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    CH 3 - Traffic Engineering

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    isu ® (o fa) a CHAPTER t the ttand : - te Traffic Engineering i) for isthe artical 2 14m se) Mineral > two) Traffic engineering is defined as that phase of highway engineering which deals with the planning and ‘cent design of highway and with the traffic operation there on for the safe convenient and economic transportation of mph, Persons and goods . This is achieved by systematic trafic studies, scientific analysis and engineering applications riot Tiaffic studies are further divided into ping 1. Traffic characteristics 2, Traffic studies and analysis 3. Traffic control regulation Be Function of Traffic Engineering inner The function of traffic engineering can be covered in the following five categories: ‘ided 1. Traffic characteristics veing (@) Vehicular limitations like the weight, size and power of the vehicle. 1, the (b) Road user limitation othe (i) Physical limitations like vision, hearing, fatigue etc. (ii) Mental limitations like intelligence, skill, experience of drivers etc. (ii) Emotional limitations like attentiveness, impatience etc 2. Traffic operations which constitutes the traffic regulations, trafic control devices like trafic signs, signals, marking ete. 3. Trattic geometric design involving the dé parking etc, Tratfic planning like programme of construction, offstreet parking etc 5. Tratfic administration 21m) sign of expressways, streets; interchanges, intersections, Traffic Characteristics Intratfic characteristics, we study about the road user characteristics and vehicular characteristics. Road User Characteristics Human elements involved in all the actions of road users i.e. motorist, pedestrian etc, Factors affect ing BSer characteristics are: Physica: Vision, hearing, strength and the general reaction to traffic situations \wenn.madeeasypublications.org MADE EASY eee" ——=t=é MADE EASY ———— Publications g0 | = q-K= (i ie gare Ai) when test vehicle moves againstthe steam (N-S) ku = aT Ai) Fe non (n,=9) From eq. (i) Tw - ny = aly KL ‘i ] From eq.) | (iv) Adding eq. (iil) and (iv) | . m+n, = AT,+T) a | wl =i hel From eq. (i) usd ce K yonton) % Mire (winumadessypunicatonsors MADE EASY “econo MADE EASY TiatcEngineering | g3 Publications — a a 43.3. Origin and Destination Studies This study is generally carried out to (0) Plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular tratfics, (id) Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation forthe trip demand, (itt) To judge the adequacy of existing routes and to use in planning new network to roads, (i) To locate expressway or major routes along the desires lines. (») Toestablish preferential routes for various categories to vehicle including by pass. (vi) To locate intermediate stops of public transport (vi) Ibis also used for mass rapid transit system. There are number of methods for collecting the Oand Ddata: (Road Side Interview Method: Data is collected quickly in short duration and the field organisation is simple and the team can trained quick'y. The main disadvantage of this method is that the vehicles are stopped forinterview and there is delay tothe vehicular movement License Plate Method: This method is quite easy and quick as for as the fieldwork is concerned. Observers are simultaneously stationed at all points of entry and exit leading into and out of a particular area. After collecting field data computation and analysis, by tracking each vehicle number and its time of entering and leaving the considered area. This method is advantageous, ifthe area considered is small Return Post Car Method: In this method post cards with return address are distributed to the road Users. Distributing stations for the post cards may be selected where vehicles have to stop such as toll booth. Questionnaire to be filled in by the road user is printed on the card:along with a request for cooperation and purpose of study. This method is suitable where the traffic is heavy, (iv) Tagon Car Method: A precoded card is stuck on the vehicle as it enters the area under study. When the car leaves the study area then the other observations are recorded on the tag. This method is suitable when trafic is heavy and move continuously (v) Home interview Method: Random people are selected from the marked area and visited by a expert term who collect all the travel data fromeach member of the household. The problem of stopping vehicle and consequent difficulties are avoided altogether. Adaitional data including socio-economic and other details may be collected so as to be Useful for force casting traffic and transportation growth, (vi) Work Spot interview Method: The transportation needs of work trips can be planned by collecting the O and D data at work spots like offices, factories, educational institutions etc. by personal interviews Presentation of O and D Data The O and Ddata are presented in the following form (and DTable: These are prepared showing number of trips between different zones. i) Desire Lines: These are the straight lines connecting the origin points with destinations. Desire lines density map shows the actual desire of road user based on which necessity of new road link or bypass is decided. The width of desire line is proportional to the number of trips in both directions. ‘Charts: Diameter of circles are proportional to number of trips, (iv) Contour Lines: The shape of the contours would indicate the general traffic need of the area wwrumedeeasypublications.org Se ieeo y MADE EASY Publications. 94 | CivilEngineering » Highway Engine 43.4 Traffic Flow Characteristics and Studies Tralfic flow characteristics are divided under two categories: 1. Macroscopic characteristics: Traffic flow theory assumes that there is a fundamental relationship among the three principle variables of trafic flow, speed, and density as follows: q=kxU i) where, = Traffic volume (Vehicles /hour) k= Traffic Density (Vehicles km) U= Speed of vehicle (kmph) i.e. space mean speed Eq. (i) can be derived to get the relationship between any two variables in the three principal variables (eg., speed-density), and the other two relationships (density-flow, speed-tiow) will be got automatically. Therefore, we choose the speed density k as a function of speed U, then the speed- density function can be shown as k= K(U). The fist traffic low model was proposed by Greenshields in 1935, He suggested a linear relationship between the density and speed k usu, {1- us(i-i5) where, k, = jam density (coresponding to zero speed. ie., Uz 0); U, = free flow speed and Traffic volume, q=kU : - fa) For maximum volume, 9 ¢ J fom => val 2) 0 keke : when, and U= Uy, Gro = 4 number of mathematical models between the traffic speed and density were proposed and calibrated by fiting curves to empirical traffic cata, k. Green berg model: U=Uy Inge Underwood model (exponential distribution) :U = Uye"*" SHEE Caer acca Coe t ES MADE EASY Scopyion) Publications MADE EASY TratficEngineerng | gs ublicati 2, Microscopic characteristics: 60) 1 Time Headway: The time interval between the passage of successive vehicles moving in the same lane and measured from head to head as they pass a point on the road is known as the time headway. Space Headway: The distance between successive vehicles moving in the same lane measured from head atany instance 95 Soa aoe eO Tey is the space headway. Observed speed of pars of vetictes (ko) Space gap allowed by the driver of @ —_Figure-4.5: Variation of min. space andtime headways with speed followed vehicle depends on several factors such as: (Speeds offeading and following vehicles (i) Typeand characteristics of the two vehicles (iii) Driver characteristics of the following vehicle (js) Level of service () Road geometrics (i) Environmental tactors Traffic stream generally has tiow and counter flow along a common route. The basic trafic manoeuvres are diverging, merging and crossing as shown in Figure 4.6. LU) eee { | “Hesonay t= Minimum spacing Diveraing Merging = Let = Len Right Crossing Weaving Figure-4.6: Taff manoeuvres When a vehicle move obliquely across the path of another vehicle moving in the same direction, as relatively small angle of crossing, the action is termed is weaving, The weaving manoeuvre may al consist of merging and diverging operations. Remember © The number of headways per unit time is dependent on the rate of traffic flow and is therefore a direct measure of traffic volume. Q * With increase in speed of trafic stream, the minimum space headway increases whereas the minimum time headway first decreases and alter reaching a minimum value at optimum speed on the stream increases. ‘= Maximum flow or capacity flow is attained at this speed when the time headway is minimum, MADE EASY “GEE 96 Civil Engineering ¢ Highway Engineering i as as pe Publications Vehicle Arrival Distribution Rate Probability (1) = 4 (exponential distribution) Probability that time headway lies between 0 and Osta) = [neat = {2 A =f Er ‘ =afo-4] =1 b-] a Time heady Aihstse] = JAe*at Poisson Distribution of Vehicle Arrivals The distribution of vehicles in space or in time may assume various mathematical forms. In general, tis. likely that the spacing between vehicles will be distributed in a random manner with gaps of various sizes. One of the statistical modes to describe the distribution is the Poisson distribution. ‘As nbbecomes large, the binominal distribution approaches the Poisson distribution. Pe. A = Oiler a where, A(n) = Probability of arrival of n vehicles in any internal of tsec 1. = average rate of arrival (vehicle per unit time) { = time internal = base of natural logarithms Itwas observed that 150 vehicle crossed a particular location of highway in | 30 minutes. Assume that vehicle arrival follow a negative exponential distribution. Find the number of time headways greater than 5 sec in above observation Solution: eo Ae Where, Fx) is the probability of x events (vehicle arrivals) in some time interval (t). 2s the mean arrival rate in that interval, 150 5 = eee = 3x 60%" 72 Now, the probability that zero vehicle arrive in an interval t, denoted as P(0), will be same as the probability that the headway (into arrival time) greater than or equal to t. tgs Ars 0)= BEX 0.6592 F lx = 0) = 0.6592 Number of time headway in 30 minutes = 0.6592 x 30 x 60 = 1186.63 | 43.5 Traffic Capacity Studies ‘Some important related terms which are often used are: (Traffic Volume (q): I isthe number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a given lane or roadway that pass a given point during specified unit of time. Itis expressed as vehicles per hour or elt2 vehicles per day. Cromimedesombestoncrs BREE peer coor) MADE EASY TraficEngineering | g7 Publications _ a we (i) TraffieDensity (itis defined as the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane of roadway at a given instant. It is expressed in vehicles per kilometre NOTE The highest trafic density will occur when the vehicles are praciically at a sland sul ova given route and in this case traffic volume will approach zero. Volume represents an actual ‘or maximum rate of flow with a certain level of service characteristics that can be carried by the roadways (iil) Traffic Capacity: It is the ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic volume. It is expressed as vehicles per hour per lane. The capacity of roadway depends on a number of prevailing roadway and traffic conditions, Traffic capacity is always greater than or equal to traific volume. (tv) Basic Capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions which can possibly be at trained {(¥) Possible Capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. The value of possible capacity varies between zero to basic capacity (i) Practical Capacity: It js-the maximum numberof vehicle that can passia given point on a lane or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard or restrietion to the drivers freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing roadway and trattic conditions. This is algo known as design capacity For design purpose we neither use basic capacity nor possible capacity. Practical capacity is used as design capacity Ez On an urban road, the free mean speed was measured as 70 kmph and the | average spacing between the vehicles under jam condition as 7.0 m. The speed-flow-density equation is given by: | U=U,|1-*] and g=Uxk ds, Where, i U = space-mean speed (kmph) U,;= free mean speed (kmph) k= density (veh/km) k, = jam density (veh/km) q= flow (veh/hr) The maximum flow (veh/hr) per lane for this condition will be equal to | (a) 2000 (b) 2500 (c) 3000 (a) None of the above Ans, (6) We know that, Traffic volume = Density x Speed | q=kxU | ofthe) 98 | CivilEngineering @ Highway Engineering MADE EASY ss 6 ——— Publications Now, Jam density, Maximum traffic volume, k, wer u(t = 2500 velvhr 4 Determination of Theoretical Maximum Capacity (@) Maximum theoretical capacity on the basis of space headway: 1000 S ‘Theoretical maximum capacity of a lane, where, C= Capacity of single lane (vehicle per hour) ‘Speed of vehicle (kmph) Average centre to centre spacing of vehicles = 8, + L, or 0.7y%q++ L, where vg in mis Bt ee 6 isa Minimum spece gap = 0.278 Vt average length of vehicle Reaction time = 0.7 sec = ji) Maximum theoretical capacity onthe besis of time headway: Theoretical maximum capacity oa lane, C= 5600 where, H = Minimum time headway in Seconds Relationship between Speed and Maximum Capacity of a Traffic Lane The peak value of the theoretical maximum capacity is reached at an optimum speed. As the further increase in speed will decreases the maximum capacity of the lane. 2500 Twolane highway | o 88 38 Mirimum capacity of one ane (vehiies/nou") ° 20 40 60 3100 ‘Speed (kmh) FFigure-8.7:Speed and Capacity relation (wwwmadeeesypublications.rg MADE EASY 7) MADE EASY TrafficEngineering | QQ Publication Ezz Determine the theoretical capacity of a traffic lane having one way traffic | flow at a stream speed of 40 kmph, Assume the average space gap between vehicles to follow the relation 8, = 0.278 Vtwhere“V'is the stream speed in kmph, 't'is the average reaction times = 0.7 sec. and assume average length of vehicles = 5.0 m. Solution: V = 40 kmph, t= 0.7 sec, L= 5.0m S = 0.278 V+ L =0.278 x 40x 0.7 +5.0= 1278m Theoretical capacity CC = TO00V _ 100040 .. 3139 yohicles/hourlane | Ss 12.78 Factors Affecting Practical Capacity There are various factors whichvaffects the practical capacity are: Lane width: As lane width decteases, the capacity also decreases ) Lateral clearance: Restricted lateral clearance affects driving comfort, increases accident rates and reduces capacity. (iti) Width of shoulder: Narrow shoulder reduces the effective wiath of traffic lanes, thus reduce capacity of lane. (iv) Commercial vehicle: Large commercial vehicles occupy more space, may travel at slow speeds and influence the traffic in the same lane as well as the adjoining lanes, () Alignment: Restrictions to sight distance requirements cause reduction in capacity Presence of intersection at grade: Intersection restricts the free flow of traffic and thus adversely effect the capacity. (wil) Other factors are stream speed one or two way movement of traffic, number of lanes and traffic volume. ‘The practical capacity values suggested by IRC for the purpose of design of different types of roads in ural areas and urban roads are shown in Table 4.1 Table-4.1 : Capacity of different types of roads AiG (Capacity (PCU por day Ive ee oiced oe __| “in both direction) Single lane roads having a 3.75 m wide cariageway with normal earthen 4000 | shoulders, Stelle ads ava 27S ls ageway wn Sema Sone SUSE Sees = ‘Twolane roads having a7 m wide carriageway with normal earthen shoulders. | "40000 Roads of intermediate width Le, having a carriageway of 6.5 m with normal | earthen shoulders. 5000 Design Capacity And Level of Service When all the vehicles flow as a stream at a optimum speed with no opportunity of overtaking at that time Hlowis called as capacity flow. At this optimum speed, volume to capacity ratio approaches a maximum possible Value of 1.0, Six evel of services A, B, C, Eand Fare recommended by Highway Capacity Manual as shown in Figure 4.8, Cerri i MADE EASY www.madeeasypublications.org | Civil Engineering @ Highway Engineering MADE EASY Publications 100 | (i) Level of service A exist when volume Volume to capacity ratio —> 09 02 04 08 08 49 to capacity is so low that users has freedom to select desired speeds and manoeuvre within the traffic stream. Level of comfort and convenience to users is extreme. (ii) With increase in the volume to capacity ratio, the operating speeds and overtaking opportunities reduces and level of service fall to decreasing values of B, C, Dand E. (ii) In the level of service F, tlow and speed of vehicle reduces which leads tocongestion. Thisis the lowest level aaa oo of service. ‘raf volume (PCUIhour) —= Figure-4.8:General concept oflevelofservce 43.6 Parking Studies Parkingis one of the major problem thatis created by the increasing road traffic, especialy in metropolitan cities, The availabilty of less space in urban areas has increased the demand for parking space especially n areas ike central business district, Various aspecis to be investigated during parking studies are as follows: () Parking Demand: Methods to measure patking demand is by making cordon counts recording ‘accumulation of vehicles during the peak hours by subtracting the outgoing trafic from the traffic volume entering the cordoned area. Do @ Interview technique is useful when parking demand is high You + Another method is by counting the number of vehicles parked in the area under study Know @ during different periods of the day, This method is useful when the parking demand is: Jess than the space available for parking king Characteristic: The study is directed to note the present parking practices prevalent in he area under study and the problems in parking (i) Parking Space inventory: The area under study is fully surveyed andl a map is prepared showing al places where kerb parking and offstreet parking facilties can be provided to meet the parking demands, Parking Statistics (i) Parking Accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at @ given instant of tine. Normally ths is expressed by accumulation curve. Accumulation curves is the graph obtained PY plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time ) Parking Volume: Parking volume isthe total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of time This does not account for repetition of vehicies. (i Parking Load: Parking oad gives the area under the accumulation curve. Itcan also be obtained Py simply mutiplying the numberof vehicles occupying the parking area at each time interval wth the time interval. Itis expressed as vehicle hours. (wenwmadeeasypubiatonsorg MADE ERSY © conn) Publications ai the jal ‘ing ime. aby dbf ihe: MADE EAS! TrafficEngineering | 491 {iv) Average Parking Duration: Itis the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles parked Parking Load ing Duration = Patking Load_ Parking Duration = Berking Volume (¥) Parking Turnover: Itis the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of parking bays available, Parking Load No. of bays available This can be expressed as number of vehicles per day per time duration. Parking Index: Its also called occupancy or efficiency. Its defined as the ratio of number of bays ‘occupied in a time duration to the total space available. Parking index can be found out as follows Parking Load Parking Capacity “ Parking Tumover = Parking Index = Kerb Parking / On Street Parking In this type of parking vehicles are parked on the kerb which is designed for parking. Angle parking ‘accommodates more vehicle per unit length but maximum vehicles can be parked with an angle of 90° ‘As per IRC the standard dimensions of a\car is taken as 5 x 2.5m and that for a truck is 3.75 x 7.5 m. erally used angle of parking are 30°, 45°, 60°, 90° For parallel parking: L 66 Number of spaces: N= (Where, L = Length of parking) For 30° parking: For 45° parking For 60° parking: — For 90° parking: wee 25m Cccomone MADE EASH ww madeeasypublcations.org ) 102 | “il Engineering © Highway Engineering MADE EASY Publications Offstreet Parking itis a type of parking provided at a separate piace away from kerb as shown in Figure 4.9, The main advantage of this type of parking is that there is no disturbance on the road during parking 43.7 Accident Studies (One of the main objectives of traffic engineering is to provide safe traffic movements. Road accidents cannot be prevented but they can be reduced considerably by suitable tratfic engineering. So itis essential to analyse every individual accident and maintain zonewise accident records Figure-4.9 :Offstreetporking ‘Objectives of the Accident Studies: (To study the cause of accident and suggest corrective treatment (a) To support proposed designs (iii) To make computation of financial losses (is) To demonstrate the improvement in the problem (0) To give economic justification for the suggested improvements Causes of Accidents: Basically four factors are involved in road accidents () The vehicle (ii),The road and its condition (ii) The road user (iv) The environment Mathematical Analysis of Accident Studies ‘The following assumptions involved in the analysis of accidents are. () lf skid marks are present, then itis assumed that 100% skid occurs. (id If skid marks aro not present then free colision is assumed means no brakes are applied According to Newton's law of Colsion, Velocity of separation Velocity of approach Coefficient of restitution, @ Value of coefficient of restitution lies between 0 and 1 0, for perfectly plastic collision for perfectly elastic collision Ve Vy es eae Va—Va For perfectly elastic colision, e=1 Vg- Ve = Vor~ Var For porfectly plastic collision, e=0 Vpy = Vy which means both will move together > cere 2 a { www.madeeasypublications.org MADE EASY wd sy MADE EASY Publications Different Cases of Accidents (Case-1: When moving vehicle hits the parked vehicle. Ms TrafficEngineering | 493 Braking distance Figure-4.10:Moving vehicleahitsparked vehicle Let, 8, = skid mark length between v, and v, Coefficient of friction (Energy conservation equation just before the collision, 1 pole srw} - 2 mv? = fws, 2 2 v? -v3 = 2gfs, mgs, (ii) Conservation of momentum just before and after the collision Male = (y+ Me) Vy (iii) Conservation of energy equation after the collision 1 23-9) where, m, and m, are masses of vehicle A and B, skid mark length after collision to stop condition, (ii) (ii) A vehicle weighing 2.0 kN skids through a distance equal to 40 m before | colicing with another parked vehicle of weight 1.0 kN. After collision both the vehicles skid through a lstance equal to 12 m before stopping. Determine the initial speed of the moving vehicle. Assume Coefficient of friction as 0.6. Solution: Let the original speed of the vehicle be v, m/s reduced to v, mis by applying brakes and skidding | distance s, = 40 m, Now [ust after the colision both vehicles A and B start moving together with speed v, mis and finally Stop, v, = 0, alter skidding through a distance s, = 12m, (a) After collision: Loss in kinetic energy of both vehicles together = Work done against frictional force B—vB) = (W,+ We) fs, MADE EASY | www.madeeasypublications.org | sae i) Se MADE ERSY Publications 104 | civ ensineering_¢ Highway En 05 x12 | BORO SxA12 = 10.85 mis \ (b) At collision: ‘Mornentum before impact = Momentum after impact | Wave. (WatWe)¥s \ ora 9 | (Wy + Wp) 3 = 310.85 =16.2 wena 85=16.27 mis | Ye (c) Before collision: vas in kinetic energy = Work done against braking force in reducing the speed Het v8) = WAXES, 12 = 2g fe, + vp 22x981 x05 x40 + 1627" | vps 25.63m/s | Hence the initial speed of moving vehicle, | V, = 36% 25.63 = 92.27 kmph | ven two vehicles moving towards crossing colides 2t intersection. Figur-411:Collsionoftwo vehide approaching romightonaes (Energy conservation before collision: Lavz. - Lm, Aina, - 54, re 2 fmgsy 2 Vie = 20 fs Similarly, iy Conservation of momentum atthe time of colision ‘Along W-E: MaVaq +M_ax0 = MAVAa c0504+Ma¥B, SINOg mong S-N: MaxO+M¥e, = Maa, Sin@a Maes COS 9 2 ks 1 a, C0808 “MADE EASY eal Publi 4 MADE EASY TafficEngineering | 495 (ii) Energy conservation after collision Similarly, EERE To venicics A and 6 weighing 44 tonnes and 60 tonnes respectively, A from West and B from South, collide with each other at a right angle intersection. After the collision, vehicle A skids distance of 15 m in a direction 50° North of West and vehicle 8, 36 m in 60° East of | North. The initial skid distance of the vehicles A and Bare 38 m and 20 m respectively before collision. Find out the original speeds of the vehicles, if the average skid resistance of the pavement is found to | be 0.4. Solution: | We will be solve this problem by usingithe standard equation derved in the previous discussed | cases. | | Yas = \P5AS,5 = \EBAROAX Yq, = V254%x0.4 56 = 60,48 kmph | Using equation 5.13 and 5.14, speeds of vehicles just before collision, = 39,04 kmph W, Veo = AVag SiNB =V43 008A o> Wy, Ve 7 = $45.89in50.470.96es60 58.84kmph Original speeds of vehicles before application of brakes are obtained using equation 5.19 PSM y+ V5 = \BBAKOAXGBSED ES? =80244mpH | ¥254%0.4x 20458 84 = 74.12 kmph Posie WE Thus the original speeds of vehicles and B before the application of brakes are 88.24 and 74.12kmph respectively, | 4.4 Traffic Control Device Tratfic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and road users. These covices are used to conto, regulate and guide tatic. The generaly requirements o tfc conve denees xe: © Copyright MADE EASY ‘wwwanadeeasypublications.org | Highway Engineering MADE EASY Pubiications 106 | Civil Engineering # (i) Thecontrol device should fulfilla need: Each device must have a specific Purbose forthe safe and efficient operation of traffic flow. (i) teshould command attention fromtheroad users: This afects tne design of S'0ns. For commanding aatention, proper visibility should be there. Also the sign should be distinctive and cleat {uly t should convey a clear and simple meaning: Ciarity and simplicity of message ® essential for the viivor to properly understand the meaning in short time. The use of color, shape and legend as codes becomes important inthis regard. (iv) Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the drivers 272 ‘conditioned to expect that al devices carry meaningful and important messages. {u) The control device should provide adequate time for proper response from the road users: This Is again related othe design aspect of trafic control devices. The sign Boards should be placed ata Gutange such thatthe driver could sett and gets sufficient time to respond tothe situation ‘A number of mechanisms are used by the traffic engineer to communicate with the road Users These mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly eyesight: Messages are conveyed through the following elements: (i) Colour (i) Shape (iif) Pattern (i) Legend The most common control devices are: () Traffic sins (ii) Signals (iii) Markings (iv) Islands 44.1 TrafficSigns Aratfc sign is a device mounted an a fxed or poitable support wheraby.a spactic message conveyed by means of words or symbols. Trafic signs should be placed such that they coule Pe Seen and recognized by the road users easily and in time, On the kerb roads, the edge ofthe sign adjacent o the road should not be less thanO.@ m away, fromthe eige ofthe kerb. On roads without kerbs, the nearest edge may be 2,010.0 m rom ne ‘edge of the carriageway. The trafic signs should be mounted on sign posts painted alternately with 25 om black ane wits bands. ‘Tne reveree side of al the sign plates should be painted grey. Trafic signs are divided into 9 categories () Regulatory signs (ii) Warning signs (ii) Informatory signs Regulatory Signs Tho regutalory or mandatory signs are used to inform the road users of certain las and regulations to provide safety and free flow to trafic. The violation of these signs isa legal offence ‘The regulatory signs are classified under the following categories. (Right of Way Series: {@)_ Ttincludes two unique signs is. stop and giveway that assign the right of wey '0 Ine selected approaches of an intersection. (6). Stop sign is intended to stop the vehicles on roadway. 1 is octahedral in shape and red in colour with @ white border. eto ie fe ake agn w ueed wo conroltho |Z a vehicles on a road so as to assign ight | Give / of way to traffic on other roadways. This 989 mm STOP WAY, downwards andwhitein colourwithared ieee Vv ocder sT0P cove wav (Gor aradecasypubcations org MADE EASY © conyrah) 1 MADE EASY Publica Traffic Engineering | 497 (ii) Movement Seri (@) These are meant to prohibit certain traffic movements. (©) They are circular in shape and white in colour with a red border. Vehicies Prombited in both drectons RebtTum U-Turn Prohibted Over Taking Parking Series: (@) They are meant to prohibit parking and stopping verticals at that place, (©) These are circular in shape with a blue background, j and ared border. j (©) Inno parking sign an oblique red bar at an angle of 45°. While inno stopping sign two oblique red bars No PARKING at 45° and right angles to each other. (iv) Speed Series: (@) Speed Limitsigns are meantto restrict the speed of allor certain clesses ol vehicles on a particular stretch of aroad. (©) These signs ere-circular in-shape and White a background, red border and black numerals 8 indicating the speed limit. (¢) The vehicle control signs are circular in shape, red border and black symbols instead of numerals. SPEED LiMIT WIDTH Lin (¥) Restriction Ends Sign: V (@) They indicates the point at which are the Prohibitions notified by prohibitory a signs for moving vehicles binding to apply. { fh’ \ s (b) They are circular in shape with white back ground and a broad diagonal A j y(tiared at db, cd ¢ pies band at 45 RESTRICTION ENDS. (vi) Compulsory Direction Control Signs: (@)_ They are indicated by arrows, the appropriate directions in which the vehicles are bound to proceed MADE EASY Hore weww.madeeasypublications.org | 108 | Civil Engineering © Highway Engineering =I : Publieatons (b)_ These are circular in shape with nee blue’ a and white direction arrows. ( =a ) (f) (7) compusoy omputsory compulsory untetabend Ghowdony —Turmdght ahead fe) 44) uf / (f) compulsory Compusory compulsory Ancog ortum right Anead ort et oop it ‘Warning Signs farn the toads users at sufficient distance in advance about the impending road These signs are used to wi signs are in the shape of equilateral condition, Warning signs afe also known as cautionary signs. The warning triangle with its apex pointing in upward direction. They have a white background, red border and black symbols. ? Gubent Lefnand Heirpinbond Revers bend 6 fr a dana Warning distances on ies basis of class of roads are shawn below in Table 4.2. Table-8.2 : Waring distances URBAN Class of Roads| NHISH| MDR | ODR | VR | ROADS 30 | 60 | 40 | 50 Distance (inm)| 120 | Informatory Signs Informatory signs are provided to guide the road users a! information which make travel easier, safe and pleasant. On Le ie) MADE EASY ae Publications. bout the routes, destination and to provide (rewinecepsbietonsos MADE EASY TraffcEngineering | 499 Publications - The information signs are of following types: (Direction and place identification signs: These are rectangular in shape with white background, black border, black arrows and black letters. They include destination signs, direction signs, route marker and place identiication signs. (ii) The facility information signs: They are rectangular in shape with blue background and white/black letters / symbols. Information signs include public telephone, Petrol Pump, Hospital, First Aid Post etc. (iil) Parking signs: They are set up parallel to the road using square sign board with blue background and white coloured letter ‘P- (iv) Flood gauge sign: itis installed at all cause ways. Design of Traffic Signs The effectiveness of sign depends upon: (Uniformity of design application and installation: (ii) Attention or target value depends upon the size, shape, colour, colour contrast, and level fillumination, (ii Priority value, ie., the characteristics which determine the ordet in which the signs are reads. It will depend primarily on the placement and size of message compared with all others in a group. (iv) Legibility which may be either pure legibility or glance legibility depending upon the conditions. Pure legibility is the distance at which the sign can be read in unlimited time. Glance legibility is the istance at which sign can be read under normal trattic conditions and speed. Both are dependent upon the letter size, shapes, level of illumination, etc, and familiarity of the motorist with the particular design IRC recommendations for the design of traffic signs: (i) Use large signs on high-speed roads. (ii) Wider spacing between letters, with optically equal spacing, depending upon the type of adjacent strokes, increases the legibility (iii) Use a maximum of three words. (iv) Reflectize of illuminate the Signs to be read at night, (¥)_ Location of the signs will depend on the Speed of vehicles and the éize of letters on the sign. (¥#) Keep uniformity in (a) design i.e shape; colour (b) size of sign (c) symbols (d) word messages (e) illumination (f) Iettering, (0H) Distraction or advertisement signs and other unnecessary signs should be eliminated whenever possible (biti)tis recommended that two signs for different purposes should not be placed on the same sign post but should be separated by at least 30 m if possible (x) Location of the signs with respect to the carriageway. 442 Traffic Signals Atratfic signal is detined as any power operated traffic control device or a sign by which traffic is warned ‘Sr directed to take some specific action. Traffic signals is a device which is used to direct the traffic to ‘stop and Proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light signals automatically Advantages of Traffic Signals: (9 They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of most of the intersections at grade. Cecorian MADE EASY svmnsmaeesspubeatonsng) jighway Engineering MADE EASY Publiestions 110 | “iil Engineering « (ii) They reduce certain types of accidents mainly the right angled collisions. (ii) In tho effective use of signal system, reasonable speed is maintained along the major road traffic. (is) Signals provide a chance ta crossing traffic of minor road to cross path of continuous flow of trafic stream at reasonable intervals of time. (0) Automatic traffic signal may work out to be economical when compared to manual contro Disadvantages of Traffic Signals: (Improper design and location of signals may load to violations of the control system (i) Failure ofthe signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause confusion othe road users. ‘Type of Traffic Signals {i) Traffic Control Signals: Traffic Control Signals have three coloured light glows facing each direction of traffic flow. The red light is meant for “Stop”, Green light indicates “GO” and the amber light allows the clearance time for the vehicles which entet the intersection area by the end of green time. Traffic contol signals are of three types: (a) Fixed time signal (b) Manually operated signal (c) Traffic actuated (automatic) signal In. Fixed Time Signal the timing of each phase of the cycle is predetermined base on the traffic studies. The main drawback ofthis is that some times the traffic flow on one road may be almost nil and traffic on cross road may be auite heavy but signal operates with fixed timings. Traffic actuated signals are those in which the timings of phase and cycleare changed according to waffic demand, (ii) Pedestrian Signa vehicular traffic shall be stopped by stop sign. (it) Special Traffic Signal: Special traffic signal such as "FLASHING BEACONS" are meant to Warn the traffic. When signalis flashing red then the vehicles shall stop before entering the nearest crosswalk atan intersection \While flashing yellow signals are caution signals Meantto sighify that drivers may proceed with caution. tis used to give the right of way to pedestrians to cross a road when the ‘Types of Traffic Signal System There are four general types of signal system: () Simultaneous System: In this systom al the signals show the same indication at the same time, AS the division of cycle is also the same at all intersections, this system does not work satisfactorily. (i) Alternate System: It shows opposite indications in a route atthe same time and this system is more satisfactory than the simultaneous system. ‘Simple Progressive System: A time schedule is made to permit, as nearly as possible a continuous operation of groups of vehicles along the main road at a reasonable speed. The phases and intervals ateach signal installation may be different but each signal unit works as fixed time signal with equal signal cycle length (iv) Flexible Progressive System: In this system we can vary the length of cycle, cycle division and the time schedule at each signalized intersection automatically with the help of a computer. Itis the most officient system (ermmadespibinionog MADE EASY copia MADE EASY TraticEngineering | 444 Elements used in the Design of Traffic Signals (Cycle Length (C,): It indicates the time interval between starting of signal such as green to the next time green Starts ) Interval: It indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of interval: (a) Change interval: Itis also called yellow time and it indicates the interval between green and red Signal (0) Clearance interval: It is also known as all red time and is included after each yellow interval indicating a period during which all signal phases shows red and it is used for clearing of vehicles atthe intersections, Total cycle lengt een interval + Red interval + Change interval NOTE: Green interval is the actual duration for which green light of traffic is turned on. (lil) Phase: A phasé is taken 5 the sum of green interval and clearance interval. During green interval ‘non conflicting movement are assigned into each phase. It allows a set of movernent to flow and safely halt the flow before phase of another set of movement stars. Two phases of 2 phase system are shown in Figure 4.12, : re zi aT 1 Figure-4.12: Oneway of providing four phase signals Representation of intervals for 2-phases system is shy GEG Gh A NOTE: When straight moving traffic and tuming traffic are comparable then 4-phase signals adopled wn below. (iv) Lost Time: It represents the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilised for any movernent. Example: When the signal for an approach tums red to queue will take some time to perceive the signal and same time is lost before they moves. Let, thereisa group of ‘N’vehicles at an intersection, The 1® headway is the time interval between the initiation of the green signal and the instant vehicle crossing the kerb line, Difference betwe headway for i! actual and saturation Vehicles in quoue (N) vehicle. Figure-4.13:Headwoysofvehiclesatintersection Cerrar MADE EASY wewwmadeeasypublications.o1g 112 | CivilEngineering © Highway Engineering MADE EASY Publications fh, = Actual time headway of /* vehicle fh = Saturation headway 24 headway will be comparatively lower, because the second vehicle crossing the kerb line. The 1® headway is relatively longer since it includes the reaction time of the driver and the time necessary toaccelerate. Total time lost in a cycle length is given as, Losttime (y= 2; Green Time = 1+ Nh (where, Nis the number of vehicles) Total time lost in a cycle length is the sum of time lostin starting delay for single phase and clearance time lost for single phase, (v) Effective Green Time (g)): Effective green time is the actual time available for vehicle to cross the intersection 9,=G+A-% where, G, = Actual green time A, = Ambertime 4 = Lost time (vi) Lane Capacity: If every vehicle requires ‘hi seconds time headway to cross the kerb line and assume the signal is always green then saturation capacity is Given as Saturation capacity, = 3622 ven/hrilane and traffic capacity of @ lane = xb veb/hr 0 where, & = GreenRatio Cy = Oyclelengtn g,, =»Effective green time NOTE: Wrien g =, gfeen ratio will become eaual to 1 and traffic capacity of lane will be maximum. Let the cycle time of an intersection is 60 sec, green time = 27 sec, amber time = 4 sec. If saturation headway is 2.4 sec per vehicle, the start-up lost time is 2 sec per phase and clearance lost time is 1 sec per phase. Find the capacity of lane. Solution: Cycle length, 60 sec Effective green time, g,=G,+A- 4-1-2= 28500 28 Gr ati —=0.46 ireen ratio G7 60 7 | 9 3600 9, 3600 Trafic capacity of alane = $x 2 = 3600, 91 - 3600 x9 467 acy oalane = Sift = EOP Bu = SEP x Traffic capacity of alane = 700veh/hr (Crnemedeessypusteatonsors MADE EASY © Copyright] a MADE EASY Teaticéngineering | 143 Publications De: in Principle of Signals Suppose we have to design a 2 phase signal without any turning ; movernents. fe Wyte Ry = Gat Ag i similarly for road B, By =Gy+Ay where, GG, = Green time of road AB Green time is calculated on the basis of number of vehicles at any road. ‘Amber time of a road is taken as the maximum calculated on the basis of different cases given below: (When vehicles are within SSD from intersection SSD + Width of another road + Length’of vehicle Amt eee ee aS Speed of vehicle (ii) When vehicles are beyond SSD fromintersection u ‘Amber time of road = Reaction time + Braking ime = int = where, u= Speed of vehicle and @ = Retardation NOTE: Braking time is the aciual duration of brake application ‘A driver travelling at a speed of 80 kmph was sighted crossing an intersection. He claimed that duration of amber display was improper and consequently a dilemma zone exists. Using following data determine whether driver claim was correct or not. Amber time = 4.5 sec, Reaction time = 1.5 sec Intersection width, W= 15m, Car length = 4.6m Retardation = 3 m/s? Solution: a_3 Coetficient of friction, i=4 31 9° 98% | 80 (20/36) : ssp = 20 «1,54 COS 8 = 444.505m 36 2x9.81x031 SSO+W4L _ 114525415446 a time = SSO+W +L _ 114525415448 _ 604 see ( Amber tims : aa sec (i) Amber ime = Reaction ime + Braking tine = 15+ 20/38 8.9 se So, amber time requited is 8.9 sec and provided amber ime is 4.5 sec. Hence the driver claim | was right. wwewnadeeasypublications.org, Genin ADE ERASa 114 | iilEngineering + Highway Engineering MADE EASY Publications 443 Methods of Signal Designing There are various method of signal designing: (i) Tal Cycle Method (ii) Approximate Method (iii) Webster Method (iv) IRC Method ‘Trial Cycle Method in tig mothod green time is calouated on the basis of number of vehicles per hour accumulated at intersection, Steps involved in this method are as follows: (1S minute trafic counts on road Aand Bare noted as 7, 2nd ng during the design peak hour flow. (ji) Assume a suitable tial cycle , ‘C’seconds. (ii) Calculate the number of vehicles passing in one cycle time. tread a= ye (lig) 6 (seas) *2 15x60, where, x,and.xgate numberof vehicles passing in ona cycle time on road Aand B. for road B = %p (iv) Calculate the green period of road Aand road B Gy= x44 = 252q Ga = xpx= 2525 NOTE =) Average ime required for one vehicle to cress the intersection is equal iotime headway ‘which is generally taken as 2.5 seconds, + Cycle time is generally assumed in the multiple of 5 for simplicity in calculation, (6) Total cycle time can be calculated as Gs= Gar Rat Ag o, Gy= Gat gt Gat As ( Ry= Gat Ag) Ifthe calculated cycle time CG, is equal to the assumed cycle time C, then the calculated cycle time ig taken as the design cycle time. A ee The 15 minute-traffic counts on cross roads A and B during peak hour are observed as 178 and 142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching the intersection in the direction | sthoaviertratfic flow. Ifthe amber times required are 3 and 2 seconds respectively for two roads based | onapproach speeds, design the signal timings by tril cycle method. Assume an average time headway of 2.5 seconds during green phase. Solution: Trial-t ‘Assume a trial oycle C, Number of cycles in 15 mins Green time for road A, according to an average time headway of 2.5 see a MADE EASY Traffic Engineering ——— Publications 115 | Gg, = 178x25 _ 24729 8 ° | Green me for road’ Gy= H2X29 - ja70 500 | Amber times A, and A, are 3 and 2 seo Total cycle length = 24.72 + 19.72 +3.0+2.0 = 49.44 sec | As this is lower than the assumed trial cycle of 50 sec, another lower cycle length may be tried. Tal-2 Assume tial eycle Cy = 40sec Number of yelesin 16 minutes = 900 29 5 17825 | Gr forroad A, G, = W8x25 | eontime forroad A, G, = WZEX2 1422.5 | Green time for road 8,6, = 42828 _ 15 7, fen ime orroad BG, = “AEX? 8 sec . Total cycle length = 19.78 « 15.78 +30 + 2.0 = 40.56 sec Triak3 | Assume a tial cycle C, = 45 sec Number of eyelesin 18 minutes = 22 a9 Green time for road A, V8x25 _ 29 25586 | 20 | Green time for road B, ae = 1775 sec 2.25 + 17.75 + 3.0420 45.0sec Therefore the trial cycle of 45 secs. may be adopted with the following signal phases e G, = 22.25, Gy = 17.75, A, = 3.0, Ay= 2.0 and Cycle length = 45.0 sec Approximate Method 7 In this method cycle length depends on the | Pedestrian time to cross the road and traffic volume. Steps. Road 8 Clearance Interval 15 - Trafic signal speed of pedestrian) | PS Pedestrian signal (it) Minimum green time for pedestrian to cross road AB Figure-4.14: Placementofsignals | (Here, 1.2 m/s is considered as the walking ) Cerone MADE EASY werwmadeeasypublications.org Civil Engineering ¢ Highway | Engineering _ MADE EASY Publications 116 | = Cdigjp+ Initial walking period of 5 sec Gog= Ra= Gn An Gpp= Ry = Gat Aa (iii) rand ngarethe: approaching volume of heaviest trafic per hour per lane onroad A and road B respectively, then Ga Pa Gs” Me (h) Calculate the total cycle length C= Gat Ant Ae Gy = Gy t Ant Gat As (or y= Pet As) () Donot walk time for pedestrian is given as DNW, = Ga+Ax= Fe Simiarty, DNW, = Gat Ap= Fe NOTED If padestrian signal is used, then the minimum 7 seconds walking ‘period should be provided, Webster Method in this method the optimum cycle length (C,) calculated on the basis of least (tal delay to the vehicles at the signalized intersection. 1.5L+5 Optimum eycletime, = seconds where, L = Totaltime lost = nt, + Ror L= nits, + toy +All red time) tg = Start-up lost time a, = Clearance losttime in = Number of phase 0 trea time requited for pedestrian to cross the road ie. generally taken as 16 sec For the average signal cycle, the lost ime ({,) is taken to be 2 seconds. Total time fst, b= aner and, Y= Yat Ya Ga a = an a yan mand ye se Normal flow in road A/Bin vehihr/lane Saturation flow in road A/B in vehvnr/lane where, quldy SdSp Green time for road Ais given by, Ga = %A(C9—L) see and for road BG, Caz Design two phase traffic signal by Webster's method using the following | Rod | pverage ‘Normal Flow | Saturation Flow a (in vebuhr) {ie-vebvne) A 400 1250, | 8 250. 1000 Sea ee (wowmadeeasypublicatons.org MADE EASY Scorn Se *Br,~ Y8-(Cq-L) sec data: i MADE EASY Tratficéngineering | 447 Take all red-time required for pedestrian crossing is 12 sec and amber time of 2.0 sec for | each lane. de - 400 _o.32 8, ~ 1250 % _ 250 20 «0.25 S, "1000 Yat Yo = 0.82 + 0.25 = 0.57 L= 2n¢Ra2x2+12= 16sec ISL+5 _15x16+5_ 29 G TOxT45 28 67.55% 1-057 0.43 ~67 $900 0.32 235 (67.5-16)=29 see a O57! 9) = 29 sec 0.25 | G, = ~8(c, -L) =o ~16)= | > = PIC -L) = F(67.5- 16) = 226 soc Total cycle time = 29+ 226+ 12+4=67.6 sec IRC Method Its a combination of approximate and webster method, In IRC method signal timing is decided by approximate method and design is checked by webster method. Following steps are taken in the IRC method are: (). First calculate the eycle length with the help of approximate method (i) Check the calculated cycle length by the IRC method Minimum Green time is obtained by assuming that first vehicle will ake 6 seconds and subsequent will at the rate of 2 seconds. Then green time for road A and B are: Gy = 1x6 500 + (x, 1) 2 sec x 16 sec and Gy = 1% 6 SeC + (x, =1)2'se0'g 16.660 where, x, and x, are number of vehicles in Road A and Road Bin cycle length, (iii) Check by webster method, green time calculated by webster method should not be more than green time by approximate method Green time from IRC methad should not be more than green time from approximate method 4.5 Intersection intersection is the area where two or more roads meet. At eae intersection there are through, turning and crossing tratfic and on the type of intersection and its design. Its main function isto. “=| _| “——— 4 hide vehicles to their respective directions. One way Due to movement of traffic at intersection various types. —-— iz me of conflicts occur like crossing, merging and diverging conflict ae Generally merging from right and diverging to right creates t Conflict. Consider a typical four-legged intersection as shown below. 1 i Conflict points for crossing movements are 4, for diverging _—Figure-8.15:Vehicuarconfswithonesway Movement are 4, for merging movement are 4 and for weaving requlation on both roads (ecco MADE EASY wwwmadeeasypublications.org 41g | CW Enginecring ¢ Highway Engineering MADE EASY ee . Publications. movements are 12. Hence, there are total 24 Table-4.3 Conflicts points types of vehicular conflict points. inuee Sn RTE RS In a typical four legged intersection |—po-a-1-Read | Both roada | A-One way | Both roads there are 8 pedestrian contlct points also A B_ | Twoway | B-Twoway | One way Hence total 32 cifferenttypes of conflictspoints [2 2 24 1 6 are formed in a four legged intersection. 2 3 4 " 8 Crossing conflicts are the major | 2 4 32 7 10 conflicts and merging and diverging conflicts | 3 3 24 13 11 are minor conflicts. To reduce the conflicts at |__ 4 4 44 25 18 intersection we have to control it effectively. Various types of intersection controls are discussed below: (i). Passive Control: itis used when volume of traffic is less and Road sign and road marking are used to control the traffic on minor road to slow down and allow that an major road to proceed. In this control system road users are required to follow traffic rules Semi Control: This control system guides the driver gently to avoid conflict. Channelization and rotary are two example of this. ‘Active Control: In this the road users are forced to follow the path suggested by traffic control ‘agencies. Traffic signals and grade separated intersection come under this classification. 45.1 Types of Intersection (Intersection at Grade: All oad intersections which meet at the same level allowing traffic movements like merging, diverging, crossing and weaving are called intersection at grade. These intersection are further classified as unchennelized, channelized and rotary intersections Basic requirements of intersection at grade are: (@) Atthe intersection the area of conflict should be as small as possible. (0) The relative speed and particularly the angle of approach of vehicle should be small (0) Adequate visibility should be available for vehicles approaching the intersection (@ Sudden change of path should be avoided, i | Hi | ti] Ae See ae = pz x ~ = a —_ Tee reo ses) } { | cross ai) _~*> > ~~ cc) | Hy a | x sew Cross (Flared on one ends) ci Figure-4.16:Unchannelzedintersection "MADE EASY ri ) Puiieations £7 ‘wewvimadeeasypublications.org MADE EASY TrafficEngineeing | 449 a Publications Unchannelized Intersections: in this type of intersection area is paved and there is absolutely no restriction to vehicles to use any part of intersection area. When no additional pavement width for turning movement is provided, itis called plain intersection, When the pavement is widened at the intersection area, by a traffic lane or more, itis known as flared intersection, The conitict areas quite large as path of turning vehicles are not restricted or controlled then one of the crossing vehicle will have to stop while the other praceeds. Channelized Intersections: Channelized intersection is achieved by introducing islands into the intersection area, thus reducing the total conflict area available in the unchannelized intersection I 4 AS em Mea Tee (Partial channelization) Teo (Compete channelization) ‘f —_a — ==10 =: mm (9) aes i | Cross (Complete channelization) Skew (Parial channelization) Figure-4.17:Channelizedintersections [tis very useful as traffic contro! devices for intersection at grade and when the direction ofthe flow is to be changed. Rotary Intersection: itis an enlarged road intersection where all converging vehicles are forced to move rounda large central island in clockwise direction before they can weave out of traffic flow into their respective directions, Grade Separated Intersection: Grade separation structures that permit the cross flov: of traffic at different levels without interruptions Advantages of grade separation are: (2) There is increased safety for turning traffic and by indirect interchange ramp even right turn movement is quite easy and safe. (©) There is overall increase in comfort and convenience to the road users. (©) Stage constructions of additional ramps are possible after the grade separation structure between main toads are constructed. Disadvantages of grade separation are: (@)_Itis very costly to provide complete grade separation and interchange facilities MADE EASY www.madeeasypublications.org } ee _————~—SOS av MADE EASY Publications Highway Engineering 120 | Cit Engineering_« (0) Construction of rade separations dificult and undesirable in the area where there is limited right of way. (©) Infiator plain terrain, grade separation may introduce undesirable sags inthe vertical alignment (i Trafic Islands: Tac islands are constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through which the vehicular trafic may be guided. Classification of traffic islands on the basis of there function are: {@)_ Divisional Islands: Pedestrian loading islands are provided as regular bus stops and similar places forthe protection of passengers. A pedestrian islands ator neara cross walk to aid and protect pedestrian crossing the carriageway. {o) Channelizing Islands: Channelizing islands are used to guide the traffic into proper channel through the intersection area. These are very uselul as traffic control devices for intersection at grade. (©) Pedestrian Loading Islands: Divisional islands are supposed to separate opposing How of traffic on ahighway.with four or more lanes=Bythus head on collisions are eliminated. (@) Rotary: Rotary islands the large central island ot afotary intersection, The crossing movement is converted to weaving by providing sufficient weaving length OTE: The alGa adjacent to he Kerb which is Kept reserved for use by stopped bus may be-calied as bus, kerb loading zone, (iv) Interchange: An interchange is a grade separated intersection with the facies of amp for tuning tralfic between approaching highway. (o) cx CHO @ AD a “SD Fgure-8.18:Typesoflnterchanges(o) Diamond (Rotary interchanges) Pata clover leaf and ullclewer leaf (Crovinadeesopbetonsora ~ MADE BASS ao 9 MADE EASY TrafficEngineering | 424 Publications. ———_—— ty 4.6 Traffic Rotaries Rotary intersections are special form of intersection at grade laid out for the movement of traffic in one direction around a central trafic island. The vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to move in a clockwis direction in orderly fashion. They then weave out of the rotary to the desired direction \ ‘Approach road _/ Outer edge of rotary os Enty angie to wang secton Sy Wath non-weaving Intersection ‘angle Internal angle to | ‘weaving section Figure-4.19 :Rotary elements General Guidelines for the'selection of rotaries are: (@) Rotaries are suitable when the traffic entering from all the four apptoaches are relatively equal (i) A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour.can be considered as the upper limiting case anda volume of 500 Vehicles per Hols the tower limit. (iii) Arotary is very beneficial when the proportion of the right turn traffic is very high, typically if itis more than 30 percent. (i) Potaries are suitable when there are more than four approaches or if there is no separate lanes available for right tur trafic. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection geometry is complex. Advantages of Rotary: () Trafic low is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe conflicts bet crossing movements. (i All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to move at slower speed. Thus none of the vehicles need to be stopped, unlike in a signalized intersection (tii) Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conflicts, accidents and their severity are much less in rotaries. (iv) Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or traffic signals. (%) They are ideally suited for moderate tratfic, especially with irregular geometry, or intersections with more then three or four approaches. Cersis MADE EASY Woultnadeeasypubicaeancorg) Publications Civil Engineering ¢ Highway Engineering MADE EASY Publications xdvantages of Rotary: nll the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore, the cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection. (a Even when there i relatively low trafic, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed, (iy Rotaties require large area of relatively flat and making them costly at urban areas. {hs} The vehicles do rot usualy stop at a rotary. They accelerate and extrotary at relatively high speed ‘Therefore, they are not sutable when there is high pedestrian movernents. 46.1. Shape of Rotary Island There are many diferent shapes of rotary required on the basis of volume of traffic approaching \\ a « © © ® Figure-4.20: Shapesofrotarslands(o)Cicula(b) lipticol(c) Turbine anda) Tangent Circular shape of rotaryis preferred when trafic inboth te roads are comparable and tangential shape of rotary s prefered when tratic in one direction is significant compared to traffic in other direction. ‘Atrotary all the vehicles are required to slowdown their speeds. So the design speed of olay is generally much tower than approaching roads. As per IRC the design speed for rural road is taken as 40 kmph and 30 kmph for the urban roads. 4.6.3 Radius of Curve at Entry Radius at entry depends on various factors like design speed, superelevation and coefficient of lateral friction, The entry to rotary is not straight but small curvature is introduced which force the driver to reduce the speed. Rotary design speed | Suggested values of radius at entry (m) 20-35) 5 464 Radius of Curve at Exit Exitradius should be higher than entry radius and radius of rotary isiand so that vehicle discharge rom the rotary at a higher rate Ray = (1-5 ~ 2) Poriy 46.5 Radius of Central Traffic Island Theoretically the radius of central island should be equal to the radius at entry but in practise itis sormally kept slightly greater than radius at entry. Radius of central islandis taken tobe 1.83 umes the radius at entry ic = 1.33 x Rentry aia Fe Piece ee ee ee ee Gr madceasypubliationsorg MADE EASY ca I MADE EASY Publications - = TrafficEngineering | 423 46.6 Width of Weaving Section (w) Entry and exit width of the roadway is governed by the traffic entering and leaving the intersection and the width of approaching road. The width of carriageway at entry and exit will be lower than width of carriageway at the approaches to enable reduction of speed. ste, | Approach road wicth (m)| 70 | 105| 14 w= 258435 Entry width, e,(m) 65 | 70 | 80 where, u = Entry width and e, = Exit width NOTE: Take width at exit as entry width if nothing is given about the exit width. 4.6.7 Weaving Length (L) Weaving length determines how smoothly the trafficean -_—__ eee merge and diverge. Very large weavinglenath is also dangerousis| Pesan speed | Minimum Weaving Length as it may encourage over speeding. Length of weaving section is . a 40 4 kept atleast 4 times the width of the weaving Section. a | To discourage overspeeding in the weaving sections, 0 ay the maximum weaving length should not exceed the above given values 46.8 Entry and Exit Angles e Entry angle should be larger than exit angle and desirable entry angle is 60°. Exit angles should be small and 30° is desired exit angles. 46.9 Capacity of the Rotary yy Capacity of a rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section. Capacity of individual é ‘weaving sections depends upon (Width of weaving section (w) (i), Average width of entry into rotary (6) (itl) Weaving length () (»)-Proportioning ratio(o) Practical capacity of rotary in PCU per hour is given by 2200(1 i= “i m ing! Weaving Tr Total Traffic bee 7 P= =~" proportioning ratio always lies between 0.4 and 1) g avb+o+d at Where, = Left tuming traffic moving along left extreme lane b = Crossing / Weaving traffic turning towards right while entering to the rotary Crossing / Weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving rotary = Right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane worw.madeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY jc ering @ Highway Engineerin: 124 | 2 sll Paci na a) 2 Publications Conditions to apply the above formula of capacity of rotary are: (). 6m < width of weaving section (ws 18m (i) £-(04-1) w Gi F =0.12-04 tw) p=(04-1) () [= 18-90m ee ? Illustrative Examples The width of a carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 15 m. | The entry and exit width at the rotary is 10 m. The traffic approaching the intersection from the four ve sides is shown in the figure. Find the capacity of ne cues, “06 the rotary using the given data. tee Solution: w. 505 500: e e,=e)= 10m 510 250! @ Weaving Width (w) = (a 470 350 370 10+10 E +35/2135i (*") (i) Weavinglength, = 4w=4x 13. 5=54m 3 (ii) Calculation for proportioning ratio (p) eg = Weaving Tratfic _ 510+650+500+600_ ee Total Traffic 510+ 650+ 500+ 600 + 250 + 375 = 2280 Lo7es 2885 580 +510 +360 + 600 27965 Lovie Pun = 55+ 510+ 350 + 600+ 400+370 2735 © ____6504375+505+370____ 1900 _ gg74 Pye = 504375 +505+870+510+408 2818” 350 +370 +500+375 1595 Ps_w = 360 +370-+600+ 375+ 420+600 2615 © sane Highest proportioning ratio wil give the minimum capacity Hence, Pa peg = 0783 (ie). Therefore, the capacity ofthe rotary willbe the capacity ofthis weaving section 200% 135[1+ 2-9] es * eh —3_1 = 3890.1 vehinr 4 54 cree es Pere erence eae (Wnmumadeeasypublications.org MADE EAS conn 4 MADE EASY Trafcengineering | 125 Publications 7 The intersection of Madhya marg and Udhyan path in Chandigarh Is to be signalized. Madhya marg is 13 m wide, having an approach volume of 600 vehicles per hr and 70 - 30 spilt during the peak hour. Approach speed is 65 krvhr. Udhyan path is 7 m wide having an approach volume of 450 vehicles/nour with a 80 - 20 split and approach speed of 40 kmvhr. There is a lot of Pedestrian and bicycle tratfic at the intersection. Determine the cycle time, green and amber times for each street. Solution: Step-|: Pedestrian consideration: 7 Time required to indicate the pedestrian to start = 5 sec Madhya marg: | Time required to cross Madhya marg = (green + amber) time for Madhya marg = it 5= 12sec. Udhyan path: Step-Il: Clearance interval : Minimum amber time for Madhya marg (speed = 55 kmihr) = 4 see Minimum amber time for Udhyan path (speed = 40 kmihr)= 3 sec | Step-lIl: Clearance interval: Stopping sight distance for vehicles at 55 km/hr on Madhya marg =75m ‘Stopping sight distance for vehicles at 40 km/hr on Udhyan path —¥Zo mine — Seom PTA i tcseane Ustyon pat Total distance to be travelled to clear intersection for vehicles moving on Madhya marg = it7 282m seen Total distance to be travelled to clear intersection for vehicles | Vehiclesihr| Moving on Udhyan path 63m 82x36 Time required by vehicles on Madhya marg = “2*°5 57 sec say 6 sec ca Time required by vehicles on Udhyan path = $=x3.6=5.67sec, say 6 sec Assume the total cycle length of signals = 40sec Amber time for Madhya marg A,, = 6 sec Amber time for Udhyan path, = 6 sec Green time for Madhya Marg and Udhyan path = 40-(6 + 6) = 28 This time is to be divided in the ratio of approach volumes \ We Keron MADE EASY ura madeeasypublcaions.org 126 |

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