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THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE

1. GTEs classified on the basis of – (i)Compressor, (ii)Power producing way & (iii) Air path.
(i) Compressor types- (a)Centrifugal flow, (b)Axial flow & (c)Axial-centrifugal flow; In a centrifugal
engine air flows⊥ to the longitudinal axis of the machine, in the axial type, air is ‖ to the
longitudinal axis. The axial-centrifugal design uses both kinds.
(ii) Pwr usage- (a)Turbojet, (b)Turbofan, (c)Turboprop & (d)Turboshaft; Turbojet engine directly
uses reactn with the stream of high-energy gas emerging from the rear of the engine at a higher
than at the fwd end. The turbofan engine also uses the reactn principle, but the exiting gases hv a
lower energy level, cz some pwr had to be extracted to drive the fan. Turboprop & turboshaft
convert the majority of the KE (energy of motion), static (P energy), & T energies of the gas into
torque to drive propeller & shaft. Very li’l thrust from reaction is produced by exiting gas stream.
2. Centrifugal Compressor Engines – 3 compressor variatn; single stage, 2-stage & single-stage double-entry.
It is for small engines where a high compression ratio is not essential. Advantages; (i) low wt. (ii) ruggedness/
R to FOD (iii) simplicity (iv) low cost (v) high compressor ratio per stage (vi) high tolerance.
3. Axial Compressor Engines – Hv 1/2/3 spools. A spool is a grp of compressor stages, a shaft., & 1 or more
turbine stages, mech. linked and rotating at the same speed. For large GTEs. Handle large volumes of airflow
at P ratios in excess of 20:1. More susceptible to FOD, expensive to mfd, heavy in comparison to a centrifug
compressor with the same compression ratio, & more sensitive to "offdesign" op.
4. Axial-Centrifugal Compressor Engines - Greatest variability & design innovatn.
5. Mixed-Flow Compressor Engines - similar in appearance to the single-entry centrifugal compressor, the
compressor receives its air axially but discharges this air at some angle.
ALL B/W TURBOJET, TURBOFAN, TURBOPROP & PROPFAN
6. .
7. Turbojet Turboprop
Accelerates a small mass of air, all thru the engine. Conversion of majority of gas-steam energy into
Turbine extracts pwr from hot gas stream to drive mech. power to drive the compressor, accessories,
compressor & accessories & the propeller load. 10% jet thrust for propeller.
1.Low thrust at low fwd v. 1.High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, so
2.Relatively high, TSFC at low H & airspeeds, a shorter takeoff rolls but falls off as airspeed
disadvantage, decreases as H & airspeed increase. increases. High thrust at low airspeed.
3.Long takeoff roll 2.Complicated design & heavier wt. than a turbojet.
4.Small frontal area, i.e. low drag & reduced 3.Lowest TSFC.
ground-clearance problems 4.Large frontal area, thus req. longer landing gears
5.Lightest sp. wt (weight/pound of thrust produced) for low-wing a/p but not necessarily increase drag.
6.Ability to take advantage of high ram-P ratios. 5. Possibility of efficient reverse thrust.
Best for high-v, high-H & long-distance flights. For lifting heavy loads off short & medium runway.
V lim. 500mph (805km/h) later shock waves forms.
Turbofan Propfan
Duct-enclosed fan mounted at the front or rear of To reduce sp. fuel consumptn. Increased fuel costs.
the engine & driven either mech. geared down or 1.At least 80 % efficient at Mach 0.8, at an H of
at the same v as the compressor, or by an indepen- 35,000 ft. 20-25 % fuel savings over turbofan.
dent turbine located to the rear of the compressor. 2.Hv bypass ratio of 80:1 (turbofan had 5:1 / 6:1).
Fan air can exit separate from the primary engine 3. More noise.
air (short duct); or can be ducted back to mix with
the primary engine's air at the rear (long duct).
1.High thrust at low airspeed thus short takeoff roll.
In high airspeed thrust efficiency does not decrease.
2.Wt. b/w turbojet & turboprop.
Ground clearance less than prop but not good as jet.
3.TSFC & sp. wt. b/w prop & jet
4.Noise reductn 10-20% over turbojet.
Superior to turbojet in hot day.
5. 2 thrust reversers req. if separate nozzles.
For long range, high v.
COMPRESSORS: AXIAL & CENTRIFUGAL
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8. Centrifugal-flow compressors - Consists of an impeller & a diffuser manifold. A compressor manifold may
be added to direct the compressed air into the combustn chamber. inducer. Centrifugal air and causes it to
move outward from the axis toward the rim ejected at high v and high KE. P rise by expansion of air in the
diffuser manifold. The total compression is shared b/w the rotor & the diffuser. Single-stage, multiple-stage,
and double-sided design types. Simplicity, ruggedness, & low cost. Less susceptible FODs. High compressor
ratio per stage. About 80% efficiency, compression ratio of 6 or 7 to 1 later, drops due to shock wave formatn.
Shock wave can be delayed & smoothed by sweeping the impeller vanes rearward. Double-entry compressor
solve the high-tip-speed problem. Plenum chamber acts as a diffuser by which the rear impeller receive air.
9. Axial-flow compressor - Series alternating rotor and stator vane stages, of rotating airfoils called rotor blades
& a stationary set of airfoils, stator vanes. A row of rotating and stationary blades is called a stage. In a
direction ‖ to the axis. Hv 2 or more compressors or spools driven by separate turbines, & the compressors
r free to rotate at diff. v. Very high compression ratios. Small frontal area. In high-speed a/c. Susceptible to
FOD. Blades & stator vanes close fit. Very complex & very expensive to mfd.
THERMODYNAMICS
10. Boyle's law - if T of a given qty of gas is kept constant, absolute P is inversely proportional to volume. i.e.
PV = C (constant).
11. Charles' law - if P on a given qty of gas is held constant, volume is directly proportional to the absolute T.
STARTING A GAS TURBINE ENGINE
12. Starting sequence - 1. Power lever- IDLE > 2. Fuel shutoff
lever-Closed > 3. Engine master switch-on > 4. Fuel system
shutoff switch-open > 5. Fuel boost pump switch-on > 6. Fuel
inlet P indicator-5 psi [34.5 kPa] minm > 7. Engine starter
switch-on, oil P rise > 8. Ignition switch-on after the compressor
begins to rotate. & when the N2 tachometer show10 % rpm > 9.
Fuel shutoff lever-open. Rise in EGT. Engine lights up within
20 s or less. No longer than 2 min to accelerate to IDLE rpm. If
torching, higher-than-usual EGT, too long acceleratn time, or otr
abnormalities, discontinue the starting attempt & investigate >
10. Monitor the engine instru-till engine reaches IDLE > 11. Engine starter switch-off (if no auto-cut) > 12.
Ignitn switch-off *Caution: If fuel shuts off by closing the fuel-shutoff valve, do not reopen the fuel valve
again in an attempt to regain the "light". Whenever the engine fails to light, shut off the fuel & ignitn &
continue compressor with the starter for 10-15 s to clear trapped fuel/vapor. If not then allow a 30 s fuel-
draining period before attempting another start. The starter may be reengaged after the compressor has
decelerated to 40 % rpm or less.
13. Unsatisfactory starts -
(i) Hot start: EGT above mfd’s lim. due to rich fuel/air ratio. It can be anticipated thru observing a greater
than normal fuel flow or faster than normal EGT rise. Abort the start, 5 min cool down period. It can
happen cz of false or hung start, also, premature engine removal.
(ii) False or hung start: After light off, rpm not reached idle but the EGT continue to rise or may stabilize.
This happens due to insufficient pwr to starter or dropping out too soon.
(iii) No start: Engine do not light up in time lim., no increase in rpm or EGT. Insufficient pwr, no fuel,
ignitn system problem or fuel control malfunctioning causes it.
14. Trimming - Operational engines occasionally adjusted to compensate, within limits, for thrust deterioration
caused by compressor blade deposits of dirt or scale or other gas path deterioration. This process is called
trimming. The trimming involves a fuel-control adjustment to bring the engine to a specific T, fuel flow,
thrust, and EPR. Trimming on some of the newer engines is automatically accomplished thru the digital
engine electronic control (DEEC), of which the fuel control (FADEC) is a part. Field cleaning is
accomplished by introducing a lignocellulose material into the air inlet duct while the engine is op. The
cleaning material, known as Carboblast-Jet Engine type. Cleaning is also accomplished by using a washing
solutn consisting of plain water or an emulsion of demineralized water, kerosene, and other cleaning liquids
such as Turco 4217.
P&W EEC/FADEC
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15. The FADEC is the primary interface b/w the engine & the aircraft. Located on the fan case, FADEC contains
2 channels, "A" & "B" channel linked together by an internal mating connector for crosstalk data
transmission & send signal to the FMU to establish a fuel flow to the nozzles. FADEC affects engine by –
i. Efficiency (𝜼) of engine is ii. Basic engine-control fn r iii. Operational reliability of the
improved by controlling: enhanced, such as: engine is improved by using
a. Anti-surge bleed valves, a. Starting a. A 2-channel control
b. Variable-stator vanes, b. Idle b. An automatic fault-detectn
c. Cooling airflows, c. Acceleration circuitry & fault logic system
d. Engine oil cooling, d. Deceleration c. An automatic fault-compensatn
e. Integrated drive generator (IDG) e. Stability system
oil cooling (override only), f. Thrust control d. Redundant inputs and outputs
f. Nacelle cooling,
g. Fuel heating.
iv. The engine is protected by v. Engine m. is made easier by vi. Interface b/w the flight deck
limiting the incorporation of systems for & the engine is improved thru
a. Critical speeds and pressures a. Engine monitoring a. Automatic EPR control
b. Thrust b. Self-testing b. Limit protection
c. Overboost c. Fault isolation c.Automatic agreement b/w the
throttl-lever positn & engine thrust
16. FADEC uses several referred i/p & delivers several o/p. Eg. of i/p from –
(i) Power levers: 2 analog signals from each power lever resolver (an electromech. device to measure
angular movement).
(ii) Air-data computer (ADC): (i)Total P, (ii) P altitude, (iii) Total ait T.
(iii) Flight control computer for adjusting EPR for all 3 engines as a part of engine thrust trim system (ETTS).
2 modes of ETTS; a. Master mode (high & low EPR adjusted to middle EPR), b. Target mode (target
EPR from FMS is used to set all 3 engines).
(iv) 7 electrical signals: a. Pt2/Tt2 probe heat, b. Fire, c. Alternate mode select, d. External reset (fuel-control
switch), e. Bump rate selector, f. Maintenance (data retrieval), g. Engine location identification.
(v) 2 source of 28V DC pwr (DC bus & ground test pwr)
17. O/p of FADEC are EPR, low speed spool N1, backup N1 from channel B, EGT, High speed spool N2. FCC
acts as a backup for ADC.

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Alhamdulillah

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