexual method of reproduction
 involve making an entire cloned organism,
instead of just specific cells or tissues
MOLECULAR/DNA/ GENE CLONING
 used in a wide array of biological experiments
and practical applications raging from genetic
fingerprinting to large scale protein production
 focuses on making identical copies of DNA
molecules in chromosomes.
THERAPEUTIC CLONING
 involves the cloning of human embryos for the
production of stem cells
 involves cloning cells from a human for use in
medicine and transplants
HUMAN CLONING
 creation of genetically identical copy of human
 does not refer to the natural conception and
delivery of identical twins
ADVANTAGES:
1. they will all have the desired characteristics
2. can be produced quickly
3. medical applications
4. agricultural applications
5. organ replacement
6. cloning help infertile couples to have children
7. the benefits of growing eminent persons
DISADVANTAGES:
1. costly
2. will lead to less variation
4. production of new viruses
5. low chances of survival
6. a degree of uncertainty
7. raises ethical issues
GENE THERAPY
DEFINITION:
 the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid polymers
into a patient's cells as a drug to treat diseases
and was conceptualized in 1972
 an experimental technique that uses genes to
treat or prevent disease. .
 the transplantation of normal genes into cells in
place of missing or defective ones in order to
correct genetic disorders.
 In gene therapy, the nucleic acid molecule is
packaged within a "vector", which is used to get
the molecule inside cells within the body
USES:
 Treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a
patient’s cells instead of using drugs or surgery
 Fertility Issues may be solved
 Gene doping
 Human genetic engineering
 Biotherapy
 Cure genetic disorders
 Remove mutations in genes
 Change dominant alleles to recessive alleles
VECTORS IN GENE THERAPY
 VIRAL
All viruses bind to their hosts and introduce their
genetic material into the host cell as part of their
replication cycle.
 (ex. Viruses, Retroviruses,
Adenoviruses,Adeno-associated viruses,
envelope protein pseudotyping of viral
vectors)
 NON-VIRAL
Non-viral methods can present certain
advantages over viral methods, such as large
scale production and low host immunogenicity.
 (ex. Naked DNA, Oligonucleotides,
Lipoplexes and polyplexes, hybrid
methods, dendrimers)
TYPES OF GENE THERAPHY
 SOMATIC GENE THERAPY
 =- transfer genes into somatic cells such as
organs
- transfer of a section of DNA to any cell of the
body that doesn’t produce sperm or eggs.
- effects of gene therapy will not be passed
onto the patient’s children
 GERMLINE GENE THERAPY
-gene transfer into germ
- transfer of a section of DNA to cells that
produce eggs or sperm
-effects of gene therapy will be passed onto
the patient’s children and subsequent
generations.
WAYS OF IMPLEMENTING GENE
THERAPHY
 IN VIVO TECHNIQUE
- genes are changed in cells still in the body
- gene is transferred to cells inside the patient’s
body
- where cells are modified outside the body and
then transplanted back in again
 EX VIVO TECHNIQUE
 cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are
removed and grown in the laboratory
 cells are exposed to the virus that is carrying the
desired gene
 cells grow in the laboratory and are then returned
to the patient by injection into a vein.
ADVANTAGES:
1. has the ability to replace defective cells
2. promises a great untapped potential
3. can help eradicate diseases
4. can give someone the chance to have a normal life
DISADVANTAGES:
1. costly
2. short-lived of gene therapy
3. immune reponse
4. problems with viral vectors
5. may cause multigene disorders
6. finding adequate insurance to cover
7. has the potential to give rise in other disorders
8. can damage the gene pool
9. gene delivery tools
STEM CELL THERAPY/
ENGINEERING
DEFINITION OF STEM CELL
 are some of the body's master cells which have
the ability to grow into any one of the body's
more than 200 cell types.
 contribute to the body's ability to renew and
repair its tissues.
 undifferentiated biological cells that can
differentiate into specialized cells and can divide
to produce more stem cells
PROPERTIES OF STEM CELLS
 SELF-RENEWAL
ability to go through numerous cycles of cell
division
 POTENCY
capacity to differentiate into specialized cell
types
TYPES OF POTENCY OF STEM CELL
 TOTIPOTENT
each cell can develop into a new individual
 PLURIPOTENT
cells can from any (over 200) cell types
 MULTIPOTENT
can produce only cells of a closely related family
of cells (ex. Hematopoietic stem cells
differentiated into red blood cells, white blood
cells, platelets)
 UNIPOTENT
can produce only one cell type
TYPES OF STEM CELL
 EMBRYONIC STEM CELL
- are sourced from embryos formed during the
blastocyst phase of embryonic development,
which is four or five days after fertilisation
- they are usually taken from human embryos
left-over from in vitro fertilisation
- cells isolated from the inner mass of
blastocysts
 ADULT OR MESENCHYMAL STEM CELL
 - are found in different types of tissue, including scaffold to produce a fully functional organ for
bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal implantation back into the donor host.
muscles, skin and the liver
- stem cells can also be sourced from umbilical USES:
cord blood  Repair/replace damaged tissues
- cells found in various tissues  Enhance natural regeneration
 Tissue engineering can be used in making
USES: biomedicine
 bone marrow transplantation  Tissue engineering can used to create an organ
 diabetes  Can shorten the time intended for healing
 research how diseases occur or why certain cells
develop into cancer cells EXAMPLES OF SUCCESFULLY
ENGINEERED ORGANS
 research causes of genetic defects in cells
 correct parts of organs that don’t work properly • Bioartificial windpipe
 test new drugs for safety and effectiveness • Artificial pancreas
• Bioartificial liver
 can cure Parkinson’s disease • Artificial bone marrow
 can fix spinal cord injuries • Tissue engineered bladder
 grow new cells in a laboratory to replace damaged • Tissue engineered small arteries
organs or tissues • Tissue engineered skin grafts
ADVANTAGES: • Tissue engineered ear and nose
1. Immense Medical Benefits • Tissue engineered cartilage
2. A Better Knowledge of Human Growth
TYPES OF CELLS USED IN TISSUE
3. The Key To Reversing Aging
ENGINEERING
4. Cure Development Defects Before They Happen
 Fibroblasts
5. Come in different types
-used in skin replacement or repair, cartilage.
6. Help Scientist and Doctors
 Chondrocytes
7. Benefit to Other Studies
-they produce and maintain cartilaginous matrix.
8. Potential for Discovering Cures and Treatments
 Matrix or Scaffold
-does more than support the cells; it also acts as
DISADVANTAGES: a relay station for various signaling molecules.
1. Costly
2. High Uncertainties ADVANTAGES:
3. Unknown Side Effects 1. Can partially or completely replace an organ or
4. Playing God biology system.
5. Perpetuates Cloning of Humans 2. Combines the principle of bio engeneering, cell
6. Can be likened to murder transplantation and hematology.
3. Burned victims benefit because tissue engineering
provides them artificially equivalent skin.
TISSUE ENGINEERING 4. The patients don’t need to wait a long time for the
wound to heal
DEFINITION: 5. People can easily find a replacement for an organ
 is the field of research using cells and other since it is already applicable
materials to either enhance or replace biological 6. Engineering can potentially help a person conquer
tissues a disease or illness
 the use of a combination of cells, engineering and 7. Has the capability of prolonging our lives and
materials methods, and suitable biochemical and making the general quality of our lives much better.
physico-chemical factors to improve or replace 8. Burn victims can benefit greatly from tissue
biological functions engineering because it can help to regenerate
 is the study of the growth of new connective burned skin.
tissues, or organs, from cells and a collagenous
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Many people oppose tissue engineering due to
their beliefs.
2. Artificial organs that save someone’s life defies
natural order.
3. The organ replacement may not function as well as
the original organ.
4. It can be expensive
5. Active seeding and cell isolation
6. Possible presence of hidden disease or illness in the
base tissue.
DNA FINGERPRINTING
DEFINITION:
 is a method used to identify an individual from a
sample of DNA by looking at unique patterns in
their DNA.
 a technique used especially for identification by
extracting and identifying the base pair pattern in
an individual’s DNA.
 a laboratory technique used to establish a link
between biological evidence and a suspect in a
criminal investigation.
 a test to identify and evaluate the genetic
information-called in a person's cells
USES:
 Personal Identification
 Diagnosis and Cures for Inherited Diseases
 Criminal Identification and Forensics
 Paternity and Maternity Testing
 Used for Legal claims
 Can help in missing persons cases
 Identification for the military
TYPES:
 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
- analyzes the length of the strands of the DNA
molecules with repeating base pair patterns
 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- amplifies the DNA molecules using a smaller
sample
- was developed by Karry Mullis of the Cetus
Corporation in 1983 for use in research
laboratories for establishing hereditary
authentication
 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AmpFLP)
- came into vogue in the 90’s and is still popular
in the smaller countries involved in the
process of DNA fingerprinting
- remains attractive because of its relatively less
complicated operation and the cost-
effectiveness of the procedure
 Short Tandem Repeat (STR)
- methodology for extracting DNA is the system
most widely used form of DNA fingerprinting.
- based on the features of PCR, as it utilizes
specific areas that have short sequential
repeat DNA
ADVANTAGES:
1. It helps people know more about their family
background.
2. It helps solve crime
3. It can help determine and even prevent illness.
4. A less intrusive method.
5. It is an affordable and reliable technique
6. It is an easy and painless method for the subject
being tested.
7. It can be conducted in a relatively short amount
of time
8. Anyone at any age can be tested with this
method without any major concerns
9. The technique has used since 1984, making it
highly developed and improved.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. It can violate people’s privacy.
2. It can point the finger at the wrong person.
3. It’s complex and prone to errors.
4. The process itself is complex and tedious, and
can give results that may be hard to interpret
5. The sample of DNA can easily be ruined during
the process of DNA fingerprinting, causing the
sample to become completely useless for testing
6. The test needs to be run on multiple samples, a
numerous amount of times for ideal accuracy.
7. Privacy issues could occur if the information isn't
kept secure at the lab.
8. If personal information leaked, it could
potentially complicate insurance processes,
health care and job prospects for an individual