CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Operations – part of a business organization that is responsible for producing goods and services.
Goods – physical items produced by business organizations
Services – activities that provide some combination of time, location, form, and psychological value.
3 Basic Functional Areas of Business organization
*Finance- responsible for securing financial resources at favorable prices and allocating those
resources throughout the organization, as well as budgeting, analyzing business
proposals, and providing fund for operations.
*Operations- responsible for producing the goods or providing the services offered by the
organization.
*Marketing- responsible for assessing consumer wants and needs, and selling and promoting
the organization’s goods or services.
Operations Management- is the management of systems or processes that create goods and provide services.
Supply Chain- is the sequence of organizations- their facilities, functions, and activities- that are
involved in producing and delivering a product or service; it is like a chain.

Suppliers’ Direct Producer Distributor Final

Suppliers Customers
suppliers

Feedback- taking measurements at various points in the transformation process to ensure that the
desired output is obtained.
Control- comparing the previously established standards to determine whether corrective action is
needed.
Product Packages- are the combination of goods and services.
The essence of the operations is to add value.
Value- Added- the difference between the cost of inputs and the value or price of outputs.
Points of Comparison:
*Degree of customer contact- the interaction between server and customer become a “moment of
truth”.
*Labor content of jobs- services have a higher degree of labor content than manufacturing jobs do.
*Uniformity of inputs- service operations are subjected to higher degree of variability of inputs.
Manufacturing have greater ability to control the variability of inputs.
*Measurement of productivity- it is more difficult for service jobs due to the high variations of inputs.
*Quality assurance- is more challenging for services due to the higher variation of input.
*Inventory- services tend to involve less use of inventory than manufacturing operations.
*Wages- manufacturing jobs are often well-paid, and have a less wage variation than service jobs.
*Ability to patent- product designs is often easier to patent than service designs.
1.3 WHY LEARN ABOUT OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT?
-the skill you gain studying operations management will serve you well in your career.
-you will have a much better understanding in the world you live in, the global dependencies of
companies and nations, reasons why companies succeed or fail, and the importance of working
with others.
Activities of exchanging information
*Budgeting- periodically prepared to plan financial requirements.
*Economic analysis of investment proposals- evaluation of alternative investments in plant and
equipment.
*Provision of funds- necessary funding of operations.
Lead Time- the time between ordering a good or service and receiving it.
OPERATIONS INTERACTS WITH FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF ORGANIZATIONS
Legal- consulted on contracts with employees, customers, and transporters, liability and environmental
issues.
Accounting- supplies information to management on costs of labor, materials, and overhead, and may
provide reports on items like scrap and inventories.
Management Information System (MIS)- providing management with the information it needs to
effectively manage.
Personnel or Human Resources- concerned with recruitment and training of personnel, labor relations,
contract negotiations, wage and salary administration, assisting manpower control, and decision
making.
Public Relations- building and maintaining a positive public image of the organization.
Types of Operations
Goods producing – farming, mining, construction, manufacturing, power generating,
 Storage/Transportation – Warehousing, trucking, mail service, moving, taxis, buses, hotels, airlines
Exchange – Retailing, wholesaling, financial advising, renting or leasing, library loans, stock exchange
Entertainment – film, radio and tv, plays, concerts, recording
Communication – newspaper, radio and tv newscasts, telephone, satellites and internets
1.5 PROCESS MANAGEMENT
Process- consists of one or more actions that transform inputs into outputs.
3 CATEGORIES OF BUSINESS PROCESSES
*Upper-Management processes- govern the operation of entire organization
*Operational processes- core processes that make up the value stream like purchasing, marketing, and
sales.
*Supporting processes- support the core processes like accounting, human resources, and IT.
1.6 THE SCOPE OF OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
OPERATION FUNCTON ACTIVITIES
*Forecasting- weather, landing conditions, seat demand for flights, and the growth in air travel.
*Capacity Planning- essential for the airline o maintain cash flow and make a reasonable profit.
*Locating Facilities- depends to the manager’s decision on where to locate major and minor hubs.
*Facilities and Layout- important in achieving effective use of workers and equipment.
*Scheduling- flights, routine maintenance, etc.
*Managing inventories- foods and beverages, first-aid equipment, pillows and blankets, and life
preservers.
*Assuring quality- essential in flying and maintenance operations, where the emphasis is on safety and
important in dealing with the customers.
Primary function of operations manager is to guide the system by decision making.
System Design- involves strategic decision that relate to system capacity, the geographic location of
the facilities, service planning, and acquisition of equipment.
System Operation- involves management of personnel, inventory planning and control; these are
generally tactical and operational decisions; the feedback on this decision involves measurements and
control.
AREAS THAT SUPPORTS OR PART OF OPERATIONS FUNCTION
*Purchasing- evaluate vendors for quality, reliability, service, price, and ability to adjust to changing
demand.
*Industrial Engineering- concerned with scheduling, performance standards, work methods, quality
control, and material handling.
*Distribution- shipping of goods to warehouses, retail outlets, or final customers.
*Maintenance- responsible for general upkeep and repair of equipment, buildings and ground, heating
and air- conditioning, etc.
1.7 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING
Model- an abstraction of reality; a simplified representation of something. It is classified into three;
*Physical models- look like their real-counter parts.
*Schematic models- more abstract than physical counterparts.
*Mathematical models- the most abstract.
Quantitative approaches to problem solving often embody an attempt to obtain mathematically optimal
solutions to managerial problems.
1. Linear programming and related mathematical techniques are widely used for optimum allocation of scarce
resources.
2. Queuing techniques are useful for analyzing situations in which waiting lines form.
3. Inventory models are widely used to control inventories.
4. Project models such as PERT (program evaluation and review
technique) and CPM (critical path method) are useful for planning, coordinating, and controlling large-scale
projects.
5. Forecasting techniques are widely used in planning and scheduling.
- Statistical models are currently used in many areas of decision making.
Analysis of Trade-Offs
 Operations personnel frequently encounter decisions that can be described as trade-off
Degree of Customization- a major influence on the entire organization is the degree of customization of
products or services being offered to its customers.
Systems Approach- a systems viewpoint is almost always beneficial in decision making.
System- is a set of interrelated parts that must work together.
Establishing Priorities- on every situation, managers discover that certain issues or items are more important
than others. This well-known effect is referred to as the Pareto phenomenon.
*Pareto Phenomenon- a few factors account for a high percentage of the occurrence of some events.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Starts in 1770’s in England and spread in Europe up to 19th Century
 - Usually a product was produce only by one man – a craftsman
Early Manufacturing was called CRAFT PRODUCTION SYSTEM- in which highly skilled workers use simple,
flexible tools to produce small quantities of customized goods.
Scientific Management
Spearheaded by Engineer and Inventor FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR
 Father of Scientific Management
 He introduce moving assembly line
 Believes on “science of management” based on observation, measurement, analysis and improvement of work
methods and economic incentives.
 He emphasizes the maximization of outputs.
 1911 Book titled “The Principles of Scientific Management”
Frank Gilbreth – father of motion study/ Therbligs
Henry Gantt – non monetary rewards to motivate people
Gantt Charts – widely used system for scheduling
Harrington Emerson – he encourage organizations use of experts to improve organizational efficiency.
Henry Ford (an industrialist) – known for his assembly lines
Adam Smith- division of labor
Eli Whitney- cotton gin and interchangeable parts
Frederick Taylor- scientific management

Concepts use by Ford in Assembly Line

 Applies the Mass Production – in which low-skilled workers use specialized machinery to produce high
volumes of standardized goods
 Interchangeable Parts(Eli Whitney late 1700s) – Parts of a product made such precision that they do not have
to be custom fitted.
 Division of labor (Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations 1776) – The breaking up of a production process into small
tasks, so that each worker performs a small portion of the overall job.
Human Relations Movement
 Lilian Gilbreth – emphasize the importance of human element in job design – Therbligs; application of
psychology.
 Elton Mayo(1930s) – Hawthorne studies(Western electric) on worker motivation – motivation is critical in
improving productivity
 Abraham Maslow(1940s) Hierarchy of Needs
 Frederick Herzberg(1950s) – Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers(Motivation and Hygiene); two factor theory.
 Douglas McGregor(1960s) – Theory X and Theory Y
 William Ouchi(1970s) – Theory Z – Japanese approach of lifetime employment, employee problem solving and
consensus building and some western approach.
Decision Models and Management Science
F.W. Harris (1915)– mathematical model for inventory management
H.F.Dodge, H.G. Romig, Walter Shewhart (1935) – statistical procedures for sampling and quality control
George Dantzig – Linear programming
1.9 Major Trends in Business
E-business – Use of the internet to transact business
E-commerce - Consumer to business transaction
Technology – The application of scientific to the development and improvement of goods and services.
Kinds of Technology
Product and Service Technology – refers to the discovery and development of new products and services.
Process Technology – It refers to methods, procedures and equipment used to produce goods and provide
services.
Information technology – refers to the science and use of computers and other electronic equipment to store,
process and send information.
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)- opened borders for trade between US, Canada, and Mexico.
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)- reduced tariffs and subsidies in many expanding trade
countries.
SIX SIGMA- a process for reducing costs, improving quality, and increasing customer satisfaction.
AGILITY- the ability of an organization to respond quickly to demands or opportunities.
Lean System- system that uses minimal amount of resources to produce a high volume of high-quality goods
with some variety.
Sustainability- using resources in ways that do not harm ecological systems that support human existence.
Ethics- a standard of behavior that guides how one should act in various situations.
Ethical Framework- a sequence of steps intended to guide thinking and subsequent decision or action.
 Outsourcing- buying goods or services instead of producing or providing them in-house.
2. COMPETITIVENESS, STRATEGY, AND PRODUCTIVITY
Competitiveness- how effectively an organization meets the wants and needs of customers relative to others
that offer similar goods or services.
2.3 MISSION AND STRATEGIES
Mission - The reason for existence for an organization
Mission Statement - States the purpose of an organization
Goals - Provide detail and scope of mission
Strategies - Plans for achieving organizational goals. Provide focus for decision making
 Organizational strategies- overall strategies related to the entire organization. They support the goals and
mission of the organization.
 Functional strategies- relate to each of the functional areas of the organization. They support the overall
strategies of the organization.
Tactics - The methods and actions taken to accomplish strategies
Strategy Formulation - The way organizations compete and a particular organization’s assessment of its own
strengths and weaknesses in order to take advantage of its core competencies.
Core Competencies - The special attributes or abilities that give an organization a competitive edge
Factors consider in Strategy Formulation
1. SWOT- Analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
2. Order qualifiers - Characteristics that customers perceive as minimum standards of acceptability to be
considered as a potential purchase
3. Order winners- Characteristics of an organization’s goods or services that cause it to be perceived as better
than the competition
4. Environmental scanning- The monitoring of events and trends that present threats or opportunities for a
company.
5. Single strategy- Allow the organization to concentrate on one particular strength or market condition.
6. Multiple strategies- Needed to address a particular set of conditions.
7. Outsourcing- A practice used by different companies to reduce costs by transferring portions of work to
outside suppliers rather than completing it internally.
8. Supply chain strategy- specifies how the supply chain should function to achieve supply chain goals.
Establishes how the organization should work with suppliers and policies relating to customer relationships.
9. Sustainability Strategy- Society is placing increasing emphasis on corporate sustainability practices in the form
of governmental regulations and increase group.
10. Global Strategy- As globalization increase, many companies realized that strategic decisions with respect to
globalization must be made.
11. Operation Strategy - The approach consistent with the organization strategy, that is used to guide the
operations function.
Quality-based strategies- focus on maintaining or improving the quality of an organization’s product or
services.
Time-based strategies- focus on reducing the time required to accomplish various activities.
PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity - A measure of the effective use of resources, usually expressed as the ratio of output to input.
Types of Productivity Measures:
 Partial measures - output/(single input)
 Multi-factor measures - output/(multiple inputs)
 Total measure - output/(total inputs)

Formula:
*Productivity = Outputs / Inputs
*Productivity Growth = (Current Period Productivity –
Previous Period Productivity) / Previous Period
Productivity
CHAPTER 3: FORECASTING
Forecasting- a statement about the future value of a
variable of interest.

 -Predictions about the future.

 -Two important aspects of forecast; expected level of
demand and degree of accuracy (i.e., the potential size of
forecast error).Forecast may be short range or long range.
Steps in the Forecasting Process
1. Determine the purpose of the forecast.
2. Establish a time horizon.
3. Obtain, clean and analyze appropriate data.
4. Select a forecasting technique.
5. Make the forecast.
6. Monitor the forecast.
Types of Forecasting:
Economic Forecasting - Predicts what the general business conditions will be in the future.
Technology Forecasting - Predicts the probability and/or development in technology.
Demand Forecasting - Predicts the quantity and timing of demand for a firm's product.
Forecast Accuracy
 Accuracy and control – vital aspect of forecasting
 A need to minimize forecasts errors.
Forecast Error – The difference between the value that occurs and the value that was predicted for a given
time period.
Types of Error
Positive Error – This results when forecast is too low.
Negative Error – This results when forecast is so high.
Approaches to Forecasting
 Qualitative Methods - consist mainly of subjective inputs, which often defy precise numerical description.
 Quantitative Methods - involve either the projection of historical data or the development of associative
models that attempt to utilize causal (explanatory) variables to make a forecast.
Variety of FORECASTING TECHNIQUES
 Judgmental Forecast - use subjective inputs such as opinions from consumer surveys, sales staff, managers,
executives and experts.
 Time-Series Forecast- project patterns identified in recent time-series observations.
 Associative Model – uses explanatory variables to predict future demand.
Classifications of Forecasts
Judgmental forecasts – uses subjective inputs
1. Executive Opinions
 Involves small group of high- level experts and managers
 Group estimates demand by working together
 Combines managerial experience with statistical model
 Relatively quick
o Group- think disadvantage
2. Sales force Opinions
 Each salesperson projects his or her sales
 Sales representatives know customers’ wants
 May be overly optimistic
 Consumer Surveys
 Ask customers about purchasing plans
 Useful for demand and product design and planning
 What consumers say, and what they actually do may be different
o May be overly optimistic.
o Other Approaches
3. Delphi method - An iterative group process, continues until consensus is reached.
- reduces ‘ group –think’
- takes time
3 Types of Participants
 Decision makers
 Staffs
 Respondents
Time-series forecasts – uses historical data assuming that the future will be like the past a time- ordered
sequence of observations taken at regular intervals.
Forecasting Variation Components:
Trend
 Persistent, overall upward or downward pattern.
 Changes due to population, technology, age, culture, etc.
 Typically several years duration
Seasonality
 Regular pattern of up and down fluctuations
 Due to weather, customs, etc.
 Occurs within a single year
Cycles
 Repeating up and down movements
 Affected by business cycle, political, and economic factors
 Multiple years duration
 Often causal or associative relationship
Irregular variations
 Caused by unusual circumstances, not reflective of typical behavior
 Severe weather conditions, strikes, or a major change in a product or service
Random variations
 Erratic, unsystematic, “residual fluctuations
 Due to random variation or unforeseen events
 Short duration and non- repeating
A naive forecast uses a single previous value of a time series as the basis of a forecast.
It can be used with a:
 Stable Series - the last data point becomes the forecast for the next period.
 Seasonal Variations - the forecast for this “season” is equal to the value of the series last “season.”
 Trend - the forecast is equal to the last value of the series plus or minus the difference between the last two
values of the series.
Averaging:
Historical data typically contain a certain amount of random variation, or white noise, that tends to obscure
systematic movements in the data which arises from many combined of many unimportant factors.
 Averaging techniques smooth variations in the data.
 Ideally, it would be desirable to completely remove any randomness from the data and leave only “real”
variations, such as changes in the demand.
 As a practical matter, however, it is usually impossible to distinguish between these two kinds of variations, so
the best one can hope for is that the small variations are random and the large variations are “real.”
Techniques for Averaging:
1. A) Moving Average. A moving average forecast uses a number of the most recent actual data values in
generating a forecast
 Weighted Moving Average
 Exponential Smoothing
Associative models – uses explanatory variables to predict the future
 Predictor variables - used to predict values of variable interest.
 Regression - technique for fitting a line to a set of points.
 Least squares line - minimizes sum of squared deviations around the line.
Forecast Accuracy
 Error - difference between actual value and predicted value
Controlling the Forecast
 Control chart- a visual tool for monitoring forecast errors; used to detect non-randomness in errors
 Forecasting errors are in control if:- all errors are within the control limits; no patterns, such as trends or
cycles, are present
Sources of Forecast Errors
 Model may be inadequate
 Irregular variations
 Incorrect use of forecasting technique
Choosing a Forecasting Technique
Factors considered
 Cost
 Accuracy
 Availability of Historical Data
 Availability of Computer Software
 Time
 Forecast Horizon
CHAPTER 4: PRODUCT AND DESIGN SERVICES
Reasons for Product and Service Design or Redesign
 Economic
 Social and demographic
 Political, liability or legal
 Competitive
 Cost or availability
 Technological
Manufacturability- the capability of an organization to produce an item at an acceptable profit.
Serviceability- the capability of an organization to provide a service at an acceptable profit.
Sources of Ideas
 Customers
 Supply chain
 Competitors
Reverse engineering - Dismantling and inspecting a competitor’s product to discover product improvements
 Employees
 Research and Development
Research Development (R and D)- organized efforts to increase scientific knowledge or product innovation
Types of Research
1. Basic research has the objective of advancing the state of knowledge about a subject, without any near-term
expectation of commercial applications.
2. Applied research has the objective of achieving commercial applications.
3. Developmental research converts the results of applied research into useful commercial applications.

Legal, Ethical and Environmental Considerations

Product liability- is the responsibility of a manufacturer for any injuries or damages caused by a faulty product
because of poor workmanship or design.

Uniform Commercial Code- which says that products carry an implication of merchantability and fitness; that
is, a product must be usable for its intended purposes.
Human factor- issues often arise in the design of consumer products. Safety and liability are
two critical issues in many instances, and they must be carefully considered.
Cultural Factors. Product designers in companies that operate globally also must take into account any
cultural differences of different countries or regions related to the product.
Environment Factors: Sustainability
Cradle-to-grave assessment, also known as life cycle analysis, is the assessment of the environmental impact
of a product or service throughout its useful life, focusing on such factors as global warming (the amount of
carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere), smog formation, oxygen depletion, and solid waste generation.
End-of-life (EOL) programs- deal with products that have reached the end of their useful lives.
The Three Rs: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle
Designers often reflect on three particular aspects of potential cost saving and reducing environmental
impact: reducing the use of materials through value analysis; refurbishing and then reselling returned goods
that are deemed to have additional useful life, which is referred to as remanufacturing; and reclaiming parts of
unusable products for recycling.
Reduce: Value Analysis- Value analysis refers to an examination of the function of parts and materials in an
effort to reduce the cost and/or improve the performance of a product. Typical questions that would be asked
as part of the analysis include: Could a cheaper part or material be used? Is the function necessary? Can the
function of two or more parts or components be performed by a single part for a lower cost? Can a part be
simplified? Could product specifications be relaxed, and would this result in a lower price? Could standard
parts be substituted for nonstandard parts?
Reuse: Remanufacturing- An emerging concept in manufacturing is the remanufacturing of products.
Remanufacturing refers to refurbishing used products by replacing worn-out or defective components, and
reselling the products. This can be done by the original manufacturer, or another company. Among the
products that have remanufactured components are automobiles, printers, copiers, cameras, computers, and
telephones.
Design for disassembly (DFD). Designing products so that they can be more easily taken apart has given rise to
yet another design consideration.
Recycle- Recycling is sometimes an important consideration for designers. Recycling means recovering
materials for future use. This applies not only to manufactured parts but also to materials used during
production, such as lubricants and solvents. Reclaimed metal or plastic parts may be melted down and used to
make different products.
Companies recycle for a variety of reasons, including:
1. Cost savings.
2. Environment concerns.
3. Environmental regulations.
The pressure to recycle has given rise to the term design for recycling (DFR), referring to product design that
takes into account the ability to disassemble a used product to recover the recyclable parts.
Product Life Cycle Management (PLM)- a systematic approach to managing the series of changes a product
goes through, from its conception to its end-of-life.
Standardization- extent to which a product, service or process lacks variety.
Mass Customization- a strategy of producing basically standardized goods, but incorporating some degree of
customization.
Delayed Differentiation - The process of producing, but not quite completing, a product or service until
customer preferences are known.
Modular Design - A form of standardization in which component parts are grouped into modules that are
easily replaced or interchanged.
Reliability - The ability of a product, service, part, or system to perform its intended function under a
prescribed set of conditions.
Failure - is used to describe a situation in which an item does not perform as intended.
Normal Operating Conditions - The set of conditions under which an item’s reliability is specified.
Robust Design - Design that results in products or services that can function over a broad range of conditions.
Taguchi’s Approach - “It is often easier to design a product that is insensitive to environmental factors, either
in manufacturing or in use, than to control the environmental factors”.
Degree of Newness
Product or service design change can range from the modification of an existing product or service to an
entirely new product or service:
1. Modification of an existing product or service.
2. Expansion of an existing product line or service offering.
3. Clone of a competitor’s product or service.
4. New product or service.
Quality Function Deployment- an approach that integrates the “voice of the customer” into both product and
service development.
Kano Model
 Theory of product and service design developed by DR. NORIAKI KANO
 Offered a perspective on customer perception of quality different from traditional view.
 Provides insights into the attributes that are perceived to be important to customers
1. Basic quality
2. Performance quality
3. Excitement quality
Designing For Production
1. Concurrent Engineering is bringing together of engineering design and manufacturing personnel early in
the design phase.
2. Computer-Aided Design is product design using computer graphics.
Benefits of CAD:
 increases productivity of designers, 3 to 10 times
 creates a database for manufacturing information on product specifications
 provides possibility of engineering and cost analysis on proposed designs
Production Requirements
 Forecasts
o Timing and volume of demand
o Demands for new products and services
 Manufacturability is the ease of fabrication and/or assembly which is important for:
o Cost
o Productivity
o Quality
 Design for manufacturing (DFM)
used to indicate the designing of the products that are compatible with an organization’s capabilities.
 Design for assembly (DFA)Reducing the number of parts in an assembly, as well as on assembly methods
and sequence
 Component Commonality it refers to products or services offered high degree of similarity of features and
components.
Service Design
 Service- refers to an act that is done for customer provided by service delivery system
 Product Bundle- combination of goods and services provided to a customer.
 Service Package- physical resources needed to perform the service.
 Service Strategy- determine the nature of services
Service Package:
 Physical resources needed
 Accompanying goods
 Explicit services
 Implicit services
Service Design Key Issue
 The lower degree of customer contact, the more standardized the service
Phases in Service Design Process
1. Conceptualize
2. Identify service package components needed
3. Determine performance specification
4. Translate performance specification into design specification
5. Translate design specification into delivery specification
Service Blueprinting - Method for describing and analyzing a service process.

CHAPTER 5

Capacity - refers to the upper limit or ceiling on the load an operating unit can handle
Goal of Strategic Planning - Achieve a match between the long-term supply capabilities of an organization and
the predicted level of long-term demand.
Organizations become involved in capacity planning for various reasons:
1. Changes in Demand
2. Changes in Technology
3. Changes in Environment
4. Changes in Perceived Opportunities
Design capacity - The maximum output rate or service capacity an operation, process, or facility is designed
for.
Effective capacity - Design capacity minus allowances such as personal time, and maintenance.
Efficiency is the ratio of actual output to effective capacity.
Capacity utilization is the ratio of actual output to design capacity.
DETERMINANTS OF EFFECTIVE CAPACITY PLANNING:
 Facilities - The design of facilities, including size and provision for expansion, is key.
 Production and Service Factors - Product or service design can have a tremendous influence on
capacity.
 Process Factors - The quantity capability of a process is an obvious determinant of capacity.
 Human Factors - The tasks that make up a job, the variety of activities involved, and the training, skill,
and experience required to perform a job all have an impact on the potential and actual output.
 Policy Factors - Management policy can affect capacity by allowing or not allowing capacity options
such as overtime or second or third shifts.
 Operational Factors - Scheduling problems may occur when an organization has differences in
equipment capabilities among alternative pieces of equipment or differences in job requirements.
 Supply Chain Factors - Supply chain factors must be taken into account in capacity planning if
substantial capacity changes are involved.
 External Factors - Product standards, especially minimum quality and performance standards, can restrict
management’s options for increasing and using capacity.
THE THREE PRIMARY STRATEGIES IN CAPACITY PLANNING PROCESS
 Leading Capacity - strategy builds capacity in anticipation of future demand increases. If capacity
increases involve a long lead time, this strategy may be the best option.
 Following Strategy - builds capacity when demand exceeds current capacity.
 Tracking Strategy - similar to a following strategy, but it adds capacity in relatively small increments
to keep pace with increasing demand.
Capacity cushion is an amount of capacity in excess of expected demand when there is some uncertainty
about demand.
Forecasting Capacity Requirements

Capacity planning decisions involve both long-term and short-term considerations.

 Long-term considerations relate to overall level of capacity.
 Short-term considerations relate to probable variations in capacity requirements.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DECIDING WHETHER TO OPERATE IN HOUSE OR TO OUTSOURCE

 Availability Capacity DEVELOPING CAPACITY STRATEGIES

 Expertise 1. Design flexibility into systems.
 Quality Consideration 2. Take stage of life cycle into account.
 The Nature of Demand 3. Take a “big-picture” (i.e., systems) approach to capacity changes.
 Cost 4. Prepare to deal with capacity “chunks.”
 Risks 5. Attempt to smooth out capacity requirements.
6. Identify the optimal operating level.
7. Choose a strategy if expansion is involved

BOTTLENECK OPERATION – An operation in a sequence of operations whose capacity is lower than that of the
other operations.
ECONOMIES OF SCALE - If the output rate is less than the optimal level, increasing the output rate results in
decreasing average unit costs.
DISECONOMIES OF SCALE - If the output rate is more than the optimal level, increasing the output rate results
in increasing average unit costs.
CONSTRAINT - Something that limits the performance of a process or system in achieving goals.
based on the work of Eli Goldratt (The Theory of Constraints) and Eli Schragenheim and H. William Dettmer
(Manufacturing at Warp Speed)
SEVEN CATEGORIES OF CONSTRAINTS

 MARKET FIVE STEPS TO RESOLVE CONSTRAINT ISSUES

 RESOURCE 1. Identify the most pressing constraint
 MATERIAL 2. Change the operation to achieve the maximum benefit, given
the constraint.
 FINANCIAL 3. Make sure the other portions of the process are supportive by
the constraint.
 SUPPLIER ` 4. Explore and evaluate ways to overcome the constraint
 KNOWLEDGE OR COMPETENCY 5. Repeat the process until the level of constraint is acceptable
 POLICY

BREAK EVEN POINT(BEP) - The volume of output at which total cost and total revenue are equal.
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
 CASH FLOW - the difference between cash received from sales and other sources, and cash outflow for
labor, material, overhead, and taxes.
 PRESENT VALUE - the sum, in current value, of all future cash flows of an investment proposal.

DECISION THEORY - Helpful tool for financial comparison of alternatives under conditions of risk or
uncertainty
-Suited to capacity decisions
WAITING LINE ANALYSIS - Useful for designing or modifying service systems.
- Waiting-lines occur across a wide variety of service systems
- Waiting-lines are caused by bottlenecks in the process
- Helps managers plan capacity level that will be cost-effective by balancing the cost of
having customers wait in line with the cost of additional capacity.
SIMULATION - A computer-based model used to run experiments on a real system.

A DECISION TREE is a schematic representation of the alternatives available to a decision maker and their
possible consequences. The term gets its name from the treelike appearance of the diagram

CHAPTER 6

PROCESS SELECTION – refers to deciding on the way production of goods or services will be organized.
 Processes convert inputs into outputs; they are at the core of operations management.
Process selection has operational and supply chain implications.
 Operational implications include equipment and labor requirements, operations costs, and both the
ability to meet demand and the ability to respond to variations in demand.
 Supply chain implications relate to the volume and variety of inputs and outputs and the degree of
flexibility that is required.

Technology is often a factor in process selection and layout. Three aspects of technology can be factors:
product technology, processing technology, and information technology.

KEY ASPECTS IN PROCESSING STRATEGY

Capital Intensity - the mix of equipment and labor that will be used.
Process Flexibility - degree to which the system can be adjusted to changes in processing requirements
(changes in product or service design, volume processed, and technology).

TYPES OF PROCESS

Job Shop - usually operates on a relatively small scale. It is used when a low volume of high-variety goods or
services will be needed.
Batch Processing - is used when a moderate volume of goods or services is desired, and it can handle a
moderate variety in products or services.
Repetitive - When higher volumes of more standardized goods or services are needed, repetitive processing
is used.
Continuous - When a very high volume of non discrete, highly standardized output is desired, a continuous
system is used.
Project - used for work that is non-routine, with a unique set of objectives to be accomplished in a limited
time frame.

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES. The creation of goods and services using processes
and systems.
LEAN PROCESS DESIGN - Has broad applications in seemingly diverse areas such as health care delivery
systems, manufacturing, construction projects, and process reengineering.
- One principle of particular interest here is waste reduction, which relates to
sustainability objectives.
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION - The discovery and development of new or improved products, services, or
processes for producing or providing them.
AUTOMATION - Also known as automatic control, is the use of various control systems for operating
equipment

KINDS OF AUTOMATION
 FIXED AUTOMATION
Least flexible – uses high-cost, specialized equipment for a fixed sequence of operations
Primary advantage – low cost and high volume
Primary limitation – minimal variety and high cost of making major changes in either product or
process.

 PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION - Uses High cost, general-purpose equipment

- Capable of economically producing a fairly wide variety of low-volume products in small batches.
 COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM) - refers to the use of computers in process control,
ranging from robots to automated quality control.
 NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED (N/C) MACHINES - it programmed to follow a set of processing
instructions based on mathematical relationships.
 Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) -Individual machines having their own computer.
 Direct Numerical Control (DNC) -One computer controlling number of machines.
Robots - Can handle a wide variety of tasks.
- Relieves humans from heavy or dirty work and often eliminate drudgery task.

TYPES OF MANUFACTURING/SERVICE ROBOTS

 SIMPLE ROBOTS - Follows a fixed set of instructions.
 PROGRAMMABLE ROBOTS - Can repeat a set of movements after being led through the sequence.
 COMPUTER-CONTROLLED ROBOTS - Follows instructions from a computer.
 FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION
 Uses equipment that is more customized than that of programmable automation.
 Evolved from programmable automation.
 Key difference: flexible automation requires significantly less changeover time
TYPES OF FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION
 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS)
 A group of machines designed to handle intermittent processing requirements and produce a
variety of similar products.
 Computer-integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
 A system for linking a broad range of manufacturing activities through an integrating computer
system.
LAYOUT - The configuration of departments, work centers, and equipment, with particular emphasis on
movement of work through the system.
IMPORTANCE OF LAYOUT DESIGN
 Requires substantial investments of money and effort
 Involves long-term commitment
 Significant impact on the cost and efficiency of operations.
BASIC TYPES OF LAYOUT
1. Product layout – Most conducive to repetitive processing.
2. Process layout – Used for intermittent processing.
3. Fixed Position layout – Used for projects require layouts.

 PRODUCT LAYOUTS
 Used to achieve a smooth and rapid flow of large volumes of goods or customers through a
system.
 Work is divided into series of standardized tasks due to the repetitive processing.
 U-Shaped Layout – “balancing the line” allows the operators to work across both legs of the line
Advantages: Increase communication among workers
Flexible in work assignments
Minimizes material handling

 NONREPETITIVE PROCESSING
 Have a discontinuous work flow or also known as intermittent processing.
 Common in hospitals (e.g maternity, pediatrics, psychiatric), banks, airlines, universities.

 FIXED POSITION LAYOUTS

 The item being worked on remains stationary while the workers, materials and equipment are
being moved.
 Common in large construction project (ex. buildings, power plants, dams)

COMBINATION LAYOUT
 “Hybrid Layouts”
 Machineries are arranged in a process layout but the process grouping is then arranged in a
sequence to manufacture various types and sizes of products.

CELLULAR LAYOUT
 An equipment layout configured to support Cellular manufacturing
 Cellular Manufacturing: It is a concept to bring all the equipment, people and processes into a
single location designed to improve efficiency, quality and output.

SERVICE LAYOUT - Designed based on degree of customer contact and the service needed by a customer.

TYPES OF SERVICE LAYOUT

 Warehouse and Storage Layout
 Design of storage facility and factory layout.
 Retail Layout
 Customers’ presence and the opportunity to influence sales volume and customer attitudes
through carefully designed layouts.
 Office Layout
 Undergoing transformations as the flow of paperwork is replaced with the increasing use of
electronic communications.
 Automation in Services
Automating services means more standardized services and less need to involve the customer directly.

Cycle time - The maximum time allowed at each workstation to complete its set of tasks on a unit.
Minimum Cycle – longest task time
Maximum Cycle – sum of the task times
Output rate = Operating time per day/ Cycle time
CHAPTER 7
Quality of Work Life
Quality of work life affects not only workers’ overall sense of well-being and contentment, but also their
productivity
 Important aspects of quality of work life:
o How a worker gets along with co-workers
o Quality of management
o Working conditions
o Compensation
Working Conditions:
1. Temperature and Humidity
2. Unpleasant and noxious odors
3. The amount of illumination
4. Noise and Vibrations.
5. Vibrations
6. Work Time and Work Breaks
7. Occupational Health Care
8. Worker safety
COMPENSATION
 INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVE PLANS - are based on meeting work-related performance standards, such as
quality, productivity, customer satisfaction, safety, or attendance.
 GROUP INCENTIVE PLANS - Are award programs that deliver lump-sum cash payments, time-off awards,
and/or informal recognition items to groups of employees who meet or exceed pre-established levels of
organizational performance.
 KNOWLEDGED-BASED PAY SYSTEMS - A Pay system used by organizations to reward workers who
undergo training that increases their skills.
 MANAGEMENT COMPENSATION - Many organizations that traditionally rewarded managers and senior
executives on the basis of output are now seriously reconsidering that approach.
RECENT TRENDS
Many organizations are moving toward compensation systems that emphasize flexibility and performance
objectives, with variable pay based on performance.
JOB DESIGN - The act of specifying the contents and methods of jobs.
 What will be done in a job
 Who will do the job
 How the job will be done
 Where the job will be done
SPECIALIZATION - Work that concentrates on some aspect of product or service.

Behavioral Approaches to Job Design

1. Job Enlargement - Giving a worker a larger portion of the total task by horizontal loading
2. Job Rotation - Workers periodically exchange jobs
3. Job Enrichment -Increasing responsibility for planning and coordination tasks, by vertical loading
MOTIVATION- is a key factor in many aspects of work life. Not only can it not influence quality and
productivity, it also contributes to the work environment. People work for a variety of reasons.

TEAMS
The efforts of business organization to become more productive, competitive, and customer oriented have
caused them to rethink how work is accomplished.
Expert Robert Bacal has a list of requirements for successful team building:
 Clearly stated and commonly held vision and goals.
 Talent and skills required to meet goals.
 Clear understanding of team members’ roles and functions.
 Efficient and shared understanding of procedures and norms.
 Effective and skilled interpersonal relations.
 A system of reinforcement and celebration.
 Clear understanding of the team’s relationship to the greater organization.
ERGONOMICS
 Incorporation of human factors in the design of the workplace.

Flow process charts – chart use to examine the

overall sequence of an operation by focusing on
movements of the operator or flow of materials.
Worker Machine Chart – used to determine portions of a work cycle during which an operator and equipment
are busy or idle.

MOTION STUDY
Systematic study of the human motions used to perform an
operation.
 There are number of different techniques that motion
study analyst can use to develop efficient procedures. The most used techniques are the following :
1. Motion study principles.
2. Analysis of therbligs.
3. Micromotion study.
4. Charts.
Motion study principle – guidelines for designing motion efficient work procedures.
In developing work methods that are motion efficient, the analyst tries to
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions.
2. Combine activities.
3. Reduce fatigue.
4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace.
5. Improve the design of tools and equipment.

Analysis of Therbligs - basic elemental motions that make up a job.

Symbols of Therbligs:

Search implies hunting for an item with the hands and/or the eyes.
Select means to choose from a group of objects.
Grasp means to take hold of an object.
Hold refers to retention of an object after it has been grasped.
Transport load means movement of an object after hold.
Release load means to deposit the object.
 Micro motion Study – use of motion pictures and slow
motions to study motions that otherwise would be too rapid to analyze.
 Charts – tool for analyzing and recording motion studies.

WORK MEASUREMENT
 Determining how long should it take to do a job.
Standard time –The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to complete a specified task, working a
sustainable rates, using given methods, tools and equipment, raw materials and workplace arrangement.

Stopwatch Time Study

 Formally introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the late 19 th Today it is the most widely used method
of work measurement. It is especially appreciate for short repetitive tasks.
 Stopwatch time study is used to develop a time standard basedon observations of one worker taken over
a number of cycles.

The basic step in a time study are the following:

1. Define the task to be studied, and inform the worker who will be studied.
2. Determine the number of cycles to be observe.
3. Time the job, and rate the worker’s performance.
4. Compute the standard time.

The number of cycles that must be timed is a function of three things:

1. The variability of observed times
2. The desired accuracy
3. The desired level of confidence for the estimated job time
Very often the desired accuracy is expressed as a percentage of the mean of the observed times.
Development of a time standard
Development of a time standard involves computation of three times:
 Observed time (TO)
 Normal time (NT)
 Standard time (ST)
Observed Time simply the average of the recorded times.
Normal Time observed time adjusted for worker performance. It is computed by multiplying the observed
time by a performance rating.
 This assumes that a single performance rating has been made for the entire job. If ratings are made on an
element-by-element basis, the normal time is obtained by multiplying each element’s average time by its
performance rating and summing those values:
Standard Time the normal time does not take into account such factors as personal delays, unavoidable delays
or rest breaks.
Time standards derived from a firm’s historical time data.
The procedure for using standard elemental times consists of the following steps:
1. Analyze the job to identify the standard elements.
2. Check the file for elements that have historical times, and record them. Use time study to obtain others, if
necessary.
3. Modify the file times if necessary (explained below).
4. Sum the elemental times to obtain the normal time, and factor in allowances to obtain the standard time.
Predetermined Time Standards
 Published data based on extensive research to determine standard elemental times.
Work Sampling
 A technique for estimating the portion of time that a worker or machine spends on various and idle time.
Although work sampling is occasionally used to set standards, its two primary uses are in:
a.) ratio-delay studies – it concerns the percentage of a worker’s time that involves unavoidable delays
or the portion of time a machine is idle.
b.) analysis of non-repetitive jobs – in this job, such as secretarial work or maintenance, it can be important to
establish the percentage of time an employee spends doing various tasks.
Operations Strategy
A plan specifying how an organization will allocate resources in order to support infrastructure and
production. An operations strategy is typically driven by the overall business strategy of the organization, and
is designed to maximize the effectiveness of production and support elements while minimizing costs.

CHAPTER 8

LOCATION PLANNING

Location decisions represent a key part of the strategic planning process of virtually every organization. And,
although it might appear that location decisions are one-time problems pertaining to new organizations,
existing organizations often have a bigger stake in these kinds of decisions than new organizations.

NEED FOR LOCATING DECISIONS

 Marketing Strategy
 Growth in Demand
 Depletion of basic inputs
 Shift in Markets
 Cost of Doing Business

GLOBAL LOCATIONS - Globalization has opened new markets, and it has meant increasing dispersion of
manufacturing and service operations around the world.
FACILITATING FACTORS - Trade Agreements. Barriers to international trade such as tariffs and quotas have
been reduced or eliminated with trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the U.S.–China Trade Relations Act. Also,
the European Union has dropped many trade barriers, and the World Trade Organization is helping to
facilitate free trade.
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES such as faxing capability, e-mail, cell phones, teleconferencing, and the Internet.

BENEFITS – MARKET, COST SAVINGS , LEGAL AND REGULATORY, FINANCIAL

DISADVANTAGES – TRANSPORATION COSTS, SECURITY COSTS, UNSKILLED LABOR, IMPORT RESTRICTIONS,
CRITICISMS
RISK FACTORS IN LOCATION DECISION – POLITICAL, TERRORISM, ECONOMIC, LEGAL, ETHICAL, CULTURE
FACTORS CONSIDER IN IDENTIFYING A COUNTRY: FACTORS CONSIDER IN IDENTIFYING A REGION

 GOVERNMENT - LOCATION OF RAW MATERIALS

 CULTURAL DIFFERENCES - LOCATION OF MARKETS
 CUSTOMER PREFERENCES - LABOR FACTORS
 LABOR - OTHER FACTORS
 RESOURCES
 FINANCIAL
 TECHNOLOGICAL
 MARKET
 SOCIETY

FACTORS CONSIDER IN IDENTIFYING A COMMUNITY FACTORS CONSIDER IN IDENTIFYING ZONE

o QUALITY OF LIFE - LAND

o SERVICES - TRANSPORTATION
o ATTITUDES - ZONING OR OTHER RESTRICTIONS
o TAXES
o ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
o UTILITIES
o DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT

MICROFACTORY - Small factory with a narrow product focus located near major markets

MULTIPLE PLANT MANUFACTURING STRATEGY

1. Product Plant Strategy - products or product lines are produced in separate plants, and each plants usually
supplies the entire domestic markets. This is essentially a decentralizes approach.
2. Market Area Plant - plants are designed to serve a particular geographic segment of a market (ex. the West
Coast, Northeast).
3. Process Plant Strategy - different plants concentrate on different aspects of a process.
4. General-Purpose Plant Strategy - plants are flexible and capable of handling a range of products. This
allows for quick response or market changes

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

- A computer-based tool for collecting, storing, retrieving, and displaying demographic data on maps.
LOCATION COST-PROFIT-VOLUME ANALYSIS - Technique for evaluating location choices in economic terms
can be done numerically and graphically.
CHAPTER 9
QUALITY - refers to the ability of a product or service to consistently meet or exceed customer requirements
or expectations.
DIMENSION OF QUALITY

1. PRODUCT QUALITY
 Performance - main characteristics of the product.
 Aesthetics —appearance, feel, smell, taste.
 Special features —extra characteristics.
 Conformance —how well a product corresponds to design specifications.
 Reliability —dependable performance.
 Durability —ability to perform over time.
 Perceived quality —indirect evaluation of quality (e.g., reputation).
 Serviceability —handling of complaints or repairs.
2. SERVICE QUALITY
o Convenience —the availability and accessibility of the service.
 o Reliability —the ability to perform a service dependably, consistently, and accurately.
o Responsiveness —the willingness of service providers to help customers in unusual situations
o Time —the speed with which service is delivered.
o Assurance —the knowledge exhibited by personnel who come into contact with a customer and
their ability to convey trust and confidence.
o Courtesy —the way customers are treated by employees who come into contact with.
o Tangibles —the physical appearance of facilities, equipment, personnel, and communication
o Consistency —The ability to provide the same level of good quality repeatedly.
o SERVQUAL - A widely used tool for assessing service quality; an instrument designed to obtain
feedback on an organization’s ability to provide quality service to customers.

4 Dimensions that influence customers perceptions

1. Tangibles
2. Reliability
3. Responsiveness
4. Assurance

DETERMINANTS OF QUALITY
The degree to which a product or a service successfully satisfies its intended purpose has four primary
determinants:

1. Design
2. How well the product or service conforms the design
3. Ease of use
4. Service after delivery

DESIGN - involves decisions about the specific characteristics of a product or service such as size, shape, and
location.
QUALITY OF DESIGN - refers to the intention of designers to include or exclude certain features in a product or
service.
QUALITY CONFORMANCE - refers to the degree to which goods and services conform to the intent of the
designers.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR QUALITY (STAKEHOLDERS)

 TOP MANAGEMENT - has the ultimate responsibility for quality.

 DESIGN
 PROCUREMENT - has responsibility for obtaining goods and services that will not detract from the
quality of the organization’s goods and services.
 PRODUCTION/OPERATION - has responsibility to ensure that processes yield products and services
that conform to design specifications.
 QUALITY ASSURANCE - responsible for gathering and analyzing data on problems and working with
operations to solve problems.
 PACKAGING AND SHIPPING - This department must ensure that goods are not damaged in transit, that
packages are clearly labeled.
 MARKETING AND SALES - This department has the responsibility to determine customer needs.
 CUSTOMER SERVICE - often the first department to learn of problems. It has the responsibility to
communicate that information.

Benefits of Good Quality

Business organizations with good or excellent quality typically benefit in a variety of ways:
 an enhanced reputation for quality
 the ability to command premium prices
 an increased market share
 greater customer loyalty
 lower liability costs
 and fewer production or service problems—which yields higher productivity,
 fewer complaints from customers,
 lower production costs and higher profits
The Consequences of Poor Quality
1. Loss of business.
2. Liability.
3. Productivity.
4. Costs.

The Costs of Quality

Any serious attempt to deal with quality issues must take into account the costs associated with quality. Those
costs can be classified into three categories: appraisal, prevention, and failure.

1. Appraisal costs relate to inspection, testing, and other activities intended to uncover defective
products or services, or to assure that there are none. They include the cost of inspectors, testing, test
equipment, labs, quality audits, and field testing.
2. Prevention costs relate to attempts to prevent defects from occurring. They include cost such as
planning and administration systems, working with vendors, training, quality control procedures, and
extra attention in both the design and production phases to decrease the probability of defective
workmanship.
3. Failure costs are incurred by defective parts or products or by faulty services.

Internal failures are those discovered during the production process;

External failures are those discovered after delivery to the customer. Internal failures occur for a
variety of reasons, including defective material from vendors, incorrect machine settings, faulty
equipment, incorrect methods, incorrect processing, carelessness, and faulty or improper material
handling procedures.

Return on Quality (ROQ) - An approach that evaluates the financial return of investments in quality.

ETHICS AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT

 Substandard work
o Defective products
o Substandard service
o Poor designs
o Shoddy workmanship
o Substandard parts and materials

QUALITY AWARDS

 BALDRIDGE AWARD
 EUROPEAN QUALITY AWARD
 DEMING PRIZE

MALCOLM BALDRIDGE NATIONAL QUALITY AWARD

- Annual award given by the U.S. government to recognize quality achievements of U.S. companies.

Key Areas of Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award

1. Leadership 5. Human Resource Focus

2. Strategic Planning 6. Process Management
3. Customer and Market Focus 7. Business Result
4. Information and Analysis

EUROPEAN QUALITY AWARD

- Europe’s most prestigious award for organizational excellence

DEMING PRIZE

- The Deming Prize, named in honor of the late W. Edwards Deming, is Japan’s highl covetedaward
recognizing successful quality efforts. It is given annually to any company that meets the award’s
 standards. Although typically given to Japanese firms, in 1989, Florida Power and Light became the first
U.S. company to win the award.
ISO QUALITY CERTIFICATION
ISO 9000 - Set of international standards on quality management and quality assurance, critical to
international business
Requirements
 System requirements
 Management
 Resource
 Realization
 Remedial

ISO 9000 Quality Management Principles

 Customer focus
 Leadership
 Involvement of People
 Process approach
 A systems approach to management
 Continual improvement
 Factual approach to decision making
 Mutually beneficial supplier relationships

ISO 14000 - A set of international standards for assessing a company’s environmental performance

Standards in three major areas

1. Management systems - Systems development and integration of environmental responsibilities into
business planning
2. Operations - Consumption of natural resources and energy
3. Environmental systems - Measuring, assessing and managing emissions, effluents, and other waste

ISO 24700 - A set of international standards that pertains to the quality and performance of
office equipment that contains reused components.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

A primary role of management is to lead an organization in its daily operation and to maintain it as a viable
entity into the future. Quality has become an important factor in both of these objectives.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) - A philosophy that involves everyone in an organization in a

continual effort to improve quality and achieve customer satisfaction. A quest for quality in an organization.

THREE KEY PHILOSOPHY APPROACH

1. never-ending push to improve, referred to as continuous improvement
2. involvement of everyone in the organization
3. goal of customer satisfaction, which means meeting or exceeding customer expectations.
ELEMENTS OF TQM
 Competitive benchmarking
 Employee empowerment
 Team approach
 Decisions based on facts rather opinion
 Knowledge of tools
 Supplier quality
 Champion
 Quality at the source
 Suppliers

CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT - Philosophy that seeks to make never-ending improvements to the process of
converting inputs into outputs.
 Kaizen: Japanese word for continuous improvement.
QUALITY AT THE SOURCE - The philosophy of making each worker responsible for the quality of his or her
work.
SIX SIGMA - A business process for improving quality, reducing costs, and increasing customer satisfaction.
 Statistically
o Having no more than 3.4 defects per million
 Conceptually
o Program designed to reduce defects
o Requires the use of certain tools and techniques
Six Sigma Process(DMAIC)
 Define
 Measure
 Analyze
 Improve
 Control

LEAN/SIX SIGMA - An approach to continuous improvement that integrates lean operation principles and six-
sigma techniques.
PDSA CYCLE - also referred to as either the Shewhart cycle or the Deming wheel, is the conceptual basis for
problem-solving activities.
PROCESS IMPROVEMENT - systematic approach to improving a process. It involves documentation,
measurement, and analysis for the purpose of improving the functioning of a process. Typical goals of process
improvement include increasing customer satisfaction, achieving higher quality, reducing waste, reducing cost,
increasing productivity, and reducing processing time.
FIRST SEVEN TOOLS are often reffered to as the SEVEN BASIC QUALITY TOOLS.

1. Flowcharts - A flowchart is a visual representation of a process.

2. Check Sheets - A check sheet is a simple tool frequently used for problem identification.
3. Pareto Analysis - is a technique for focusing attention on the most important problem areas. The
Pareto concept, named after the 19th-century Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, is that a relatively few
factors generally account for a large percentage of the total cases (e.g., complaints, defects, problems).
4. Histograms - A histogram can be useful in getting a sense of the distribution of observed values.
5. Scatter Diagrams - A scatter diagram can be useful in deciding if there is a correlation between the
values of two variables. A correlation may point to a cause of a problem
6. Control Charts - A control chart can be used to monitor a process to see if the process output is
random. It can help detect the presence of correctable causes of variation.
7. Cause and effect diagram – “fishbone diagram” or “Ishikawa diagram” This tool helps to organize
problem-solving efforts by identifying categories of factors that might be causing problems. Often this
tool is used after brainstorming sessions to organize the ideas generated.
METHODS FOR GENERATING IDEAS
1. Brainstorming is a technique in which a group of people share thoughts and ideas on problems in a relaxed
atmosphere that encourages unrestrained collective thinking.
2. Quality circles Groups of workers who meet to discuss ways of improving products or processes.
3. Benchmarking Process of measuring performance against the best in the same or another industry.