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Note: - This document is a concise version of EASA book of M-14: Propulsion in the briefest &
simplest possible way (best to author’s knowledge). Abbreviations are used in this pdf, some
of them are mentioned. Regarding any query/suggestion, feel free to ask.
; a/c = aircraft, R= Resistance or Resistant, cat. = category, m. = maintenance, b/w =
between, T =Temperature, Mfd = Manufacturer, O/p = operation/operate, st. = straight,
bcz – because, hv – have, r – are, ckt – circuit, , xxxxtn = xxxxtion, Etc.

Chapter 1: Turbine Engine

1. Potential Energy (PE) – Energy at rest or stored. 3 Grps (i) Due to position, (ii) Elastic Body (iii)
Chemical Actn. Unit – foot pounds (ft-lbs) or inch pounds (in-lbs).
2. Gasoline has potential to release heat based on its BTU, 1-pound AvGas –18900BTU. 1BTU-778ft-lbs.
3. KE – Energy in motion, same unit ft-lbs or in-lbs. Value of g in fps – 32.2.
4. Bernoulli’s Principle – The static P of a fluid decreases at a pt. where the V of the fluid increases,
provided no energy is added to nor taken away. Total P = Static P + Dynamic P.
5. Boyles – T const., Charles – P const. [T-B & P-C].
6. Torque is something that creates twisting & tries to make rotate. Force acting along the distance.
7. Thrust ≡ Propulsive force. All heat engines convert heat energy into mechanical. During the cycle, the
released heat energy hv P more than Atm P. & Propulsive force is obtained by displacement (not
pushing) of working fluid (atm. air) i.e. 3rd law.
8. Reciprocating & Turboprop engines accelerate a large mass of air at lower v. Note – working fluid here
is a different qty of air used within engine to produce mech. energy to turn propellers.
9. Turbojet, Ramjets, Pulsejets accelerate small qty of air at large v. Here the working fluid is all used for
propulsive force. Turbojet is a type of GTE which passes all the gases through its core. These 3 hv v.li’l
use due to it’s noise (due to high v of air) & fuel consumption. Most turbine engines, GTE used r
Turboprop, Tubofan, Turboshaft & Turbojet (former term for any turbine engine).
10. General req. for a/c engines – efficiency, economy, reliability, low wt. to horsepower ratio, high P,
durability, compact, vibratn free as possible, wide range of P o/p. Oil is for (i) Lubricate & (ii) Cool.
11. A reciprocating engine is rated in BHP (Brake horsepower) & GTE in THP (Thrust horsepower).
12. Horsepower varies with speed thus o/p of turbine engine is not rated/compared on the basis of HP.
13. While takeoff – full power o/p & held at max power for≤ 2 mins & later at cruise power.
14. Sp. fuel consumptn (fuel economy) for GTE is fuel flow (lbs/hr) divided by thrust (lbs), thus thrust sp.
fuel consumptn & Equivalent sp. fuel consumptn for turboprop engine is fuel flow (lbs/hr) divided by
turboprop’s equivalent shaft HP. At low speed reciprocating & turboprop hv better economy & their
efficiency becomes limited above 400mph where turbofan’s efficiency is more.
15. Reliability is performance in specified range, close control. Durability is the amount of engine life.
TBO (time b/w overhauls) varies with operating conditn & is specified by engine manufacturers.
16. Op. flexibility is ability of engine to run smoothly & give desired performance from idling to full p o/p.
17. Sections of GTE – A. Inlet, B. Compressor & diffuser, C. Turbine & exhaust guide vent, D. Exhaust,
E. Accessory & F. Other starting, lubricating, fuel, auxiliary systems. A&B Cold, C&D Hot section.
18. Turbofan – Set of fans in front for 80% thrust from engine, quieter, better fuel consumption, more than
1 shaft mostly 2, 2 shaft i.e. 2 spools (High & Low P, each having a compressor, a shaft & turbine
driven by compressor), L.P spool contains the fan(s) and the driving turbine stages, H.P spool is the
H.P compressor, shaft & turbines, it is the core of the engine, and combustion section is located within
it, it is also referred to as the gas generator it can be high or low bypass (the amt of air that is bypassed
around the core of the engine), transport cat. a/c – high bypass & military a/c - low bypass (> .8 mach).
Most widely used engine for transport cat. a/c & is a compromise b/w good op. efficiency and high
thrust capability of a turboprop and the high v, high H capability of a turbojet.
19. Turboprop – Turns propeller thru speed reductn gearbox, most efficient in 300-400mph, shorter
runways, 80to85% energy consumed to drive propeller & rest as thrust.
20. Turboshaft – transfer hp to a shaft to op. other than propeller, for h/c & APUs (elect. pwr & bleed air).
21. Low bypass turbofans use augmenters or afterburners to increase thrust by adding more fuel nozzles &
a flame holder in the exhaust which largely increases in thrust for short amounts of time.

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22. In principle Turbofan is same as the Turboprop, only propeller replaced by duct enclosed axial flow
fan. Principle is to convert more of the fuel energy into pressure; turbofan does it w/o increasing fuel
flow. Additional stages added in the turbine section for power to drive the fan.
23. 2 Nozzle designs, (i) Mixed-exhaust nozzle hv common nozzle & larger in area. (ii)Separate fan nozzle
hv fan air not mixed with core air before entering atmosphere.
24. Fuel system (Fn is to pressurize fuel, meter fuel flow, & deliver atomized fuel to combustion section)-
a. In turbine-powered aircraft, pwr control is provided by varying the fuel flow to the combustion
chambers. In some turboprop aircraft with variable pitch propellers selection of thrust is shared by
two controllable variables, fuel flow and propeller blade angle.
b. If the Qty of fuel becomes excessive wrt airflow, lim. temperature of the turbine blades can be
exceeded, hence compressor stall known as rich blowout occurs when the amount of O2 in the air
supply is insufficient to support combustion and mixture is cooled below the combustion
temperature by the excess fuel.
c. Lean flame out occurs if the fuel quantity is reduced proportionally below the air quantity.
d. The fuel nozzles form part of the fuel system and atomize or vaporize the fuel so that it ignites and
bums efficiently.
e. During rapid acceleration when engine is accelerated, energy must be furnished to the turbine in
excess of that necessary to maintain a constant rpm. Still beware of Rich blowout.
f. 3 types of Fuel Control Units in GTEs; (i) Hydromechanical (ii) Hydromechanical/Electronic (iii)
Full Authority Digital Engine (or Electronics) Control (FADEC)
i. (ii) is hybrid but can fn. Solely as (i) also.
ii. Whereas, in dual mode, i/p & o/p are electronic, and fuel flow is set by servo motors.
iii. (iii) uses electronic sensors for its i/p & controls fuel flow with electronic o/p.
Complete control to electronic controller (computer). Computing section depends
completely on sensory i/p to EEC. The fuel metering device meters the fuel using only
o/p from the EEC. It is very accurate by sensing many parameters.
iv. Fn of FCUs is to schedule the fuel flow to match pwr req. by pilot.
v. (i) Hydromechanical–2 sectns,computing and metering. No electronic interface. Driven
by the gas generator gear train of the engine to sense engine speed. Metering section
delivers the fuel through cams and servo valves to the engine.
vi. (ii) Hydromechanical/Electronic-additn of electronic to basic hydromechanical. Uses a
remotely located EEC to adjust the fuel flow. Its assembly contains a fuel shutoff
section & a fuel metering section. FCU (provides mechanical overspeed protectn to h.p.
spool) & is mounted on vane fuel pump assembly provides power lever connection &
fuel shutoff function. Automatic mode – EEC in control. EEC (called EFCU here)
performs fn of thrust setting, speed governing and acceleration, and deceleration
limiting through EFCU outputs to the fuel control assembly in response to power lever
inputs. Unit Fn at reduced power under manual mode.
• Vane fuel pump assembly-fixed displacement fuel pump, provides h.p. fuel.
• Filter bypass valve-Allows fuel to bypass the filter when the 𝛥P is excessive.
After flag indicatn, bypassing is done by extending pin from fuel filter bowl.
Discharge flow in excess is returned to the pump interstage.
• After 200-micron inlet filter screen fuel is metered by servo operated metering
valve. Wf/P3 ratio device positions the metering valve in response to engine
compressor discharge pressure (P3). Servo-operated bypass valve maintains
𝛥P Fuel by the commands of EFCU.
• Manual mode solenoid valve is energized & disengaged in automatic mode
restricts op. of the mech. speed governor only for single overspeed governor
setting above the speed range controlled electronically. De-energizing the
manual mode valve enables the mechanical speed governor to fn as an all
speed governor in response to PLA.
• A low power sensitive torque motor may be activated to increase or decrease
fuel flow in the automatic (EFCU mode). It provides interface to an electronic
control unit that senses various engine and ambient parameters and activates
the torque motor to meter fuel flow accordingly. This motor provides
electromechanical conversion of an electrical signal from the EFCU. The
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torque motor current is zero in the manual mode, which establishes a fixed
Wf/P3 ratio & engine op. surge free & capable of producing a min 90 % thrust
up to 30 000 feet.
• Speed governing of the H.P spool (gas generator) is achieved by the flyweight
governor modulates a pneumatic servo consistent with the speed set point as
determined by the power lever angle (PLA) setting.
• Downstream of the metering valve r manual shutoff & pressurizing valves.
Shutoff valve is a rotary unit connected to power lever allows the pilot to direct
fuel to the engine manually. Pressurizing valve acts as a discharge restrictor,
functions to maintain min op P. also provides a +ve leak tight fuel shutoff to
the engine fuel nozzles when the manual valve is closed.
• The flow divider and drain valve assembly proportions fuel to the primary &
secondary fuel nozzles. Drains the nozzles & manifolds at engine shutdown.
Incorporates integral solenoid for modifying fuel flow in cold starting conditn.
During engine start, it directs all flow thru primary nozzles as demand
increases, divider valve opens to allow the secondary nozzles to function.
During steady state both primary and secondary nozzles are flowing fuel.
• Last chance of fuel filtration prior to the fuel nozzles happens by a 74-𝑢, self-
bypassing screen is located under the fuel inlet fitting. Fuel manifold assembly
consist of primary & secondary manifolds & the fuel nozzle assembly, it
provides fuel routing and atomizing to ensure proper combustion. 12 fuel
nozzles direct the fuel thru the nozzles causing it to swirl and form a finely
atomized spray.
• PLA potentiometer is mounted in throttle quadrant & transmits electrical
signal to EFCU representing thrust demand wrt throttle positin, if power
change is req, it commands the torque motor to modulate differential p at the
head sensor causing the metering valve to move, varying fuel flow as requited.
• EFCU is remotely located & airframe mounted. An interface between the
EFCU & aircraft/engine is provided thru branched wiring harness assembly.
vii. (iii) Full Authority Digital Engine (or Electronics) Control (FADEC)- no hydromech.
fuel control backup system. Elex sensors feed engine parameters to the EEC decides
amt of fuel flow & sends to metering valve. So, EEC is computing sectn & metering
valve meters.
viii. FADEC for APU
Pump Inlet

Tank Boost Pump Shut-off Valve 10𝑢 filter +ve disp. 70𝑢 filter Ultimate
Inlet
Gear Pump Relief Valve
Fire Extin. By-pass
System Valve
Metering Torque
𝛥P Valve Valve Motor

Primary
Path Solenoid ECU
Nozzle Atomizer Shut-off
Secondary Valve
Path

ix. EEC is the primary component of the FADEC, it controls the op. of the engine. Its
housing contains 2 electronic channels (2 separate computers) physically separated
internally & naturally cooled by convection. Placed in area of the engine nacelle that is
cool during engine operation. It attaches to lower-left fan case with shock mounts.
Power for the EEC comes from the a/c electrical system or PMA supplies pwr directly,

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while the engine is running. It’s each channel is an independent computer to completely
control engine. Processor does all of the control calculations and supplies data to torque
motors and solenoids. Cross-talk logic compares data b/w A & B. From each channel
o/p driver banks supply control signals to engine comp. EEC has volatile & nonvolatile
memory to store performance & maintenance data. Controls engine thrust in 2 modes,
(mode selection switch); (i)normal mode (engine thrust is set with EPR) & (ii)alternate
mode (thrust is set by Nl). EEC resets when the fuel control switch is moved from run
to cutoff & all fault data is recorded in nonvolatile memory. Note FMU is mounted on
front face of the gearbox & attached to the front of the fuel pump. Receives positn
feedback for several engine components using rotary differential transformer, linear
variable differential transformer, & thermocouples. Run cutoff switch controls the h.p.
fuel shut off valve. Fuel T sensor thermocouple attaches to the fuel outlet line on the
rear of the fuel/oil cooler. Torque motor driver to control position of metering valve &
solenoid drivers for other functions. 7 electrical connections on each channel, 3 on each
side & 1 on the bottom, also 3 pneumatic connetn on bottom. Both channels share the
inputs of the two connections on the top, namely, programming plug & test connectors.
Programming plug (attached to engine fancase with lanyard) selects proper software in
EEC for thrust rating. Transducers inside EEC supply other channel a signal in
proportion to the p. Ambient p, burner p, LPC exit p, & fan inlet p r read by the EEC.
Connecting it to sensors Channel A wiring is blue & channel B sensor signals r green.
The non-EEC ckt wire is gray & thermocouple signals are yellow.
g. Fuel System Op.- First, from Low P Boost Stage(i) to the Fuel/Oil Cooler (FOC)(ii) then thru
Fuel Pump Filter(iii) to H.P Main Stage of Pump(iv) then to the FMU(v). Also, servo fuel to
the Servo Fuel Heater & Engine Comp. Metered fuel thru Fuel Flow Transmitter to Distribution
Valve supplies it to the Fuel Supply Manifolds. Then Fuel Injectors spray the fuel into the
Engine for combustion.
h. The fuel pump receives fuel from a/p fuel system & contains a disposable fuel filter element.
25. Fuel System Comp.-
a. Main Fuel Pumps (Engine Driven) deliver a-continuous supply of fuel at proper p, all times
during op. of the a/c engine. Engine driven for max flow at appropriate p.
b. 2 system cat. of engine driven fuel pumps (i) Constant disp. (ii)Non-constant displacement or
non +ve disp. pump or centrifugal pump {used at the inlet of the Engine Driven Pump (EDP)}
known as boost stage of EDP.
c. 2nd stage (main stage) of EDP is +ve disp. pump or const. disp. (axial type) i.e. gear supplies a
fixed quantity of fuel for every revolution. Gear type pumps hv approx. st. line flow
characteristics, this const. suppy makes fuel in excess & req. P relief valve for bypassing excess
fuel back to the inlet. Impeller is driven at a greater speed than the h.p. elements to increases
the fuel P. Discharged fuel from impeller to 2 h.p. gear elements, a relief valve is connected at
discharge port to bypass Xs fuel is routed to the inlet of 2nd stage pump then fuel flows to FMU
of FC (often attached to the pump). The pump is lubricated by fuel & never turned on w/o fuel
supply, also it should be provided with fuel until it comes to a stop.
d. Fuel Heater – 32*F or below, residual water in the fuel tends to freeze, forming ice crystals &
block fuel flow. Thus, fuel heater (a heat exchanger to warm the fuel) use engine bleed air (air
to liquid exchanger) or engine lubricating oil (liquid to liquid heat exchanger) as a source of
heat. Fuel filter is fitted with a P drop warning switch, which illuminates a warning light. Fuel
deicing systems used intermittently controlled manually, by a switch or automatic, using a
thermostatic sensing element in the fuel heater to open or close the air or oil shutoff valve.
e. Fuel Filters – Low P filter b/w tank & fuel system & High P filter b/w fuel pump & fuel control.
3 types of filters; Micron filter, Wafer screen & Plain Screen mesh filter. Micron - A micron
is 1000th of 1 mm with greatest filtering actn. Made of porous cellulose material & absorbs
water. Removes10-25 microns filter. Bypass valve is necessary. B/w fuel tank and engine.
Daily draining of fuel tank sumps and low P filters req. Mesh Filter - Most widely used filters
are the 200-mesh and the 35-mesh micron filters. Used in fuel pumps, fuel controls, & b/w fuel
pump & fuel control for removing micronic particles. Made of series of layers of fine-mesh
steel wire. Wafer - has a replaceable element, made of layers of screen disks of bronze, brass,
steel, or similar material. Removes micronic particles. Strength to withstand high P.
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f. Spray Nozzles & Manifolds – For highly atomized, patterned spray, evenly burning, in shortest
possible time & smallest possible space. V.imp that fuel is well centered & evenly distributed.
2 types of fuel nozzles, simple & duplex. Duplex hv a dual manifold & a flow divider/P valve
& secondary (main) fuel flow. Simplex hv single manifold. Nozzles installed by (i) external
mounting (mounting pad is provided & nozzle near the dome) & (ii)Internal mounting method
(at liner dome, chamber must be removed for m.) Nozzles r matched for equal amt of fuel.
i. Simplex - First nozzle type for turbine engines. Consists of a nozzle tip, an insert, & a
strainer made up of fine-mesh screen & a support
ii. Duplex – Better atomizatn at start & idling speed. Req flow divider, wide range of op P.
Desirable spray pattern.
iii. Airblast – Improved mixing, optimum spray, Squirrel vanes r used to mix the air & fuel
at the nozzle opening. Can op. at lower working pressures. Reduces carboning up.
iv. Flow divider - Creates primary & secondary fuel i.e. 2 separate fuel flows. Metered fuel
enters flow divider & passes thru an orifice then primary nozzles. A passage in flow
divider directs fuel to a chamber containing 𝛥P bellows, a VCR (viscosity compensated
restrictor) & a surge dampener. Unequal P causes flow divider valve to remain closed.
When fuel flow increases, the 𝛥P on bellows increases & it compresses, allowing flow
divider valve to open. Fuel starts flowing to secondary manifold & secondary nozzle.
g. Pressurizing and dump valves – P valve is usually req for duplex fuel nozzles (for primary &
secondary manifolds). At starting & altitude idling fuel passes through the primary line. Main
line opens when in secondary line approx 90 % of the fuel is passing. & fuel P valve trap fuel
fwd i.e. +ve cutoff prevents fuel from dribbling into the manifold & limiting afterfires and
carbonization. Carbonizatn occurs cz combustn chamber T r lowered, fuel not completely burnt.
Flow divider performs same functn as P valve but, like name implies, divide flow to duplex nzl.
h. Combustion drain valves - For draining fuel from where accumulated. Accumulatn at combustn
chamber causes fire hazard. Also, residual problem (deposit of lead & gum, after evaporation)
& causes corrosion in manifolds & nozzles. Drip or dump valve (op. by 𝛥P or solenoid) used
to drain fuel manifolds. Can type combustn chamber gravity drained thru flame or inter-
connector tubes to lower chambers (fitted with drain lines). Basket or Annular type – thru air
holes to accumulate in bottom of chamber & then thru drain lines. If drain valve in not good
condtn, hot start during the next starting attempt or an afterfire after shutdown is likely to occur.
i. Fuel Qty Indicatn - Mounted on instrument panel, is electrically connected to a flowmeter. Fuel
counter/totalizer is used to keep record of fuel use. Manually set after refueling (in pounds).
Jettisoned fuel & leaked fuel is not counted & creates inaccuracy.
Chapter 2: Engine Indicating System
A. Engine Parameters
2 types of instruments operatn & monitoring. Op is primary, represent performance. Monitoring is
control parameter. Op. instruments – EPR, EGT, N1, N2. Monitoring Instruments – Oil P, T, Qty
& Fuel T, P, Qty & Nacelle T. 3 Req. for any instrument – Reliability, Accuracy & Instant.

1. Position – Instruments in center or slight off center (captain’s side). Op instruments on top of panel
above monitoring. Thrust (EPR & N1) most imp. op. instruments & on top.
2. Description – Analog instru hv pointer/needle to move over reading. Numerical display hv dial
indicator, marked drums. Electronic indicator – CRT or LCD, reliable, accurate, video signals, req. air
cooling. Color zones on both conventional & modern; Green – Normal, Yellow – Careful, Red– Hazard.
3. Operation –
a. Op parameters –
i.EPR: Ratio of total P at air intake (Pt2) to at turbine outlet (Pt7). 2 sensors one for each
P feed data computatn & later displayed in EPR instru. EPR instru in P&W & RR.
ii. N1: RPM of low P compressor turbine in % sent by speed sensor to display.GE & CFM.
iii. EPR vs N1: EPR accurate, small delay, T dependent. N1 stable indicatn, better response.
iv. EGT: Indicate avg turbine T for it’s & combustn chamber’s integrity. Several T sensors
(thermocouples – of Cr/Ni & Ni/Al called Chromel & Alumel – K Type. Located around
edge of outlet pipe close to turbine outlet. Of high sp. tolerance R. Wires harnessed.
𝛥T∝V. In *C.). Reading depends on op. condtn, type of engine & material.
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v. N2: % of RPM of H.P. Compressor to chk engine performance. Tachometer used for it.
vi. Flowmeter FF(fuel flow): For Performance & Efficiency of engine indicates fuel flow
rate in kph (kilo/hr) or pph (pound/hr). Fit aftr HP valve. Info used by Used Fuel Indicatr
b. Monitoring parameter –
i. Lubricatn system:
✓Oil qty: In QT (quarts) displays amt of oil left for monitoring consumptn.
✓Oil P: To assess lubricatn of bearing & other parts. Measured at oil pump outlet in PSI
or PSID. Engine oil P is most imp. parameter for oil.
✓Oil T: Ability to lubricate & cooling capacity. In *C.
✓Low oil P alert: Low P alert as red indicator light or a red oil press legend light or a
msg when P drops & P switch is activated. Located near Oil P transmitter or oil pump
outlet.
✓Filter pre-clog alert: 𝛥P switch fit in oil filter illuminates light or alert msg when clog.
ii. Vibratn system: To identify imminent failure by detecting vibratn as they start. Sensors
in sp. area send signal to conditioner to modify it for ECAM & EICAS. AVM (Airborne
Vibratn System) is for detectn & display of engine vibratn. IHUMS-rotorcraft’s 1st system
iii. Nacelle T: is not op. or monitoring parameter but displayed with them. Nacelles r cooled
by fan air. Alert abnormal T increase (e.g. by bleed air leak). In *C.
4. Maintenance – A/C M.M. used.
B. Detailed Operation

Instruments receive 3 types of data by sensors, (i) P Data: EPR, oil P, low oil P, fuel pre-clog & fuel
P alert (ii)T Data: EGT, oil & fuel T, nacelle T (iii)Mech. Movement Data: N1, N2, FF & Vibratn.

1. P data –
a. EPR: Thrust measurement, ratio of P outlet to air P intake using several sensors gives avg P.
Pipes send P to EEC/ECU convert it into electric signals, then displayed in ECAM/EICAS. EPR
=Pt7/Pt2; Pt is turbine staging. Ambient T is req. for EPR correctn for accurate pwr setting.
b. Oil P: Oil P & T always indicated. P transmitter sends analog signals to EEC/ECU digitize it for
ECAM/EICAS. When 2 EEC/ECU then transmitter hv 2 detectors 1 for each. e.g. LVDT.
c. Low oil P alert: Alert signal when P drops. Either aural or red light.
d. Fuel filter pre-clog alert: 2 stage caution, first fuel filter clog at low 𝛥P, bypass valve not open.
Second, fuel filter bypass when more clogged, alert ‘bypass’,bypass opens fuel flow unfiltered.
e. Fuel P: A/c w/o EEC, hv fuel P indicator in cockpit. P transmitter at centrifugal (boost) pump
outlet sends info indicated in a lop P alert built into instruments.
2. T data –
a. EGT: Highest T is at the inlet of H.P. turbine but measured downflow, b/w HP & LP turbine
stage or at LP turbine outlet cz it was impractical & difficult to measure P there. Usually 12
thermocouples bi-metallic jn welded together. Alumel or Chromel, K type. T range -200*C to
+1250*C. Harness of same material. All thermocouples ‖, if in series then redundancy problem,
more wiring req. R measurement for caliberatn & fault diagnosis ideally done when cold engine.
Engines with EEC/ECU calculators hv EGT sensors with 2 thermocouple, 1 for each channel.
b. Oil T: Sensor located on P ckt or on Recuperatn ckt. Sensors r thermistors mostly. 1 each channel.
c. Fuel T: Rarely displayed. 2 channel sensor req. to measure T at outlet of fuel/oil heat exchanger.
d. Nacelle T: Single channel sensor inside Nacelle. This T signal not sent to EEC/ECU. In a/c
where ECU/EEC controls the cooling of the nacelle, an altitude signal is compared with the
nacelle T signal, for T control.
3. Mech movement data –
a. N1: When EPR not used, N1 provides % of rotatn speed signals linearly related to engine thrust.
Signal transmitted by electromagnetic coil speed sensor with a phonic wheel.
b. N2: Rotatn speed of H.P. turbine. N2 for double spool & N3 for triple spool turbojet. Sensors r
small tachometer driven by AGB (Accessory Gear Box) or phonic wheel sensor in AGB.
c. FF rate: Located b/w HP fuel valve & distributn lines. Detectors measure fuel mass flow rate.
d. Vibratn: 3 comp. (i) 1-3 sensors, (ii) Signal conditioner/calculator, (iii) Indicator in cockpit. Acc-
elometers with piezoelectric crystal r used as sensor.

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e. EVMU (Engine Vibratn Monitoring Unit): Integrates all sensor signals to calculate vibratn levels,
vibratn limits & set caution/advisory alert on ECAM/EICAS. Keep vibratn data in memory.
f. Eninge Torque: Ratio b/w power delivered & rotatn speed of drive shaft (RPM). Exact pwr level
indicatn. P & T influence torque performance. Torque measurement at gearbox by determining
varied oil P (in bar or %), or by torsion movement of drive shaft (detecting magnetic reluctance
of o/p shaft from torsion induced forces. Signal are sent from detector to EEC to cockpit &
torque limiter controls power o/p to not exceed & damage engine, powerplant or gearboxes.
g. Manifold P: In const. v propeller, throttle o/p is indicated in manifold absolute P (MAP) gauge.
Manometer measures MAP; energy ∝ Fuel/air flow for combustn (at fix H & RPM). Throttle
opens, MAP increases. At rest, MAP = ambient air P. Engine starts P less than ambient. Failure
hv intake P increased. MAP for non-turbocharged is b/w 10-40” Hg. Each turbocharged engine
hv own limitatn while for propeller a/c data is given engine by mfd as a part of flight op limits.
MAP is direct indicatn of engine performance, its damage is reflected in piston cylinders.
h. Propeller rotational speed: Tachometer (or alternator) provides DC/ pulsating AC V abt rota-
tional speed to be measured in cabin in RPM or %; no pwr req. Phonic wheel/sensors also used.
4. Interfaces –
a. Engine Interfaces: (i) Fuel/oil T signals used by the ECU/EEC to control fuel/oil heat exchanger.
(ii) N1 signal used by EEC/ECU to replace the EPR signal. (iii) Vibration signals used by the
engine balancing system for correction for vibrations in shaft Nl. (iv) N2 signal used by the
ECU/EEC for fuel control (metering), also to close the start valve & cut the ignition ckt during
startup sequence. To manage the turbine casing cooling (Turbine Clearance Control TCC) and
to automatically trigger a reignition of the engine in flight when abnormal engine deceleration
has been detected.
b. A/C Interfaces: (i) FF signal used to calculate the total consumption displayed continuously on
a Control Display Unit (CDU) part of FMS. Also, how much fuel is left onboard. (ii) Low oil P
signal used to determine if the engine is running properly or not. When low oil P signal is not
used, N2 signal is used for the same functions. N2 Signals: if engine is running normally (>idle
v) or not (>idle v).
5. Monitoring & alert –
a. Analog dial indicator: Electromechanical, amber light (or red). Push button to turn it off or poin-
ter to zero. Apart from color zones, red dial indicator for max acceptable value (max T, RPM).
b. Electronic: CRT, LCD (MFD). White/Green is advisory (no immediate actn), Amber/Yellow is
caution (immediate awareness & further actn), Red is alert for immediate actn.
6. Maintenance – Terminals clamped in acc. with ATA 77. Piezoelectric accelerometers more reliable
than electromagnetic. Space b/w sensors & phonic wheel be measured by add/remove adjestmnt shims.
Chapter 3: Starting & Ignition System
1. Ignititn M. - Residual high V & current in the ignition exciter can bring injury or death. Igniter m. proce-
dure calls for disconnection of the igniter lead coupling nuts at the exciter end first.
2. GTE Starters – GTE started by H.P. compressor. HP compressor & N1 rotated by starters.
a. Starting sequence: (i) Compressor starts for sir for combustn (ii) Ignition (iii)Fuel (iv)Starter
continues to crank until above self-acceleratig v. A hot or hung false start can occur if not. (v)
Starter & ignitn automatically cutoff. (vi) Idle RPM.
b. Types of starters: (DC) electric motor, Starter/generator & air turbine starter. Air impingement
starting system is used on small engines (hv jets of compressed air to the compressor or turbine).
c. Cartridge starter: Cartridge/pneumatic turbine starter is a ground op. air supply or engine cross-
bleed source. Cartridge filled breech cap’s lugs engaged by turning breech handle is supplied V
to ignite it. The gas out of breech is forced thru hot gas nozzle in turbine rotors. Exhaust collector
is fit overboard. A relief valve is fit before nozzles to bypass air towards turbine above fixed P.
d. Fuel/air combustn starter: For GTEs using Jet A fuel & compressed air. The starter consists of a
turbine driven pwr unit and auxiliary fuel, air, & ignition systems. Op. is fully automatic; a
single switch causes the starter to fire & accelerate from rest to cutoff speed. Hydraulic pump &
motors hv been used for smaller engines.
e. Electric starting & starter generator systems: Electric GTE system of 2 types; (i) Direct cranking
(on small turbine engines e.g. APU & small turboshaft engines, disengaged after starting) & (ii)

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Starter generator (hv 2nd winding to fn as a generator after starting after self-sustaining speed,
saves wt., pmantly engaged with engine shaft thru drive gears)
f. Starter generator: A shunt generator with additional series winding electrically connected for
strong field & high torque for starting. Has 4 field windings (Series C field, shunt, a compens-
ating, & an interpole or commutating winding. Starting - C field, compensating, & commutating
used, it is similar to a direct cranking (cz no practical use of shunt field). A 24 volts source &
1500 peak amperes is usually required for starting. As a generator - shunt, compensating &
commutating windings used. Shunt field connected in conventional voltage control ckt.
Compensating & commutating or interpole windings provide almost sparkless commutation
from no load to full load. Undercurrent controller controls starter generator when used as a
starter by assuring +ve actn of the starter & keeping it operating until engine is rotating fast
enough to sustain combustion. Its’ control block hv 2 relays (1 is motor relay to control the i/p
to the starter; 2. the undercurrent relay, controls the operation of the motor relay).
g. Starter generator sequence: (i)Close engine master switch to complete the ckt b/w a/c bus to-
the start switch, the fuel valves & the throttle relay. (ii)Energized throttle relay starts fuel pump
& completes fuel valve ckt gives necessary fuel P for starting engine. (iii) Battery & start switch
is turned on, 3 relays (1motor, 2ignitn & 3battery cutout) closes; 1motor relay closes the ckt from
pwr source to the starter motor & heavy current starts flowing through it which could damage
the battery & hence battery needs to be open. Also, undercurrent relay ckt is closed along with
motor relay coil, ignitn relay coil & battery cutout relay coil. Now, start switch turns off & all
units operate. Speeding motor hv decreasing current which below 200A opens the undercurrent
relay & all attached coils too, this halts the start operatn. If engine not at self-sustaining v, stop
switch is used to break ckt from +ve bus. 2ignition relay closes ckt to the ignition units & 3battery
cutout relay disconnects the battery. Troubleshooting starter generator is given in M14 fig. 3-6.
h. Air turbine starter (ATS): High torque, light wt. source, ¼ to ½ of electric starter’s wt. but more
torque & same capabilities. Hv axial flow turbine to turn drive coupling thru reductn gear train
& starter clutch mechanism. Air to operate starter is given by GPU/APU/cross-bleed starter, of
around 30-50psi; 30 psi is min limit. Chk duct P prior to starting always. Air passes to starter
turbine housing then by nozzle vanes to rotate rotor blades to drive the reduct n gear train &
clutch arrangement (includes rotor pinion, planet gears & carriers, sprag clutch assembly, o/p
shaft assembly & drive coupling). The sprag clutch assembly engages automatically as the rotor
turns & disengages asap drive coupling turns faster than the rotor side allowing geartrain to halt.
O/p shaft assembly & drive coupling runs till the engine is running. At cutout v, in turbine rotor
hub, a rotor switch actuator opens turbine switch to turn off start valve & shut off air supply.
i. Turbine housing: includes turbine rotor, rotor switch actuator, & the nozzle components directs
the inlet air against the rotor blades, a containment ring dissipate blade fragments’ energy at low
energy thru the exhaust duct if rotor fails due to excessive turbine over speed.
j. Transmission housing: includes the reduction gears, the clutch components, & the drive
coupling, a lubricating oil reservoir from where oil level, metal particles, leaks cud be checked
at normal M. Oil is added thru vent plug (with ball valve for sump ventilatn) enclosed port in
starter. Slight plug in drain opening attracts ferrous particles in starter’s oil (i.e. turbine oil).
k. Air path is thru P regulating & shutoff valve & its gauge is used to chk oil qty. It’s 2
subassemblies, P regulating valve & P regulating valve control. Latter hv a butterfly type valve
whose shaft is connected to servo piston thru a cam. When piston actuates, cam rotates butterfly
valve. Cam’s slope is for initially small travel & high torque, also, for stable actn by increasing
valve opening time.
l. Mounted on regulating valve housing is Control Assembly, it’s housing hv a solenoid to stop
actn of off positn control crank links pilot valve to P sensing port via bellows connected by air
line. Pilot valve measures P to servo piston.
m. Functioning - Turning starter switch on, energizes solenoid retracts & control crank, rotated by
spring against closed end of bellows (extend fully by bellow spring), to open positn opens pilot
valve & it’s drain side closed & servo piston moves linearly to rotate cam rotates valve shaft &
regulating valve opens, bellows compresses, control rod & control crank turns, pilot valve gets
away & drain opens to atmosphere. Equilibrium state achieved when downstream P reach preset.
n. Miscellaneous: (i) Ring gear housing is internal & contains rotor assembly. (ii) Switch housing
hv turbine switch & bracket assembly. (iii) Mounting adapter is bolted in mounting pad. (iv)
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Quick detach clamps join starter to mounting adapter & inlet duct. So, easily removed for
m./overhaul. (v) Bleed valve control duct P to the starter, downstream of it is Start valve controls
air flow to starter & Magnetic drain regulates P of starter air & shuts off air supply too. (vi)
3. Turbine ignitn system – Operated for brief period & switched off. Trouble free than reciprocating. Not
need to be timed to spark. If engine flames out Continuous ignitn prevents stopping. Low V & energy
level. Most GTE hv high energy capacitor (C) type ignitn system, fan air cooled ducted to exciter box
following around ignitor lead, surrounds ignitor & back to nacelle. Continuous ignition must hv
cooling. Electronic type igntn system is a variatn of capacitor type. C type hv 2 identical independent
ignitn units needing low V (a/c battery/115V AC/PMA turned directly by engine thru accessory gear
box). High V is supplied to arc for high heat intensity spark. For safety ignitn system is a dual system
(2 exciter units, 2 Xmer, 2 ignitn) leads to fire 2 ignitor plugs. *Note- functioning of C type isn’t included.
4. Capacitor discharge exciter unit - provides ignitn for turbine only for starting, once combustion has
begun, the flame is continuous. Discharge ckt hv two energy storage capacitors in the exciter unit. Step-
up Xmer used across these C. At ignitor plug firing, R gap lowers & 1st C discharges, 2nd C discharge
is of low V & high energy. Spark of great heat intensity capable of igniting abnormal fuels & burning
foreign deposit is produced. Excitor (a dual unit, sparks at both ignitor plug) produces continuous sparks
until engine starts & pwr cut-off.
5. Ignitor plug (IP) – Ignitor plug in turbine engine & spark plug (SP) in reciprocating. IP’s electrode
withstands current of higher current (for short interval), electrode gap of IP is > than of SP & electrode
fouling is min in IP. Annular gap IP (long reach ignitor) projects into comubstn liner for effective spark.
Constraint gap IP op. at cool T as it does not projects into combustn chamber liner cz spark arcs away
from face of combustn chamber.
6. Inspection & M. of tubine ignitn system & its components -
a. Ceramic terminal free of arcing, carbon tracking and cracks, grommet seal free of flashover
& carbon tracking. Flexible wire insulation with no arcing thru the insulation. Check igniter
by listening for a snapping noise also by removing it & activating the start cycle.
b. Leads: Remove clamps, secure ignition leads to engine, remove safety wire & disconnect
electrical connectors from exciter units, remove safety wire & disconnect lead from igniter
plug, discharge electrical charge by grounding & remove ignition leads from engine, clean
it with approved dry-cleaning solvent, inspect connectors for damaged threads, corrosion,
cracked insulators, and bent or broken pins, inspect for worn/burned areas, deep cuts, frays,
& general deterioration, perform continuity chk, reinstall leads, reverse of removal process.
c. Igniter plug: Disconnect ignition leads from igniter plugs. Before disconnecting ignitn lead,
disconnect the low-V primary lead from the ignition exciter unit and wait at least 1 minute
for stored energy to dissipate before disconnecting the high-V cable from the igniter, remove
igniter plugs from mounts, inspect gap surface material, before it, remove residue from the
shell exterior using dry cloth but not deposit or residue from the firing end of the low-voltage
d. igniters. High-V igniters can have the firing end cleaned to aid in inspection. Inspect for
fretting of igniter plug shank, replace an igniter plug whose surface is granular, chipped, or
damaged, replace dirty or carbonized igniter plugs. Install igniter plugs in mounting pads,
check for proper clearance between chamber liner & igniter plug, tighten igniter plugs to
mfd’s specified torque & safety wire igniter plugs.

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