Diatomaceous earth

A sample of food grade diatomaceous earth

Diatomaceous earth ( /ˌdaɪ.ətəˌmeɪʃəs

ˈɜːrθ/) – also known as D.E., diatomite, or
kieselgur/kieselguhr – is a naturally
occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock
that is easily crumbled into a fine white to
off-white powder. It has a particle size
ranging from less than 3 μm to more than
1 mm, but typically 10 to 200 μm.
Depending on the granularity, this powder
can have an abrasive feel, similar to
pumice powder, and has a low density as a
result of its high porosity. The typical
chemical composition of oven-dried
diatomaceous earth is 80–90% silica, with
2–4% alumina (attributed mostly to clay
minerals) and 0.5–2% iron oxide.[1]

Diatomaceous earth consists of fossilized

remains of diatoms, a type of hard-shelled
protist. It is used as a filtration aid, mild
abrasive in products including metal
polishes and toothpaste, mechanical
insecticide, absorbent for liquids, matting
agent for coatings, reinforcing filler in
plastics and rubber, anti-block in plastic
films, porous support for chemical
catalysts, cat litter, activator in blood
clotting studies, a stabilizing component
of dynamite, a thermal insulator, and a soil
for potted plants and trees like bonsai.

Geology and occurrence

Diatomaceous earth as viewed under bright field
illumination on a light microscope. Diatomaceous

earth is made up of the cell walls/shells of single cell

diatoms and readily crumbles to a fine powder.
Diatom cell walls are made up of biogenic silica; silica
synthesised in the diatom cell by the polymerisation
of silicic acid. This image of diatomaceous earth
particles in water is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/μm, the
entire image covers a region of approximately 1.13 by
0.69 mm.
 SEM photo of diatomaceous earth

Composition

Each deposit of diatomaceous earth is

different, with varying blends of pure
diatomaceous earth combined with other
natural clays and minerals. The diatoms in
each deposit contain different amounts of
silica, depending on the age of the deposit.
The species of diatom may also differ
among deposits. The species of diatom is
dependent upon the age and paleo-
environment of the deposit. In turn, the
shape of a diatom is determined by its
species.

Many deposits throughout British

Columbia, Canada, such as Red Lake
Earth, are from the Miocene epoch and
contain a species of diatom known as
Melosira granulata. These diatoms are
approximately 12 to 13 million years old
and have a small globular shape. A
deposit containing diatoms from this age
can provide many more benefits than that
of an older deposit. For example, diatoms
from the Eocene age (approximately 40 to
50 million years old) are not as effective in
their ability to absorb fluids because older
diatoms recrystallize, their small pores
becoming filled with silica.[2]

Formation

Diatomite forms by the accumulation of

the amorphous silica (opal, SiO2·nH2O)
remains of dead diatoms (microscopic
single-celled algae) in lacustrine or marine
sediments. The fossil remains consist of a
pair of symmetrical shells or frustules.[1]

Discovery
In 1836 or 1837, German peasant Peter
Kasten discovered diatomaceous earth
(German: Kieselgur) when sinking a well on
the northern slopes of the Haußelberg hill,
in the Lüneburg Heath in North
Germany.[3][4][5]

Extraction and storage sites in the

Lüneburg Heath

Neuohe – extraction from 1863 to 1994

Wiechel from 1871 to 1978
Hützel from 1876 to 1969
Hösseringen from c.1880 to 1894
Hammerstorf from c.1880 to 1920
 Oberohe from 1884 to 1970
Schmarbeck from 1896 to c. 1925
Steinbeck from 1897 to 1928
Breloh from 1907 to 1975
Schwindebeck from 1913 to 1973
Hetendorf from 1970 to 1994

The deposits are up to 28 metres (92 ft)

thick and are all of freshwater
diatomaceous earth.
c. 1900–1910 Diatomaceous earth pit at
Neuohe

c. 1900–1910 a drying area: one firing pile

is being prepared; another is under way
 1913: Staff at the Neuohe factory, with
workers and a female cook in front of a
drying shed

Until the First World War almost the entire

worldwide production of diatomaceous
earth was from this region.

Other deposits

In Germany, diatomaceous earth was also

extracted at Altenschlirf[6] on the
Vogelsberg (Upper Hesse) and at Klieken[7]
(Saxony-Anhalt).

There is a layer of diatomaceous earth up

to 4 metres (13 ft) thick in the nature
reserve of Soos in the Czech Republic.

Deposits on the isle of Skye, off the west

coast of Scotland, were mined until
1960.[8]

In Colorado and in Clark County, Nevada,

United States, there are deposits that are
up to several hundred metres thick in
places. Marine deposits have been worked
in the Sisquoc Formation in Santa Barbara
County, California near Lompoc and along
the Southern California coast. Additional
marine deposits have been worked in
Maryland, Virginia, Algeria and the MoClay
of Denmark. Freshwater lake deposits
occur in Nevada, Oregon, Washington and
California. Lake deposits also occur in
interglacial lakes in the eastern United
States, in Canada and in Europe in
Germany, France, Denmark and the Czech
Republic. The worldwide association of
diatomite deposits and volcanic deposits
suggests that the availability of silica from
volcanic ash may be necessary for thick
diatomite deposits.[9]
Diatomaceous earth is sometimes found
on desert surfaces. Research has shown
that the erosion of diatomaceous earth in
such areas (such as the Bodélé
Depression in the Sahara) is one of the
most important sources of climate-
affecting dust in the atmosphere.

The siliceous frustules of diatoms

accumulate in fresh and brackish wetlands
and lakes. Some peats and mucks contain
a sufficient abundance of frustules that
they can be mined. Most of Florida's
diatomaceous earths have been found in
the muck of wetlands or lakes. The
American Diatomite Corporation, from
1935 to 1946, refined a maximum of 145
tons per year from their processing plant
near Clermont, Florida. Muck from several
locations in Lake County, Florida was dried
and burned (calcined) to produce the
diatomaceous earth.[10] It was formerly
extracted from Lake Myvatn in Iceland.

The commercial deposits of diatomite are

restricted to Tertiary or Quaternary
periods. Older deposits from as early as
the Cretaceous Period are known, but are
of low quality.[9]

Applications
Diatomaceous earth is available
commercially in several formats:

granulated diatomaceous earth is a raw

material simply crushed for convenient
packaging
milled or micronized diatomaceous
earth is especially fine (10 µm to 50 µm)
and used for insecticides.
calcined diatomaceous earth is heat-
treated and activated for filters.

Explosives
Individual diatom cell walls often maintain their shape
even in commercially processed filter media, such as
this one for swimming pools

Live marine diatoms from Antarctica (magnified)

In 1866, Alfred Nobel discovered that

nitroglycerin could be made much more
stable if absorbed in diatomite. This
allows much safer transport and handling
than nitroglycerin in its raw form. He
patented this mixture as dynamite in 1867;
the mixture is also called guhr dynamite.

Filtration

The Celle engineer Wilhelm Berkefeld

recognized the ability of the diatomaceous
earth to filter, and he developed tubular
filters (known as filter candles) fired from
diatomaceous earth.[11] During the cholera
epidemic in Hamburg in 1892, these
Berkefeld filters were used successfully.
One form of diatomaceous earth is used
as a filter medium, especially for
swimming pools. It has a high porosity
because it is composed of microscopically
small, hollow particles. Diatomaceous
earth (sometimes referred to by
trademarked brand names such as Celite)
is used in chemistry as a filtration aid, to
filter very fine particles that would
otherwise pass through or clog filter
paper. It is also used to filter water,
particularly in the drinking water treatment
process and in fish tanks, and other
liquids, such as beer and wine. It can also
filter syrups, sugar, and honey without
removing or altering their color, taste, or
nutritional properties.[12]

Abrasive
The oldest use of diatomite is as a very
mild abrasive and, for this purpose, it has
been used both in toothpaste and in metal
polishes, as well as in some facial scrubs.

Pest control

Diatomite is of value as an insecticide,

because of its abrasive and physico-
sorptive properties.[13] The fine powder
adsorbs lipids from the waxy outer layer of
the exoskeletons of many species of
insects; this layer acts as a barrier that
resists the loss of water vapour from the
insect's body. Damaging the layer
increases the evaporation of water from
their bodies, so that they dehydrate, often
fatally.

Arthropods die as a result of the water

pressure deficiency, based on Fick's law of
diffusion. This also works against
gastropods and is commonly employed in
gardening to defeat slugs. However, since
slugs inhabit humid environments, efficacy
is very low. Diatomaceous earth is
sometimes mixed with an attractant or
other additives to increase its
effectiveness.

The shape of the diatoms contained in a

deposit has not been proven to affect their
functionality when it comes to the
adsorption of lipids; however, certain
applications, such as that for slugs and
snails, do work best when a particular
shaped diatom is used, suggesting that
lipid adsorption is not the whole story. For
example, in the case of slugs and snails
large, spiny diatoms work best to lacerate
the epithelium of the mollusk. Diatom
shells will work to some degree on the
vast majority of animals that undergo
ecdysis in shedding cuticle, such as
arthropods or nematodes. It also may
have other effects on lophotrochozoans,
such as mollusks or annelids.
Medical-grade diatomite has been studied
for its efficacy as a deworming agent in
cattle; in both studies cited the groups
being treated with diatomaceous earth did
not fare any better than control
groups.[14][15] It is commonly used in lieu
of boric acid, and can be used to help
control and possibly eliminate bed bug,
house dust mite, cockroach, ant and flea
infestations.[16]

Diatomaceous earth is widely applied for

insect control in grain storage.[17]

In order to be effective as an insecticide,

diatomaceous earth must be uncalcinated
(i.e., it must not be heat-treated prior to
application)[18] and have a mean particle
size below about 12 µm (i.e., food grade –
see below).

Although considered to be relatively low-

risk, pesticides containing diatomaceous
earth are not exempt from regulation in the
United States under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
and must be registered with the
Environmental Protection Agency.[19]

Thermal
Its thermal properties enable it to be used
as the barrier material in some fire
resistant safes. It is also used in
evacuated powder insulation for use with
cryogenics.[20] Diatomaceous earth
powder is inserted into the vacuum space
to aid in the effectiveness of vacuum
insulation. It was used in the Classical
AGA Cookers as a thermal heat barrier.

Catalyst support

Diatomaceous earth also finds some use

as a support for catalysts, generally
serving to maximize a catalyst's surface
area and activity. For example, nickel can
be supported on the material – the
combination is called Ni–Kieselguhr – to
improve its activity as a hydrogenation
catalyst.[21]

Use in agriculture

Natural freshwater diatomaceous earth is

used in agriculture for grain storage as an
anticaking agent, as well as an
insecticide.[22] It is approved by the Food
and Drug Administration as a feed
additive[23] to prevent caking.

Some believe it may be used as a natural

anthelmintic (dewormer), although studies
have not shown it to be effective.[14][15]
Some farmers add it to their livestock and
poultry feed to prevent the caking of
feed.[24] "Food Grade Diatomaceous Earth"
is widely available in agricultural feed
supply stores.

Freshwater diatomite can be used as a

growing medium in hydroponic gardens.

It is also used as a growing medium in

potted plants, particularly as bonsai soil.
Bonsai enthusiasts use it as a soil additive,
or pot a bonsai tree in 100% diatomaceous
earth. In vegetable gardening it is
sometimes used as a soil conditioner,
because like perlite, vermiculite, and
expanded clay, it retains water and
nutrients, while draining fast and freely,
allowing high oxygen circulation within the
growing medium.

Marker in livestock nutrition

experiments

Natural dried, not calcinated

diatomaceous earth is regularly used in
livestock nutrition research as a source of
acid insoluble ash (AIA), which is used as
an indigestible marker. By measuring the
content of AIA relative to nutrients in test
diets and feces or digesta sampled from
the terminal ileum (last third of the small
intestine) the percentage of that nutrient
digested can be calculated using the
following equation:

where:

N is the nutrient digestibility (%)

Nf is the amount of nutrients in the
feces (%)
NF is the amount of nutrients in the
feed (%)
Af is the amount of AIA in the feces
(%)
 AF is the amount of AIA in the feed
(%)

Natural freshwater diatomaceous earth is

preferred by many researchers over
chromic oxide, which has been widely
used for the same purpose, the latter
being a known carcinogen and, therefore, a
potential hazard to research personnel.

Construction

Spent diatomaceous earth from the

brewing process can be added to ceramic
mass for the production of red bricks with
higher open porosity.[25]
Specific varieties
Tripolite is the variety found in Tripoli,
Libya.
Bann clay is the variety found in the
Lower Bann valley in Northern Ireland.
Moler (Mo-clay) is the variety found in
northwestern Denmark, especially on
the islands of Fur and Mors.
Freshwater-derived food grade
diatomaceous earth is the type used in
United States agriculture for grain
storage, as feed supplement, and as an
insecticide. It is produced uncalcinated,
has a very fine particle size, and is very
low in crystal silica (<2%).
 Salt-water-derived pool / beer / wine
filter grade is not suitable for human
consumption or effective as an
insecticide. Usually calcinated before
being sold to remove impurities and
undesirable volatile contents, it is
composed of larger particles than the
freshwater version and has a high
crystalline silica content (>60%).

Microbial degradation
Certain species of bacteria in oceans and
lakes can accelerate the rate of dissolution
of silica in dead and living diatoms; by
using hydrolytic enzymes to break down
the organic algal material.[26][27]
Climatologic importance
The Earth's climate is affected by dust in
the atmosphere, so locating major sources
of atmospheric dust is important for
climatology. Recent research indicates
that surface deposits of diatomaceous
earth play an important role. Research
shows that significant dust comes from
the Bodélé depression in Chad, where
storms push diatomite gravel over dunes,
generating dust by abrasion.[28]

Safety considerations
Inhalation of crystalline silica is harmful to
the lungs, causing silicosis. Amorphous
silica is considered to have low toxicity,
but prolonged inhalation causes changes
to the lungs.[29] Diatomaceous earth is
mostly amorphous silica, but contains
some crystalline silica, especially in the
saltwater forms.[30] In a study of workers,
those exposed to natural D.E. for over 5
years had no significant lung changes,
while 40% of those exposed to the
calcined form had developed
pneumoconiosis.[31] Today's common D.E.
formulations are safer to use as they are
predominantly made up of amorphous
silica and contain little or no crystalline
silica.[32]
The crystalline silica content of D.E. is
regulated in the United States by the
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), and there are
guidelines from the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health setting
maximum amounts allowable in the
product (1%) and in the air near the
breathing zone of workers, with a
recommended exposure limit at 6 mg/m3
over an 8-hour workday.[32] OSHA has set a
permissible exposure limit for
diatomaceous earth as 20 mppcf
(80 mg/m3/%SiO2). At levels of
3000 mg/m3, diatomaceous earth is
immediately dangerous to life and
health.[33]

In the 1930s, long-term occupational

exposure among workers in the
cristobalite D.E. industry who were
exposed to high levels of airborne
crystalline silica over decades were found
to have an increased risk of silicosis.[34]

Today, workers are required to use

respiratory-protection measures when
concentrations of silica exceed allowable
levels.

Diatomite produced for pool filters is

treated with high heat (calcination) and a
fluxing agent (soda ash), causing the
formerly harmless amorphous silicon
dioxide to assume its crystalline form.[32]

See also
Biomineralization
Diatom – A class of microalgae, found
in the oceans, waterways and soils of
the world
Frustule
Fuller's earth
Perlite
Rock flour
Silica aerogel
 Siliceous ooze
Zeolite – Microporous, aluminosilicate
minerals commonly used as commercial
adsorbents and catalysts

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30. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from
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Occupational exposure to crystalline
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External links
International Chemical Safety Card
0248
 CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical
Hazards
Diatomite: Statistics and Information –
USGS
Tripolite: Tripolite mineral data Citat:
"...A diatomaceous earth consisting of
opaline silica..."
DIATOMACEOUS EARTH: A Non Toxic
Pesticide

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