CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 ELECTRIC VEHICLE

An electric vehicle, also called an EV, uses one or more electric motors or traction
motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system
by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar
panels or an electric generator to convert fuel to electricity. EVs include, but are not
limited to, road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric
aircraft and electric spacecraft.

EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among
the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and
ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time.
Modern internal combustion engines have been the dominant propulsion method
for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but electric power has remained commonplace
in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.

1.2 PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from
any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the
Rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a
subcategory of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles
(BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid
electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

1.3 SMART CHARGING OF PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

By employing of PHEVs, the power network has faced with both challenges and
opportunities. The reliance on fossil fuels has decreased by using the PHEVs for
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personal transportation and it can be led to lower emission rates. So PHEVs have a
significant role on air pollution and reducing CO2, NOx. Furthermore the charging
load of PHEVs may create power quality problems. However this mobile load has
caused a challenge for power systems operation and planning.

Smart charging of PHEVs is one of the most important issues of power grids.
Because if there is no schedule for charging and discharging of vehicle, amount of peak
demand may be increased in peak hours by charging all PHEVs at a same time. So it
seems that modeling charge of PHEV and using schedule is necessary. The best
solution for solving this problem is using smart grid and having schedule for charging
PHEVs. In smart grid charging time of PHEVs can be managed by grid and power grid
can reduce the peak load and have a smoother load profile. Furthermore some ancillary
services such as frequency regulation and spinning reserves can be provided for the
power grid. So by modeling the PHEVs demand accuracy we can have better planning
for grid and management the PHEVs’ charging.

1.4 CHARGING STATIONS FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE

An electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging station, electric

recharging point, charging point, charge point, ECS (Electronic Charging Station) and
EVSE (electric vehicle supply equipment), is an element in an infrastructure that
supplies electric energy for the recharging of electric vehicles, such as plug-in electric
vehicles, including electric cars, neighborhood electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids. At
home or work, some electric vehicles have onboard converters that can plug into a
standard electrical outlet or a high-capacity appliance outlet. Others either require or
can use a charging station that provides electrical conversion, monitoring, or safety
functionality. These stations are also needed when traveling, and many support faster
charging at higher voltages and currents than are available from residential EVSEs.
Public charging stations are typically on-street facilities provided by electric utility

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companies or located at retail shopping centers and operated by many private
companies.

Charging stations provide one or a range of heavy duty or special connectors that
conform to the variety of competing standards. Common rapid charging standards
include the Combined Charging System, CHAdeMO, and the Tesla Supercharger.

Figure 1.1 Electric Charging Station

1.5 ENERGY SOURCES

Although EVs have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created
through electricity generation, and will usually emit pollution and generate waste,
unless it is generated by renewable source power plants. Since EVs use whatever
electricity is delivered by their electrical utility/grid operator, EVs can be made more
or less efficient, polluting and expensive to run, by modifying the electrical generating
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stations. This would be done by an electrical utility under a government energy policy,
in a timescale negotiated between utilities and government.

Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a
nation's fleet of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase
of new vehicles, often as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-
life. Only a few nations set a retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan
or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the road.

EVs will take advantage of whatever environmental gains happen when a

renewable energy generation station comes online, a fossil-fuel power station is
decommissioned or upgraded. Conversely, if government policy or economic
conditions shifts generators back to use more polluting fossil fuels and internal
combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), or more inefficient sources, the reverse can
happen. Even in such a situation, electrical vehicles are still more efficient than a
comparable amount of fossil fuel vehicles. In areas with a deregulated electrical energy
market, an electrical vehicle owner can choose whether to run his electrical vehicle off
conventional electrical energy sources, or strictly from renewable electrical energy
sources (presumably at an additional cost), pushing other consumers onto conventional
sources, and switch at any time between the two.

1.6 ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERY

An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) in addition to the traction battery specialty

systems used for industrial (or recreational) vehicles, are batteries used to power the
propulsion system of a battery electric vehicle (BEVs). Vehicle batteries are usually
a secondary (rechargeable) battery, and are typically lithium-ion batteries. Traction
batteries, specifically designed with a high ampere-hour capacity, are used in forklifts,
electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks,
vans, and other electric vehicles.

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 Electric-vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries
as they are designed to give power over sustained periods of time. Deep-cycle
batteries are used instead of SLI batteries for those applications. Batteries for electric
vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, specific
energy and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries reduce the weight of the vehicle
and improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery
technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximal all-
electric range of the vehicles. However, metal-air batteries have high specific energy
because the cathode is provided by the surrounding oxygen in the air. Rechargeable
batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid ("flooded", deep-cycle,
and VRLA), NiCd, nickel–metal hydride, lithium-ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less
commonly, zinc–air and molten-salt batteries. The most common battery type in
modern electric cars are lithium-ion and Lithium polymer battery, because of their high
energy density compared to their weight. The amount of electricity (i.e. electric charge)
stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total energy
often measured in watt hours.

Figure 1.2 Nissan Leaf cutaway showing part of the battery

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 A Model-Based Online Mechanism with Pre-Commitment and its

Application to Electric Vehicle Charging

We introduce a novel online mechanism that schedules the allocation of an

expiring and continuously-produced resource to self interested agents with private
preferences. A key application of our mechanism is the charging of pure electric
vehicles, where owners arrive dynamically over time, and each owner requires a
minimum amount of charge by its departure to complete its next trip. To truthfully
elicit the agents’ preferences in this setting, we introduce the new concept of pre-
commitment: Whenever an agent is selected, our mechanism pre-commits to charging
the vehicle by its reported departure time, but maintains flexibility about when the
charging takes place and at what rate. Furthermore, to make effective allocation
decisions we use a model-based approach by modifying Consensus, a well-known
online optimisation algorithm. We show that our pre-commitment mechanism with
modified Consensus incentivizes truthful reporting. Furthermore, through simulations
based on real-world data, we show empirically that the average utility achieved by our
mechanism is 93% or more of the offline optimal.

2.2 A review of energy sources and energy management system in electric

vehicles

The issues of global warming and depletion of fossil fuels have paved
opportunities to electric vehicle (EV). Moreover, the rapid development of power
electronics technologies has even realized high energy-efficient vehicles. EV could be
the alternative to decrease the global green house gases emission as the energy
consumption in the world transportation is high. However, EV faces huge challenges in

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battery cost since one-third of the EV cost lies on battery. This paper reviews state-of-
the-art of the energy sources, storage devices, power converters, low-level control
energy management strategies and high supervisor control algorithms used in EV. The
comparison on advantages and disadvantages of vehicle technology is highlighted. In
addition, the standards and patterns of drive cycles for EV are also outlined. The
advancement of power electronics and power processors has enabled sophisticated
controls (low-level and high supervisory algorithms) to be implemented in EV to
achieve optimum performance as well as the realization of fastcharging stations. The
rapid growth of EV has led to the integration of alternative resources to the utility grid
and hence smart grid control plays an important role in managing the demand. The
awareness of environmental issue and fuel crisis has brought up the sales of EV
worldwide.

2.3 Fuzzy Logic-Based Charging Strategy for Electric Vehicles Plugged into
a Smart Grid

The smart grid allows its consumers to participate in producing cost effective,
sustainable, and environmentally friendly electricity. The consumers in a smart grid,
for example, can plug their Electric Vehicles (EVs) into the grid to charge and
discharge their vehicles’ batteries. However, charging of the electric vehicles,
especially during the peak periods, can adversely impact the grid performance. Thus, in
this paper, the coordinated charging of the electric vehicles problem is tackled. A fuzzy
logicbased approach is developed to coordinate the electric vehicle charging such that
the system minimum voltage is within the allowable limits. The inputs to the Fuzzy
Charging Controller (FCC) include the States of Charge (SOC) of the electric vehicles,
the grid parameters represented in the system minimum voltage, and the hourly energy
price. The output of the FCC is the charging levels of the electric vehicles’ batteries.
The developed fuzzy logic-based charging strategy was validated on the 69-bus test
system. The Fuzzy Charging (FC) was compared with three modes of uncoordinated

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charging, namely Slow Charging (SC), Medium Charging (MC), and Fast Charging
(FC). The results of the comparative study prove the superiority of the developed fuzzy
charging approach over uncoordinated charging schemes.

2.4 Online Coordinated Charging Decision Algorithm for Electric Vehicles

Without Future Information

The large-scale integration of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) to the power grid
spurs the need for efficient charging coordination mechanisms. It can be shown that the
optimal charging schedule smooths out the energy consumption over time so as to
minimize the total energy cost. In practice, however, it is hard to smooth out the energy
consumption perfectly, because the future PEV charging demand is unknown at the
moment when the charging rate of an existing PEV needs to be determined. In this
paper, we propose an online coordinated charging decision (ORCHARD) algorithm,
which minimizes the energy cost without knowing the future information. Through
rigorous proof, we show that ORCHARD is strictly feasible in the sense that it
guarantees to fulfill all charging demands before due time. Meanwhile, it achieves the
best known competitive ratio of 2.39. By exploiting the problem structure, we propose
a novel reduced-complexity algorithm to replace the standard convex optimization
techniques used in ORCHARD. Through extensive simulations, we show that the
average performance gap between ORCHARD and the offline optimal solution, which
utilizes the complete future information, is as small as 6.5%. By setting a proper
speeding factor, the average performance gap can be further reduced to 5%.

2.5 Online Mechanism Design for Scheduling Non-Preemptive Jobs under

Uncertain Supply and Demand

We design new algorithms for the problem of allocating uncertain, exible, and
multi-unit demand online given uncertain supply, in order to maximise social welfare.

8
The algorithms can be seen as extensions of the expectation and consensus algorithms
from the domain of online scheduling. The problem is especially relevant to the future
smart grid, where uncertain output from renewable generators and conventional supply
need to be integrated and matched to exible, non-preemptive demand. To deal with
uncertain supply and demand, the algorithms generate multiple scenarios which can
then be solved o_ine. Furthermore, we use a novel method of reweighting the scenarios
based on their likelihood whenever new information about supply becomes available.
An additional improvement allows the selection of multiple non-preemptive jobs at the
same time. Finally, our main contribution is a novel online mechanism based on these
extensions, where it is in the agents' best interest to truthfully reveal their preferences.
The experimental evaluation of the extended algorithms and different variants of the
mechanism show that both achieve more than 85% of the online optimal economic
efficiency. Importantly, the mechanism yields comparable efficiency, while, in contrast
to the algorithms, it allows for strategic agents.

2.6 Optimal Charging Control for Electric Vehicles in Smart Microgrids

with Renewable Energy Sources

There is growing interest in plug-in electric vehicles (EVs). Charging EVs from
smart microgrids fueled by renewable energy resources is becoming a popular green
approach. Although some works have been done about renewable energy sources and
EVs in smart microgrids, the stochastic characteristics and the dynamic interplay
between these two important green solutions should be carefully considered. In this
paper, we study the charging policies in smart microgrids with EVs and renewable
energy sources. Based on the renewable energy sources states, battery states, and the
number of charging EVs, an optimal charging policy is obtained to maximize the
energy utilization with service availability constraints. We formulate the optimal
charging problem as a stochastic decision process. Simulation results are presented to

9
show that the proposed scheme can improve the service availability for EVs in
microgrids fueled by renewable energy sources.

2.7 Wind Power-Aware Vehicle-to-Grid Algorithms for sustainable EV

Energy Management Systems

Renewable energy carriers such as wind or solar radiation turn out to be serious
alternatives to fossil and nuclear energy production. However, due to its fluctuating
characteristics its application within power grids leads to new challenges for system
operators. That includes the intermediate storage of the energy which necessitates the
installation of new systems or approaches. One of them is the usage of electric vehicle
batteries which can be aggregated to virtual power plants. In this paper we propose an
energy management algorithm which schedules the optimal charging and discharging
times of an electric vehicle battery according to the expected fraction of regenerative
energy within the power grid. At the same time the constraints of other stakeholders
(driver, charging station infrastructure provider) are taken into account, enabling the
algorithm to support the user in his charging decisions upon his daily mobility
requirements. In the course of the paper we provide a detailed description of the
algorithm, simulation results based on this approach and discuss its application in a
field test we have performed, recently.

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 CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED SYSTEM

The charging station, such as a shopping mall, is equipped with on-site solar
panels and energy storage units. It can be assumed that EVs can wirelessly contact the
station in advance to try to reserve a charging spot and reduce risk. In practice, there
may also be other conventional grid-connected or similar islanded stations within the
same area that a rejected car can try. Web services can also provide information about
car charging to consumers and help them to plan their journey. Such services can
process EV charging requests and estimate each station’s capacity, in order to divert
the on-the-move EVs to the best station. Thus, a rejected EV will not become immobile
due to low battery state, as long as another station is available. In this article, we
evaluate one specific charging station’s performance and suppose that the charging
station has M charging points installed and operates in the daytime.

The energy used to charge EVs can be bought from the grid with a price pg.
Alternatively, the energy can be generated from on-site solar panels with a lower
maintenance fee ps and stored for later use. At each considered timeslot, the storage can
be charged from the solar panels or discharged to serve the EVs.

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3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Grid

Solar panel Charging station

Battery
EV 1 EV 2

Voltage Voltage
sensor 1 sensor 2

Power Micro controller

supply

LCD Wireless
Display device

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram

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3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

In this method used Arduino microcontroller for controlling the whole process
of this system. And a Wi-Fi module is used for controlling the Robot wirelessly. In this
power transfer system consists of Arduino microcontroller, LCD-display, power supply
unit, voltage sensor, charging circuit, Mobile and windings. Components are interfaced
with Arduino microcontroller. Arduino microcontrollers are widely used for industrial
purpose due to its high performance ability at low power consumption. It is also very
famous due to moderate cost and easy availability of its supporting software and
hardware tools like compilers, simulators, debuggers.

3.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3.2 Circuit Diagram

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3.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The first part of the proposed system is wireless contact vehicles and charging
circuit. The second part of the proposed power transfer system design was the choosing
of a suitable micro-controller. The requirements for the micro-controller are Arduino.
Arduino is a readymade and open source evaluation Kit based on an 8-bit Atmel
microcontroller. Arduino Microcontroller is the core of hardware interface module,
which is Wi-Fi for exchanging data between controller from one side, and mobile from
the other side. Vcc pin is connected to the 5V and GND pin is connected to ground. In
the above circuit LCD is used to indicate the status of electrical loads. Here LCD is
interfaced to the Arduino microcontroller in 4 bit mode. If components are directly
connected to hardware interface module, an isolating interface is needed to protect
Arduino from interference.

3.5 Power Supply

The power supply is very important section of all electronic devices as all the
electronic devices works only in DC. One important aspect of the project is that the
power supply should be compact. Most electronic devices need a source of DC power.

Figure 3.3 Power supply circuit

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Power supply unit consists of following units:

1. Step down transformer

2. Rectifier unit

3. Input filter

4. Regulator unit

5. Output filter

The circuit is powered by a 12V dc adapter, which is given to LM7805 voltage

regulator by means of a forward voltage protection diode and is decoupled by means of
a 0.1 uf capacitor. The voltage regulator gives an output of exactly 5V dc supply. The
5V dc supply is given to all the components including the Microcontroller, the serial
port, and the IR transmitters and sensors.

The AC supply which when fed to the step down transformer is leveled down to
12 volts AC. This is then fed to full wave rectifier which converts it in to 12 volts DC.
This is then passed to a filter to remove the ripples. Then it is fed to a voltage regulator
that converts 12 V to 5 V stable voltages and currents.

Step-down Transformer

The step down transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from
230AC to lower value. This 230AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus its stepped
down. The transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step
down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its
secondary core. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential. This conversion is
achieved by using the rectifier circuit.

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Rectifier Unit

The Rectifier circuit is used to convert AC voltage into its corresponding DC

voltage. There are Half-Wave and Full-Wave rectifiers available for this specific
function. The most important and simple device used in rectifier circuit is the diode.
The simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct
when reverse biased.

The forward bias is achieved by connecting the diode’s positive with of positive
of battery and negative with battery’s negative. The efficient circuit used is full wave
bridge rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples
from the obtained DC voltage are removed using other circuits available. The circuit
used for removing the ripples is called Filter circuit.

Input Filter

Capacitors are used as filters. The ripples from the DC voltage are removed and
pure DC voltage is obtained. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging
and discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the AC voltage and it will
discharge in its negative half cycle, so it allows only ACC voltage and does not allow
the DC voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from
ripples.

Regulator Unit

Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage
is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the
AC voltage changes, the DC voltage also changes. To avoid this, regulators are used.
Also when the internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the pull
up gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly
classified for low voltage and for high voltage.

16
IC Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units

contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device and
overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of the IC
somewhat is different from that described for discrete voltage regulator circuits, the
external operation is much the same. IC units provide the regulation of a fixed positive
voltage, a fixed negative voltage or an adjustably set voltage. A Power Supply can be
built using a transformer connected to the AC supply line to step the ac voltage to
desired amplitude, then rectifying that ac voltage using IC regulator. The regulators can
be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of
amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milli watts to tens of watts.

The purpose of the regulator is to maintain the output voltage constant

irrespective of the fluctuations in the input voltage. The Micro controller and PC work
at a constant supply voltage of +5V,-5Vand +12V and -12V respectively. The
regulators are mainly classified for positive and negative voltage.

Battery

Batteries there can be chosen to swap them and charge them outside the bus, or
charge the batteries while they are in the vehicle. These two types of batteries lead to
different electric vehicle scheduling problems. This thesis focuses solely on the
problem where batteries are charged while they are inside the vehicle, hence we will
only discuss the properties relevant for this type of batteries. Because the batteries are
always charged whilst they are in the bus, we will say that we charge a bus when we
mean that we charge the batteries inside the vehicle. First the capacity of the battery
can vary. For the commonly used batteries hold the bigger the capacity, the heavier the
batteries. Therefore the capacity of the battery has an influence on the performance of
the vehicle. More batteries means a larger driving range, but also less weight available

17
for passengers. Therefore when selecting a vehicle type the weight of the batteries has
to be taken into account .Furthermore there are limitations on the batteries in terms of
(dis)charging given by the manufacturer of the vehicles or batteries. One of these is
that the they cannot be discharged further than a given minimum. Another is that the
number of times a battery can be fast charged during one day is limited. Moreover
every manufacturer has his own sets of limitation.

Eindhoven

This thesis is intended to help solving the electric vehicle scheduling problem of
Eindhoven. In Eindhoven the first large scale electric city bus project will start in
December 2016. This project consists of multiple phases. Within the first phase the bus
rapid transit (BRT) lines will be driven by homogeneous electric vehicles. In the
second phase all city lines have to be driven electrically and finally in the third phase
all buses in the region of Eindhoven should be electric vehicles. We will focus on
develop inga solution for the first phase, but keep our model flexible so it could be
expanded to be used for the other two phases. In the first phase there are 7 lines in
Eindhoven for which we have to determine a vehicle schedule. these 7 lines are shown
on a map. As can be seen, all lines depart or arrive at the central station of Eindhoven.
The depot where the buses are stationed is close to the central station and next to the
university campus, about 5 minutes driving, and is shown by the single black .All buses
are stationed at the same depot, thus we have a single depot electric vehicle scheduling
problem. For the first phase, the choices of the charging facilities and batteries are
already made. The depot is situated close to one of the end stops of every line and has
enough space to facilitate all vehicles, hence all chargers will be placed at the depot in
the first phase. In later phases the possibilities for other locations will be investigated
more, but for this thesis we will assume all chargers are at the depot. This means that
every time a bus has to be charged, it must drive a deadhead trip to the depot. As
explained above there are multiple ways to connect the different types of chargers to

18
the buses. Forthe fast chargers in Eindhoven a connection with a pantograph on a pole
was chosen. This pole consists of two pantographs, from which one at the time can
give power. 10 of such poles are situated at the depot. This means that 10 vehicles can
be fast charged at the same time. For slow chargers holds that there is a charger
available for every electric vehicle in the fleet, the number of slow chargers is thus the
number of vehicles minus the number of fast chargers. These slow chargers will be
connected to the buses with a normal plug-in system. This charging infrastructure will
change accordingly to the developments in this area and in every phase of the project.
In the first phase all lines can be driven with the same type of vehicle, thus we have a
homogeneous fleet. The size of the vehicle depends on the amount of batteries among
other things, as explained above. In Eindhoven they have chosen for the VDL SLFA-E-
BRT, with a battery of 180 kwh. The known average driving range of this bus is 70
km, while the average trip length is 7 km for the selected seven lines. This means that
on average a vehicle has to be charged every 10 trips. Also the charging limitations
given by VDL of this battery are known. The battery should never have a state of
charge less than10% and cannot be charged more than 90% with a fast charger.
Moreover the battery should only be fast-charged 5 times during the day. This last
restriction only became known later in the project, thus we did not embedded it in our
models.

LM 7805 Voltage Regulator

Features

Output Current up to 1A

Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 24V

Thermal Overload Protection

Short Circuit Protection

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Description

The MC78XX/LM78XX series of three-terminal positive regulators are

available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of application. Each type employs internal current
limiting, thermal shut-down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output
current.

Output Filter

The filter circuit is often fixed after the regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used
as filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the
positive half cycle of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. So
it allows AC voltage and not DC voltage. This filter is fixed after the regulator circuit
to filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally.

3.6 MICRO CONTROLLER

The Arduino UNO is an open-source microcontroller board based on the

Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is
equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced
to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board has 14 Digital pins,
6 Analog pins, and programmable with the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development
Environment) via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by a USB cable or by an
external 9 volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is also
similar to the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is
distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is
available on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the
hardware are also available. "Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the
release of Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino
20
Software (IDE) were the reference versions of Arduino, now evolved to newer
releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the
reference model for the Arduino platform. The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes
preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows uploading new code to it without the use
of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500
protocol. The Uno also differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the
FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it uses the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to
version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

Figure.3.4 Arduino Uno

3.7 LCD Display

The liquid-crystal display has the distinct advantage of having a low power
consumption than the LED. It is typically of the order of microwatts for the display in
comparison to the some order of mill watts for LEDs. Low power consumption

21
requirement has made it compatible with MOS integrated logic circuit. Its other
advantages are its low cost, and good contrast. The main drawbacks of LCDs are
additional requirement of light source, a limited temperature range of operation
(between 0 and 60° C), low reliability, short oper-ating life, poor visibility in low
ambient lighting, slow speed and the need for an ac drive.

Figure.3.5 LCD Display

A liquid crystal cell consists of a thin layer (about 10 u m) of a liquid crystal

sand-wiched between two glass sheets with transparent elec-trodes deposited on their
inside faces. With both glass sheets transparent, the cell is known as transmittive type
cell. When one glass is transparent and the other has a reflective coating, the cell is
called reflective type. The LCD does not produce any illumination of its own. It, in
fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source for its visual
effect.

3.8 Voltage Sensor

A voltage sensor is going to be able to determine and even monitor and

measure the voltage supply. It is then able to take those measurements and turn
them into a signal that one will then be able to read. The signal will often go into a

22
 specialized electronic device for recording, but sometimes, an observer will be
present to manually read the sensor output.

Figure.3.6 Voltage sensor

Features

Electrical voltage sensors vary in terms of performance specifications, optional

features, and environmental operating conditions. Performance specifications include:

Maximum AC voltage frequency , Response time, Accuracy

Application

There are a variety of applications for electrical voltage sensors. For example,
devices that measure AC voltage levels are used in applications such as power demand
control, power failure detection, load sensing, safety switching, and motor overload
control. Electrical voltage sensors that measure DC voltages are used in energy
management control systems (EMCS), building control systems (BCS), fault detection,
data acquisition, and temperature control. They are also used in power measurement,
analysis, and control. Specialized devices are used in high-voltage applications.
Current technologies include electrical voltage sensors that use fiber optics and optical
components.

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3.9 SOLAR Panel

Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate

electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically
6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of
a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications.

Figure.3.7 PV Panel

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions
(STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module
determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W
module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few
commercially available solar modules that exceed efficiency of 24%

A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most
installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an
array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storage, interconnection
wiring, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.

24
 CHAPTER 4

SOFTWARE REQUREMENT

4.1 ARDUINO

Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use hardware

and software. It consists of a circuit board, which can be programmed (referred to as a
microcontroller) and ready-made software called Arduino IDE (Integrated
Development Environment), which is used to write and upload the computer code to
the physical board. Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions
of the micro-controller into a more accessible package.

The key features are –

 Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from different
sensors and turn it into an output such as activating a motor, turning LED
on/off, connect to the cloud and many other actions.
 You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board via Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading
software).
 Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need
an extra piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a new
code onto the board. You can simply use a USB cable.
 Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it
easier to learn to program.
 Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions of
the micro-controller into a more accessible package.

25
4.2 ARDUINO – INSTALLATION

Step 1 − First you must have your Arduino board (you can choose your favorite
board) and a USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano,
Arduino Mega 2560, or Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable (A plug to B
plug), the kind you would connect to a USB printer as shown in the following image.

In case you use Arduino Nano, you will need an A to Mini-B cable instead as
shown in the following image.

Step 2 − Download Arduino IDE Software.

We can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Download page on the
Arduino Official website. You must select your software, which is compatible with

26
your operating system (Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your file download is
complete, unzip the file.

Step 3 − Power up your board.

The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw
power from either, the USB connection to the computer or an external power supply. If
you are using an Arduino Diecimila, you have to make sure that the board is
configured to draw power from the USB connection. The power source is selected with
a jumper, a small piece of plastic that fits onto two of the three pins between the USB
and power jacks. Check that it is on the two pins closest to the USB port.

Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB cable. The green
power LED (labeled PWR) should glow.

Step 4 − Launch Arduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip the folder.
Inside the folder, you can find the application icon with an infinity label
(application.exe). Double-click the icon to start the IDE.

27
Step 5 − Open your first project.

Once the software starts, you have two options –

 Create a new project.

 Open an existing project example.

To create a new project, select File → New.

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To open an existing project example, select File → Example → Basics →
Blink.

29
Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the name Blink. It turns the LED
on and off with some time delay. You can select any other example from the list.

Step 6 − Select your Arduino board.

To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board, you must select
the correct Arduino board name, which matches with the board connected to your
computer.

Go to Tools → Board and select your board.

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 Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board according to our tutorial, but you
must select the name matching the board that you are using.

Step 7 − Select your serial port.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools → Serial Port menu.
This is likely to be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for
hardware serial ports). To find out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-open
the menu, the entry that disappears should be of the Arduino board. Reconnect the
board and select that serial port.

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Step 8 − Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must
demonstrate the function of each symbol appearing in the Arduino IDE toolbar.

A − Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B − Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.

C − Shortcut used to create a new sketch.

D − Used to directly open one of the example sketch.

E − Used to save your sketch.

F − Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and send the
serial data to the board.

Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds;
you will see the RX and TX LEDs on the board, flashing. If the upload is successful,
the message "Done uploading" will appear in the status bar.

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4.3 ARDUINO - PROGRAM STRUCTURE

The Arduino program structure and we will learn more new terminologies used
in the Arduino world. The Arduino software is open-source. The source code for the
Java environment is released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries
are under the LGPL. Sketch − The first new terminology is the Arduino program called
“sketch”.

Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: Structure, Values

(variables and constants), and Functions. In this tutorial, we will learn about the
Arduino software program, step by step, and how we can write the program without
any syntax or compilation error.

Let us start with the Structure. Software structure consist of two main functions
–

 Setup( ) function
 Loop( ) function

Figure.4.1 Arduino - Program Structure

33
Void setup ( ) {

 PURPOSE − The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to

initialize the variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The setup
function will only run once, after each power up or reset of the Arduino
board.
 INPUT − -
 OUTPUT − -
 RETURN − -

Void Loop ( ) {

 PURPOSE − After creating a setup() function, which initializes and sets

the initial values, the loop() function does precisely what its name
suggests, and loops consecutively, allowing your program to change and
respond. Use it to actively control the Arduino board.
 INPUT − -
 OUTPUT − -
 RETURN − -

A data type in C refers to an extensive system used for declaring variables or

functions of different types. The type of a variable determines how much space it
occupies in the storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

34
 The following table provides all the data types that you will use during Arduino
programming.

void Boolean Char Unsigned byte int Unsigned int word

char

long Unsigned Short Float double array String-char String-

long array object

4.4 ARDUINO - I/O FUNCTIONS

The pins on the Arduino board can be configured as either inputs or outputs. We
will explain the functioning of the pins in those modes. It is important to note that a
majority of Arduino analog pins, may be configured, and used, in exactly the same
manner as digital pins.

Pins Configured as INPUT

Arduino pins are by default configured as inputs, so they do not need to be

explicitly declared as inputs with pinMode() when you are using them as inputs. Pins
configured this way are said to be in a high-impedance state. Input pins make
extremely small demands on the circuit that they are sampling, equivalent to a series
resistor of 100 megaohm in front of the pin.

This means that it takes very little current to switch the input pin from one state
to another. This makes the pins useful for such tasks as implementing a capacitive
touch sensor or reading an LED as a photodiode.

Pins configured as pinMode(pin, INPUT) with nothing connected to them, or

with wires connected to them that are not connected to other circuits, report seemingly
35
random changes in pin state, picking up electrical noise from the environment, or
capacitively coupling the state of a nearby pin.

Pins Configured as OUTPUT

Pins configured as OUTPUT with pinMode() are said to be in a low-impedance

state. This means that they can provide a substantial amount of current to other circuits.
Atmega pins can source (provide positive current) or sink (provide negative current) up
to 40 mA (milliamps) of current to other devices/circuits. This is enough current to
brightly light up an LED (do not forget the series resistor), or run many sensors but not
enough current to run relays, solenoids, or motors.

Attempting to run high current devices from the output pins, can damage or
destroy the output transistors in the pin, or damage the entire Atmega chip. Often, this
results in a "dead" pin in the microcontroller but the remaining chips still function
adequately. For this reason, it is a good idea to connect the OUTPUT pins to other
devices through 470Ω or 1k resistors, unless maximum current drawn from the pins is
required for a particular application.

4.5 PROTEUS DESIGN SUITE

The Proteus Design Suite is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for
electronic design automation. The software is used mainly by electronic design
engineers and technicians to create schematics and electronic prints for manufacturing
printed circuit boards.

Schematic Capture

Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the simulation of
designs and as the design phase of a PCB layout project. It is therefore a core
component and is included with all product configurations.

36
Microcontroller Simulation

The micro-controller simulation in Proteus works by applying either a hex file

or a debug file to the microcontroller part on the schematic. It is then co-simulated
along with any analog and digital electronics connected to it. This enables its use in a
broad spectrum of project prototyping in areas such as motor control, temperature
control and user interface design. It also finds use in the general hobbyist community
and, since no hardware is required, is convenient to use as a training or teaching tool.
Support is available for co-simulation of:

 Microchip Technologies PIC10, PIC12, PIC16,PIC18,PIC24,dsPIC33

Microcontrollers.
 Atmel AVR (and Arduino), 8051 and ARM Cortex-M3 Microcontrollers
 NXP 8051, ARM7, ARM Cortex-M0 and ARM Cortex-M3
Microcontrollers.
 Texas Instruments MSP430, PICCOLO DSP and ARM Cortex-M3
Microcontrollers.
 Parallax Basic Stamp, Freescale HC11, 8086 Microcontrollers.

Getting Started With Proteus

Click on Proteus ISIS and it will be appear as shown in image below. Right
click the image and open in new tab to get a better look of the image. In the central
area, we design our circuit i.e. place the components and then join them.

In the below image, I have divided the Proteus in several sections. Section 1 is a
toolbar which you have seen on many software, it has simple functionality like first
icon on the toolbar is to create a new layout, second is to open an existing layout, next
one is to save your layout, then there comes few zooming options and also some tools
which we will further discuss in next tutorials and at the end of section 1, you can see
ARES icon and we will also see its use when we will design the PCB layout.

37
 Let’s come to section 2, it has two buttons on it, one is P and other is E. P
changes with the selection change of section 3 mostly it is used for opening the part list
i.e component list and E is used for editing purposes, like you want to edit the
properties of any component then simply click on that component and then click on E
and it will open the properties of that component and you can easily edit it.

Section 3 is most commonly used section of proteus. It has a lot of functions on

it. We will check them today one by one in complete detail.

Now finally the section 4, this section shows different buttons like play, stop
etc. When you design some circuit in Proteus, then you want to run it in order to check
whether its working or not. So in order to run the circuit, you have to click on this play
button. So when you click on play button the circuit starts to run, now click on Pause
button and it will pause and Stop to stop the circuit running.

Figure.4.2 Proteus design layout

In section 3, one by one. In the below image you can see the icon on which we
have written Click # 1.When you click on this icon, your Proteus goes in the
38
component state. We select components by clicking this icon. Suppose I want to use
PIC16F877A in my circuit so what will we do, we will click on this Component Mode
Icon and then Click on the P button and a new window will open up as shown in the
below figure.

In this new window there’s a textbox on which Keyword is written, this text box
is used for the component search. Proteus database has unlimited components in it so
now in order to get your desired component, you have to search for it as we did.

we search PIC16F877A and proteus automatically show me that component as

you can see below and not only the component name but also its preview in the top
right corner and then the PCB preview as well. Unfortunately my Proteus doesn’t have
the PCB preview of PIC16F877A that’s why it is showing blank.

So after you are sure that you have selected the right component, either double
click on it or click on the OK button as shown in figure below.

If we just want to search one component then we will click OK but its not
mostly the case as in circuit design, as we will see in our next classes, we have to add a
lot of components so what we do is we simply search our component in text box and
double click on it and then search the next component and so on.

39
 Figure.4.3 Preview of selected component

Now move to next icon as shown in figure below. This is also another most
commonly used icon in Proteus. As you can see when you click on it the white are
shows few options. In circuit designing, there are lot of components which are getting
with ground or power up, so if we are gonna add wires for each of them then it got
quite messy.

Proteus provides a very easy way of doing it. Ground and Power, as shown
below, are treated as component so wherever we need GND we simply pick the
Ground from here and place it there and same for the Power. Default value of this
Power is +5V.

40
 Figure.4.4 Proteus pickup power and ground

The icon shown in the below figure also used quite often. It has many
components which are very useful and this section is used for visualization. Like
there’s an oscilloscope, we use it for viewing the behavior of different signals
generated. Its as same as an oscialloscope you found in your lab.

Another important component of this mode is the Virtual Terminal, it is shown

on the fourth number. This Virtual Terminal is used for checking data coming through
Serial Port. Its just like the hyper terminal we have in our windows.

Then there’s Signal Generator, it is used to generate signal like sine wave of
desired frequency.

41
 Figure.4.5 Proteus virtual

Now, let check few of them quickly, the icon which I have shown by A is the
Graph mode. Like in some circuit you want to analyze the graphs of voltage and
current then you can do this using the graph mode, it has different style of graphs. We
will also add a tutorial in which we will see how to make graphs.

B and C in the below figure are the voltage and current probes respectively.
Suppose you have designed some circuit in Proteus and now you want to check the
value of voltage at any point in the circuit. In order to do so, simply select this voltage

42
probe and place it there and when you run your circuit, the probe will show the value
of voltage above it and same for current probe.

D has lots of functionality; it is used when we want to design our own

component in Proteus.

E in the below figure is simply text section, like you want to add some text
indication you use this one.

Figure.4.6 Proteus pickup current and voltage probe

43
 CHAPTER 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figure 5.1 Simulation output of Charging Scheduling system

The above figure shows the simulation output of charging scheduling system
The energy used to charge EVs can be bought from the grid with a price pg.
Alternatively, the energy can be generated from on-site solar panels with a lower
maintenance fee ps and stored for later use.

44
 CONCLUSION

Thus the novel charging scheduling scheme for a CEV based PTS, based on the
characteristic of CEV. The battery size of CEVs is reduced, and the charging time in
the bus terminus can be reduced to zero. According to the day-ahead electricity market,
we propose a two-stage optimal charging scheme, to find the optimal reserved
wholesale electricity of each group day-ahead and the charging scheduling schemes of
CEVs in each slot. Through the extensive simulations, we find that compared with the
simple greedy charging scheme, under the proposed optimal charging scheduling
scheme, the CEVs system’s operating electricity costs are reduced. In future, we will
analyze influences for the charging scheduling scheme caused by the imperfect
communication networks.

45
 FUTURE SCOPE

In future, Qualcomm Halo technology can use for transferring energy. The
Qualcomm uses resonant magnetic induction to transfer energy wirelessly, from a
ground-based pad to another pad integrated in the vehicle. Magnetic resonance has a
longer power transmission range than electromagnetic induction, realized by equalizing
the resonant frequency of the transmitting pad and the receiving pad.

46
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