INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

Energy Systems: Fundamental Concepts and Principles

 Thermodynamics – is the branch of science that deals with the transformation of energy from one form to
another, and the movement of energy from one location to another.
o It is derived from the Greek words: therme (heat) and dynamis (power/movement).

 Thermodynamic System – a region in space that occupies a given volume and has a specific boundary, and
contains a thermodynamic substance.

 Thermodynamic Surrounding – it constitutes everything external to the thermodynamic system. The system is
separated from the surroundings by the system boundary which may be either fixed or movable.

Three Basic Types of Thermodynamic System

1. Open System (Steady Flow / Control Volume) – in this system, heat, work, and mass all cross the system
boundary.

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
 2. Closed System (Non-Flow / Control Mass) – in this system, there is no mass flow. Only heat and work can cross
the system boundary.

3. Isolated System – in this system, nothing crosses the system boundary. (No heat, no work, and no mass goes in or
out of the system.)

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
Basic Law of Thermodynamics

1. Zeroth Law. States that when two systems are separately in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

2. First Law (Law of Conservation of Energy). States that energy itself cannot be created or destroyed but only
transformed from one form of energy to another.
 The sum of energies going out of the system must be equal to the sum of the energies going into the system.

3. Second Law. It is concerned with the availability from a thermodynamic cycle and demonstrate the impossibility
of a perpetual motion machine.
 Concept of Entropy. A natural process that starts in one equilibrium state and ends in another will go in the
direction that cause the entropy of the system and the environment to increase.
 Kelvin-Plank Statement (Concept of Thermal Efficiency). It is impossible to operate an engine operating in a cycle
that will have no other effect than to extract heat from a reservoir and turn it into an equivalent amount of work.
 Reeves Statement. Heat flows readily from a region of high temperature to one lower temperature.
 Clausius Statement. It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unaided by an external agency, to convey heat from
one body to another at a higher temperature.

4. Third Law. “Entropy tends to a minimum constant value as the temperature tends to absolute zero.”

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
  For a pure element this minimum value is zero, but for all other substances it is not less than zero, but possibly
more.
 From a practical standpoint it means that it is impossible to attain a temperature of absolute zero by other than a
reversible (ideal) process.

Thermodynamic Property – is the substance characteristic which is used to define the state of the system and can be
measured, when the system remains in an equilibrium state.

Two general classifications:

1. Intensive (Intrinsic) Property. One that is independent on the mass of the substance. Also defined as,
extensive property per unit mass.
 (e.g.) Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, Specific Gravity, Temperature, Specific Internal Energy,
Pressure

2. Extensive (Extrinsic) Property. One that is dependent on the mass of the substance.
 (e.g.) Weight/Force, Volume, Energy, Mass

BASIC QUANTITIES and THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

1. Mass and Weight

 The mass (m) of a body is the measure of the

amount of material present in the body.
 The weight (W) of the body is the force exerted
by the body when its mass is in a gravitational
field.
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion (Law of
Acceleration) states that:
o “The body will accelerate in the direction of the unbalanced force, and;”
o “The acceleration will be directly proportional to the unbalanced force and inversely proportional to the mass of the
body. (a ∝ F/m)

where… Eng’g Units MKS Units SI Units

W, weight or force by
lbf kgf N
gravity

m, mass of the substance lbm (or) slug kgm kgm

go, observed gravitatational

acceleration

gc, proportionality constant 32.174 (or) 1 9.807 1

gs, standard gravitational 9.807 9.807

32.174
acceleration

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
 o Note: Use the standard gravitational acceleration (gs) if the observed gravitational acceleration (go) is not given.

2. Mass Density and Specific Volume

 Mass density (ρ) is the measure of mass (m)

per unit volume (V).

 Specific volume (ν) is the measure of volume

per unit mass. It is also considered as the
reciprocal of mass density.

where… Eng’g Units MKS Units SI Units

V, volume of the substance ft3 (or) gal m3 m3

m, mass of the substance lbm kgm kgm

ρ, Mass Density of the

(or)
object
ν, Specific Volume of the
object (or)

 Notes to be taken:
o Mass density of water (ρH2O) at sea level and STP (4°C, 101.325 kPa) is 1000 kgm / m3. Other equal
values are expressed in different units such as 62.427 lbm / ft3 ; 1 kgm / L ; 8.33 lbm / gal.
o Mass density of water (ρH2O) at any temperature is given by the reciprocal of the specific volume of
water at saturated liquid condition. (Drawn from the Saturated Temperature Table or STT)

o Mass density of air (ρair) at sea level and STP (70°F, 14.696 psia) is 0.075 lbm / ft3. Other equal values
are expressed in different units such as 1.2 kgm / m3 ; 0.0012 kgm / L.
o Mass density of air (ρair) at any given pressure or temperature is given by:

where: Pair is the absolute pressure of the air, Rair is the gas constant of air and Tair is the absolute
temperature.

o Some useful conversions are the following:

 1 ft3 = 7.481 gal = 28,317 cm3 = 28.317 L
 1 gal = 3.7854 L = 8 pt

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
  1 m3 = 1,000 L
 1 L = 1,000 mL = 1,000 cm3
 1 drum = 55 gal (used in unrefined petroleum products)
 1 barrel = 42 gal (used in refined petroleum and other liquids)

3. Weight Density or Specific Weight

 The weight density or specific weight (γ) is the weight (gravitational force) exerted by the substance per
unit volume.

where… Eng’g Units MKS Units SI Units

V, volume of the substance ft3 m3 m3

W, weight of the substance lbf kgf N

γ, Weight Density of the

object

4. Specific Gravity or Relative Density

 The specific gravity (SG) or relative density is the ratio of the

mass density of a substance to the mass density of an equal
volume of water at standard temperature (4°C) or
temperature at its maximum density.

5. Pressure

 Pressure (P) is the normal force exerted by the fluid per unit area of the surface.

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
  Pressure can also be measured by getting the height of column of the liquid that it supports.

where… Eng’g Units MKS Units SI Units

P, pressure exerted by the
(psi) ; (psf) (Pa) ; (kPa)
fluid
F, normal force exerted by
lbf kgf N ; kN
the fluid

A, area normal to the force in2 ; ft2 cm2 m2

Other units of pressure used in problems on Thermodynamics (all in absolute value, equal to the standard atmospheric or
barometric pressure at sea level of 1 atm).

1 atmabs 101.325 kPaabs 0.101325 MPaabs 1.01325 barabs

760 mm Hgabs 760 torrabs 1.01325 x 106 dyne/cm2abs 101 325 Paabs

29.92 in Hgabs 76 cm Hgabs 14.696 psiabs 33.934 ft H2Oabs

1.0332 kgf/cm2 10.345 m H2Oabs

 In measuring pressure, we use different devices for different pressure ranges or purposes.
o Bourdon pressure gage – commonly used to measure gage pressure

o Manometer – commonly used to measure vacuum pressure

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
 o Compound gage – can measure either gage or vacuum pressure

 We use different pressure scales in measuring pressure.

o Absolute Pressure (Pabs) – is the actual (true) pressure measured above absolute zero conditions
(perfect vacuum).

o Gage Pressure (Pgage) – is the relative pressure measured above the atmospheric conditions,
using the compound or bourdon gauges, sometimes with the use of manometers as well.

o Vacuum Pressure (Pvac) – is the pressure measured below the atmospheric condition using
compound gauges or manometers.

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
 6. Temperature
 Temperature (T) is that property which determines the direction of the flow of heat.
 Is used to indicate the amount of energy within the
molecules of the substance.
 Measures the hotness or coldness of the substance.
 Arbitrary scales such as Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F)
measure the “zero temperature” at a certain point above absolute zero.
 Absolute scales such as Kelvin (K) and Rankine (R) are
temperature scales measured from absolute zero condition.
 At absolute zero, the motion (vibration) of the particles in
the system ceases, and those same particles remain perfectly still. Hence,
the absolute zero is said to be the lowest temperature possible. (T=0, ΔS=0)

Sample Problems:

1. What is the weight of a 66 kgm man at standard conditions?

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard conditions?
3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30 ft/s 2 are as follows. What is the total mass expressed in
grams.
a. Mass 1 is 500 g
b. Mass 2 weighs 800 gf
c. Mass 3 weighs 15 poundals
d. Mass 4 weighs 3 lbf
e. Mass 5 is 0.1 slugs
4. What is the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131-ft Mount Everest if g = 32.088 ft/s2 at sea level, and g decreases by
0.003 ft/s2 per 1000 feet of ascent.
5. What is the specific weight of the water at standard conditions?
6. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/m3 and ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) are poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If
the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used.
7. Find the specific weight of the mixture in problem number 6, if g = 9.675 m/s2.
8. If a cylindrical pitcher with a diameter of 15 cm contains 1.5 liters of water, find the pressure it exerts.
9. A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density is 1878 kg/m3) is located where g = 9.65 m/s2. Find the pressure at the base of the
column.

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce
 10. A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 mHg. What is the absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa when the
atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa?
11. Convert the following readings into kPa of absolute pressure if the barometer reads 755mmHg.
a. 90 cmHg gage
b. 40 cmHg vacuum
c. 100 psi gage
d. 8 inHg vacuum
e. 76 inHg gage
12. What is the temperature where Celsius and Fahrenheit become numerically equal?
13. Convert the melting point of gold (1,064°C) into Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and Rankine.
14. What is the freezing point of mercury (-38.83°C) in K, °F and °R.
15. Is it possible for Kelvin and Rankine scale to be numerically equal? If yes, at what temperature?

Introduction to Thermodynamics METD-323 – Lesson 01 Prepared by: Engr. Christian Kenneth D. Garduce