Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Superpave evaluation of higher RAP contents using WMA technologies

Feipeng Xiao a,⇑, Xiangdao Hou a, Serji Amirkhanian b,c, Kwang W. Kim d
a
Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
c
Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
d
Dept. of Regional Infrastructure Eng., Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Republic of Korea

h i g h l i g h t s

 36 designs were conducted to explore the volumetric characteristics of mixtures.

 No noticeable increases in working temperatures for these higher RAP mixtures.
 VMA, VFA, dust/asphalt ratios, and ITS meet the criteria of specifications.
 WMA technology and RAP generally did not affect the Superpave mix design.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, the objective was to conduct an investigation of Superpave mix design characteristics of
Received 28 November 2015 WMA technologies in terms of various high percentages of reclaimed asphalt pavements (RAPs). One
Received in revised form 25 February 2016 PG 58-28 binder, two PG 64-22 binders, and two RAP sources were selected from South Carolina. In addi-
Accepted 5 March 2016
tion, three mix technologies (e.g. hot mix asphalt (HMA), foaming technology, and Evotherm additive)
Available online 12 March 2016
were employed to produce the mixtures. Meanwhile, four RAP contents of 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% (by
weight of total mixture) were utilized to blend with virgin materials. 36 Superpave mix designs were con-
Keywords:
ducted to explore the volumetric characteristics of various mixtures. In this study, the results indicated
Superpave mix design
Air voids
that, all mixtures have an optimum asphalt content (OAC) less than 5.0%, and most of these values are
VFA close to a minimum OAC value of 4.5% set by South Carolina Department of Transportation (SCDOT).
VMA No noticeable increases at the mixing and compaction temperatures for these mixtures containing a
Viscosity higher percentage of RAP (i.e., over 40%) were found in this study. In addition, the voids in mineral aggre-
Dust/asphalt ratio gate (VMA), voids filled with asphalt (VFA), dust/asphalt ratios, and moisture susceptibility meet the
requirements of SCDOT’s specifications. Therefore, these specific mix designs could be used as the guide-
lines for developing a set of specifications for a higher percentage of RAP in terms of warm mix asphalt
technology.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction section exhibited meaningfully similar performance regarding rut-

It is well known that the warm mix asphalt (WMA) technology
in asphalt industry are broadly utilizing for the reduction in energy
cost, global warming, and more stringent environmental regulation
concerns by reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emissions
compared to the conventional hot mix asphalt (HMA) [1–5]. In
the Unite State of America (USA), one of many popular warm
mix additives is Evotherm (a series of products). The previous
research reported by the national center for asphalt technology
(NCAT) test track indicated that the Evotherm warm mixture test
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fpxiao@tongji.edu.cn (F. Xiao).
ting characteristics as compared to the HMA control section after
being applied to a half million ESALs in 43-day performance [2].
In addition, some researchers also illustrated that Evotherm mix-
tures showed better rutting resistance and had close resilient mod-
ulus values as compared to HMA mixtures [6]. Moreover, the
research studies found that the mixtures containing Evotherm
additive did not show visible emissions and tenderness [1]. Fur-
thermore, to produce the Evotherm mixtures was generally consid-
ered lower in the amount of fuel consumed compared to HMA
production.
In terms of the foaming technology, hot asphalt binder was
added a percentage of water, which produces the steam at a high
temperature (over 150C), resulting in expansion of the binder

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.024
0950-0618/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087
and a corresponding expansion of surface area of an asphalt binder
[7–9]. The foaming process makes the water become tiny steam
bubbles inside the asphalt binder at a high temperature. These
stream bubbles rapidly result in an increase in asphalt binder vol-
ume. It was reported that this helps increase wetability and lower
high shear viscosity of the binder [7–10]. Xiao et al. [11] found that
the foaming water contents did not significantly affect rutting
resistance and indirect tensile strength (ITS) of asphalt mixtures.
In addition, it was reported that the binders containing 2% water
content were suitable to produce the asphalt mixture and did not
affect the rutting and moisture resistance. Xiao et al. [11] recom-
mended to use a stiffer binder (or reclaimed asphalt pavement)
or completely oven dried aggregate to produce the asphalt mix-
ture, especially if the aggregate source is moisture-induced type.
Meanwhile, the utilization of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP)
in the WMA mixture is very popular due to many advantages.
Numerous research reports indicated that the mixtures containing
RAP perform better compared to the virgin mixtures with respect
to rutting resistance at a high performance temperature due to
the incorporation of aged binder. The NCHRP [12,13] report deliv-
ers basic guidelines regarding the components of mixtures, includ-
ing new aggregate and RAP materials. It was found that the tiered
approach was appropriate to conduct the application of RAP in
asphalt pavement [12]. In addition, the report illustrated that it
is not necessary to do any testing for the asphalt binder when used
a relatively low level of RAP in asphalt mixture. However, if a
higher RAP content is employed, the recommendation of the con-
ventional Superpave binder tests should be performed to deter-
mine the detailed RAP contents and virgin asphalt binder type
and source.
The results reported by Leng et al. [14] showed that additional
Rediset and Evotherm 3G to HMA mixtures incorporated with RAP
generally had no obvious effect on the low and high temperature of
an asphalt binder grade, and reduced stiffness of the HMA mixture
with RAP. A range of 5–40% was typically used on the projects.
Mallick et al. [3,15] indicated that the emulsified asphalt blended
with the heated RAP enhanced the dispersion of asphalt binder.
It was also found that the workability and compactibility of the
mixture were improved, and the stiffness of the mixture was
reduced. A field project completed by Mallick et al. [3,15] indicated
that the initiations should be performed if used emulsion and Saso-
bit mixtures along with HMA.
The primary objective of this research was to investigate the
influences of WMA technologies and higher percentage of RAP on
asphalt mix designs through evaluating the volumetric characteris-
tics of various asphalt mixtures containing 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%
RAP in terms of Evothem additive and foaming technology.
2. Experimental designs and materials
Three binder types (designated as Binders I, II, and III) were selected for this
research collected from two sources (Binder I for one source and Binders II and III
from another source), typically used in Southeast region of USA. The PG 64-22 bin-
der (Binders I and II) from each source was utilized for Superpave mix designs. For
the mixtures with a high percentage of RAP such as 40% and 50% RAP, a soft binder
of PG 58-28 binder (Binder III) was employed to assess the effects of using a binder
grade for the mixtures made with a higher RAP content. The properties of these bin-
ders are summarized in Table 1.
For these mixtures, a content of 1% hydrated lime (by total weight of the aggre-
gate) was used for preventing from moisture induced damage. Two aggregate
sources were selected from South Carolina for this study. One is consisted of granite
(aggregate A) and another one is a marble schist (aggregate B). The properties of
these aggregate sources are included in Table 2. The gradations of these two aggre-
gates are summarized in Table 3.
The selected RAP materials for this study were gotten from two different source
A and source B, both meeting the requirements of the SCDOT. Source RAP A was
blended to produce the mixtures made with aggregate A and Source RAP B was used
1081
to produce the mixtures made with aggregate B, respectively. The main properties
(gradation and optimum binder content) of these RAP materials are also presented
in Table 3.
EvothermTM and foaming technology were evaluated in this study. A dosage of
0.5% (by weight of base binder) EvothermTM additive was recommended by the sup-
plier to blend with the binder at a mixing temperature.
In this study, in terms of the foaming technology, the hot asphalt binder was
foamed after the water was injected into at a percentage of 2% (by weight of the
asphalt binder), and then the foamed asphalt binder was discharged from the
‘‘Foamer” and mixed with the hot aggregate at a set mixing temperature. The
heated aggregate was blended with the foamed WMA binder in a mechanical
bucket as the regular HMA sample blended manner.
Eight (2 specimens at each of 4 trial binder contents) 150 mm diameter by 112–
115 mm height specimens were fabricated using the Superpave gyratory compactor
based on each combination of materials (RAP, aggregate, and binder). The oven
dried RAP material was preheated for two hours and then was mixed with virgin
aggregate and new asphalt binder at the specified (target) mixing temperatures
to produce the samples.
In this Superpave mix design, the Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) was
employed to compact the specimens. In terms of surface B type, all specimens were
compacted to a height of 112–115 mm at a gyration number of 75 as specified by
SCDOT (2011). AASHTO T166 was used to evaluate the bulk specific gravity (Gmb)
of each specimen. The obtained theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gmm) deter-
mined using SC T83 to decide the volumetric properties of each specimen in this
study. A 3.5–4.5% air void of the samples was used to determine the optimum bin-
der content of each mixture in this study.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Viscosity values
The effects of Evotherm and RAP on different binder sources and
grades were initially evaluated using standard test procedures to
determine the viscosity. Binders from two crude sources, typically
used in SCDOT projects, were evaluated in this study. The viscosity
values of various RAP concentrations and WMA technologies are
presented in Fig. 1.
Regarding the effects of RAP contents, it can be observed that, as
expected, the increased percentage of RAP results in an increase of
viscosity value regardless of binder type, RAP source, and test tem-
perature. The modified binders with Binder II have higher viscosity
values than those binders with Binder I regardless of RAP content.
Binder III with/without RAP has the lowest viscosity values.
For the effects of WMA technology on the viscosity, it can be
noted that, based on the results in Fig. 1, the addition of Evotherm
to any of binders has no significant effect on the binder viscosity.
This is true for all three binder grades and two sources. As shown
in Fig. 2. Similar findings can be obtained from the modified bin-
ders from aged binder B, which is extracted from RAP B.
The mixtures with 20% and 30% RAP use a compaction temper-
ature of 149 °C while the compaction temperatures of those mix-
tures containing 40% and 50% RAP are 154 °C. In addition,
authors discuss the Evotherm and Foaming technologies effects
on the Superpave mix designs.
3.2. Air voids
A target of 3.5–4.5% was used to determine the optimum
asphalt binder of Superpave mix design, as well as the voids in
mineral aggregate (VMA), voids filled with asphalt, and dust/
asphalt ratio. Generally, air voids mainly determine the volumetric
properties of the Superpave mix design [16,17]. The air void values
of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents are presented in Fig. 3.
It can be found that, most of the mixtures containing Binder II have
the air void values close to 4.0%, but a couple of mixtures with Bin-
der I have the air voids values of 3.5%. Thus, it was concluded that
for the materials used in this research, the binder source plays an
important role in determining the air voids of the Superpave mix
design.
1082 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087

Table 1
Properties of base binders.

Binder type Virgin binder RTFO binder PAV binder

⁄ ⁄
Viscosity G /sind (test Fail Temp., G /sind (test Fail Temp., Stiffness m-value
(135 °C), Pa s temp), kPa °C temp), kPa °C (60 s, 12 °C), MPa (60 s, 12 °C)
Binder I PG 64-22 Neat 0.449 1.233 (64 °C) 65.8 3.703 (64 °C) 68.1 179 0.306
Evotherm 0.430 1.457 (64 °C) 67.1 3.018 (64 °C) 66.5 155 0.307
Binder II PG 64-22 Neat 0.648 2.127 (64 °C) 70.7 4.692 (64 °C) 70.2 144 0.349
Evotherm 0.632 2.467 (64 °C) 71.8 5.382 (64 °C) 71.4 159 0.357
Binder III PG 58-28 Neat 0.310 1.378 (58 °C) 60.6 3.875 (58 °C) 62.6 249# 0.281#
Evotherm 0.308 1.556 (58 °C) 61.5 3.290 (58 °C) 61.4 236# 0.295#

Note: #  tested at 18 °C.

Table 2
Aggregate properties of mixture.

Coarse aggregate LA abrasion loss (%) Absorption (%) Specific gravity Soundness % loss at 5 cycles Sand equivalent Hardness
Dry (BLK) SSD (BLK) Apparent 11/2 to 3/4 3/4 to 3/8 3/8 to #4
A 30 0.50 2.630 2.640 2.660 1.1 1.7 4.1 53 6
B 32 0.70 2.770 2.780 2.820 0.4 0.6 0.9 38 5
Fine aggregate Fineness modulus Absorption (%) SSD (BLK) Soundness % loss
A 3.20 0.60 2.640 0.1
B 2.81 0.20 2.650 2.8

Table 3
Gradations of aggregates and RAPs.

Specification Aggregate source RAP sources

+4 RAP 4 RAP RAP
Sieve size Limits Agg. A Agg. B Agg. A Agg. B
19.0 mm 98–100 99.7 99.6 100.0 100.0 100.0
12.5 mm 90–100 94.3 93.7 96.3 99.7 98.4
9.5 mm 74–90 84.7 83.7 82.8 99.3 95.5
4.75 mm 46–62 50.9 49.3 44.2 90.7 70.4
2.36 mm 25–41 32.7 39.1 34.9 74.4 46.3
0.60 mm 9–21 17.8 18.3 22.7 45.6 27.4
0.15 mm 4–12 8.9 9.2 7.7 14.3 12.7
0.075 mm 2–8 5.6 5.7 3.1 7.0 7.7
Aggregate Blend B.C. (%) 4.0 6.0 6.0
Stone #57 (or 67) 9 11
Stone #789 61 46
R. S. 10 16
M. S. 19 26
Lime 1 1

Note: B.C.  binder content.

RAP  reclaimed asphalt pavement.

The effects of various WMA technologies on the air voids of
mixtures using 20–50% RAP are shown in Fig. 4. It is evidence that,
in Fig. 4(a), HMA mixtures with Binder I have lower air void values
to achieve an optimum asphalt binder compared to WMA mixtures
while Evotherm mixtures have the highest values. Fig. 4(b) illus-
trates that the air voids are the lowest as using foaming technol-
ogy. Therefore, air voids of Superpave samples are dependent on
the binder source and the related WMA technology to achieve
the optimum asphalt binder content of the Superpave mix designs.
3.3. Optimum asphalt binder
Asphalt optimum binder content generally affects the stiffness,
durability, fatigue life, raveling, rutting, and moisture damage of
asphalt pavement, especially, the initial cost of an asphalt pave-
ment. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the binder concentra-
tion. An optimum asphalt binder can satisfy the requirement of
volumetric properties and performance characteristics of an
asphalt pavement.
As shown in Fig. 5(a), the optimum binder contents of HMA
mixtures with various RAP contents generally are 4.5%, a minimum
asphalt binder content for type B surface in South Carolina, regard-
less of asphalt binder source and type. In addition, the mixtures
from aggregate B have optimum binder contents of 4.5% as con-
taining 20% and 30% RAPs, but these optimum binder contents
increase to 4.7% and 4.9% while the mixtures contain 40% and
50% RAP for both Binders II and III, respectively. A possible reason
is that the RAP B requires a higher compaction temperature to
achieve an air void of 4.0%.
The optimum binder contents of various RAP contents with
WMA technologies are shown in Fig. 6. It can be noted that, the
optimum binder contents of mixtures with Evotherm additive are
slightly higher than HMA and foamed mixtures, which generally
have same optimum binder contents regardless of binder type
and RAP content. In addition, the increased RAP content does not
 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087 1083

10.0 10.0
0%RAP 0%RAP+E 0%RAP 0%RAP+E
20%RAP 20%RAP+E 20%RAP 20%RAP+E

Viscosity (Pa.s)

Viscosity (Pa.s)
30%RAP 30%RAP+E 30%RAP 30%RAP+E

1.0 1.0

0.1 0.1
105 120 135 150 165 105 120 135 150 165
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(a) (b)
10.0 10.0
0%RAP 0%RAP+E 0%RAP 0%RAP+E
40%RAP 40%RAP+E 40%RAP 40%RAP+E
Viscosity (Pa.s)

Viscosity (Pa.s)
50%RAP 50%RAP+E 50%RAP 50%RAP+E

1.0 1.0

0.1 0.1
105 120 135 150 165 105 120 135 150 165
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(c) (d)
Fig. 1. Viscosity values of various modified binders from RAP A, (a) Binder I, (b) (c) Binder II, (d) Binder III.

10.0 10.0
0%RAP 0%RAP+E 0%RAP 0%RAP+E
20%RAP 20%RAP+E 20%RAP 20%RAP+E
Viscosity (Pa.s)

Viscosity (Pa.s)

30%RAP 30%RAP+E 30%RAP 30%RAP+E

1.0 1.0

0.1 0.1
105 120 135 150 165 105 120 135 150 165
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(a) (b)

10.0 10.0
0%RAP 0%RAP+E 0%RAP 0%RAP+E
40%RAP 40%RAP+E 40%RAP 40%RAP+E
Viscosity (Pa.s)

50%RAP 50%RAP+E
Viscosity (Pa.s)

50%RAP 50%RAP+E

1.0 1.0

0.1 0.1
105 120 135 150 165 105 120 135 150 165
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(c) (d)
Fig. 2. Viscosity values of various modified binders from RAP B, (a) Binder I, (b) (c) Binder II, (d) Binder III.

obviously change the optimum binder content. Consequently,
foaming technology generally has similar effects on the optimum
binder contents with HMA technology.
3.4. Voids in mineral aggregate
Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), the sum volumes of effective
asphalt and air voids, is defined as the intergranular space occu-
pied by asphalt and air voids in a compacted asphalt mixture. As
defined, the volume of absorbed asphalt is not a part of VMA
because it is part of the pore structure of the mineral aggregate.
To obtain an adequate VMA value in a mixture is a vital part of
the Superpave mix design to meet. In addition, the big challenge
is to select aggregates giving the proper amount of VMA without
weakening the skeleton. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the
VMA values of various RAP contents with/without WMA
technologies.
As shown in Fig. 7(a), the VMA values of HMA mixtures made
from Aggregate A with various RAP percentages are generally
low when used Binder I. In addition, when the mixtures contained
20% and 50% RAP, they produced lower VMA values than other
mixtures. However, in Fig. 7(b), the mixtures made from Aggregate
1084 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087

4.5 4.5
Binder I Binder II Binder III Binder I Binder II Binder III

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Air voids (%)

Air voids (%)
4.0 3.9 3.9 4.0
3.8 4.0 4.0

3.6 3.6
3.5 3.5 3.5
3.5 3.4 3.5

3.0 3.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)

(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Air voids of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Agg. A; (b) Agg. B.

4.5 4.5
HMA Evotherm Foaming HMA Evotherm Foaming
4.2

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Air voids (%)

4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 Air voids (%) 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9
3.8 3.8 3.8

3.6 3.6

3.5 3.4 3.5

3.0 3.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Air voids of WMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Binder I; (b) Binder II.

5.0% 5.0% 4.9%

Binder I Binder II Binder III Binder I Binder II Binder III
4.7% 4.9%
Optimum binder conent (%)

4.6%
Optimum binder conent (%)

4.5%4.6% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.7%

4.5% 4.5%
4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5%

4.0% 4.0%

3.5% 3.5%

3.0% 3.0%
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. Optimum binder contents of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Agg. A; (b) Agg. B.

B generally have higher VMA values. Especially, the VMA values are fore, it can be concluded that the WMA technology and RAP con-
greater than 15.0% as mixtures containing 40% or 50% RAPs regard- centration play key roles in determining the VMA of WMA
less of binder type. mixtures in this study.
With respect to the effects of WMA technology on the VMA, it
can be noted that, in Fig. 8, the mixtures containing Evotherm addi-
tive have the highest VMA values while HMA mixtures have the 3.5. Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)
lowest values regardless of binder type and RAP content. Same as
the results from the air voids discussed above, higher air voids The percentage of the voids in the mineral aggregate that are
were obtained from the Evotherm mixtures compared to other filled with asphalt, VFA, not including the absorbed asphalt, is
mixtures. In addition, the VMA value of WMA mixtures reduces determined using: VFA = 100  (VMA Va)/VMA; where Va: air
as the RAP percentage increases regardless of binder source. There- voids in compacted mixtures, percent of total volume. For Type A
 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087 1085

5.5% 5.5%
HMA Evotherm Foaming HMA Evotherm Foaming

Optimum binder conent (%)

Optimum binder conent (%)
5.0% 5.0% 5.0%
4.8% 4.7% 5.0%
4.6% 4.6% 4.6%
4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.7% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5%
4.5% 4.8% 4.5%
4.7% 4.7%
4.5% 4.5%

4.0% 4.0%

3.5% 3.5%

3.0% 3.0%
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Optimum binder contents of WMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Binder I; (b) Binder II.

16.0 16.0
Binder I Binder II Binder III Binder I Binder II Binder III
15.6
15.5 15.5
15.5
15.1
15.0 15.0 14.8 15.0

VMA (%)
VMA (%)

14.5 14.4 14.4 14.5 14.4

14.2
14.1
14.0 14.0
14.0 13.9 14.0
13.8 13.8 13.8

13.4 13.8 13.5

13.5

13.0 13.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. VMA values of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Agg. A; (b) Agg. B.

16.0 16.0
HMA Evotherm Foaming HMA Evotherm Foaming
15.6
15.5 15.5
15.1
15.0 14.9 15.0
14.7
VMA (%)

VMA (%)

14.6 14.6
14.5 14.5
14.5 14.4 14.5 14.4
14.3
14.2 14.1 14.2
14.014.0 13.9 14.3
14.0 13.9 14.0
13.8 13.8 13.8
14.0
13.5 13.4 13.5

13.0 13.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. VMA values of WMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Binder I; (b) Binder II.

and Type B mixtures in South Carolina, the range of VFA value is in VFA values can be found as the RAP percentage increases. There-
from 70% to 78%. fore, it could be concluded that the aggregate source and binder
The VFA values of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents are source affect the VFA values in Superpave mix design in this study.
presented in Fig. 9. It can be observed that all HMA mixtures have The effect of WMA technology on the VFA value is shown in
the VFA values between 70% and 78% except for the mixture with Fig. 10. It is evident that all VFA values are greater than 70% and
20% RAP made from Aggregate B. In Fig. 9(a), it can be noted that less than 78%. Most of VFA values of HMA and WMA mixtures from
Binder I mixtures have higher VFA values than other mixtures with both binders are 72–74%. There are some slightly differences in
less than 50% RAP. However, Binder I mixtures from Aggregate B VFA values from three mixing technologies. In addition, the RAP
have lower VFA values compared to other mixtures while Binder concentration does not change the VFA values of WMA mixtures
II have higher VFA values in Fig. 9(b). In addition, no obvious trends in this study.
1086 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087

80.0 80.0
Binder I Binder II Binder III Binder I Binder II Binder III
77.5
76.2 76.1
75.5 75.8 75.5
75.0 74.8 74.0
74.0 73.9 73.5 73.4
73.0 72.0 72.8
VFA (%)

71.0

VFA (%)
70.1
70.0 70.0

60.0 60.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. VFA values of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Agg. A; (b) Agg. B.

80.0 80.0
HMA Evotherm Foaming HMA Evotherm Foaming

75.5
74.0 73.9 74.0 74.3 73.5
72.5 73.0 72.5 72.5 72.5 73.5
72.0 72.8 72.5 72.0 73.0 72.0
VFA (%) 71.0
VFA (%)

72.5 72.2 70.1

70.0 70.0 71.5
70.1

60.0 60.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. VFA values of WMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Binder I; (b) Binder II.

1.2 1.2 1.12 1.12

Binder I Binder II Binder III 1.08
1.12
1.10 1.08 1.11
1.0 1.0
0.86 0.86 0.88
0.79
Dust/asphalt ratio

0.79
Dust/asphalt ratio

0.86 0.8
0.8 0.72
0.66 0.79
0.72
0.6 0.65 0.6

0.4 0.4
Binder I Binder II Binder III
0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
20% 30% 40% 50% 20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%) RAP percentage (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 11. Dust/asphalt ratios of HMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Agg. A; (b) Agg. B.

3.6. Dust/asphalt ratio
The dust to asphalt ratio (D/A) can be calculated based on the
passing percentage of No. 200 (0.075 mm) fine aggregate and
asphalt binder content. It should meet the criteria of 0.6–1.2, the
value set forth by SCDOT. In some situations, this value is high;
most of adjustments are made to reduce the percentage of passing
No. 200 material. This helps reduce the asphalt binder and improve
the rutting resistance of mixtures.
In Fig. 11, all D/A ratios are between 0.6 and 1.2, meeting the
criteria of Superpave mix design. In general, the mixtures from var-
ious binders have approximately close D/A ratios as using same
RAP concentration. Thus, the binder source generally has no effects
on the D/A values. In addition, it can be found that, in Fig. 11, an
increased RAP percentage results in an increase in D/A ratio regard-
less of binder source and aggregate source.
When using WMA technology, Fig. 12 indicates that all D/A
ratios are greater than 0.6 and less than 1.2. In addition, in
Fig. 12, it can be noted that the mixtures containing Evotherm gen-
erally have slightly lower D/A ratios than other mixtures and HMA
mixtures and foaming mixtures have approximately close D/A
ratios regardless of binder type and RAP concentrations in this
 F. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 112 (2016) 1080–1087
1.2
HMA Evotherm Foaming
1.0
0.86 0.86
0.79 0.79
Dust/asphalt ratio
0.72 0.71 0.86
0.8
0.66 0.66
0.76
0.6 0.68
0.62
0.4
0.2
0.0
20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%)
(a)
Fig. 12. Dust/asphalt ratios of WMA mixtures with various RAP contents, (a) Binder I; (b) Binder II.
study. Similar to HMA mixtures, WMA mixtures with various bin-
ders generally have close D/A ratios as using the same percentage
of RAP. Moreover, Fig. 12 shows that an increased RAP content
results in an increase of D/A ratios of mixtures regardless of
WMA technology and binder source. Therefore, WMA technology
generally does not affect the D/A ratios but RAP content does influ-
ence the D/A ratios of all mixtures.
4. Conclusions
A total of 36 Superpave mix designs were conducted to explore
the volumetric characteristics of various HMA and WMA mixtures,
including two PG 64-22 binders and one PG 58-28 binder, two RAP
sources, three mix technologies, and four various RAP contents (e.g.
20, 30, 40, and 50%). The main conclusions are summarized below:
 As expected, the increased percentage of RAP results in an
increase of viscosity value regardless of binder type, RAP source,
and test temperature. The addition of Evotherm to any of the
binders has no significant effect on the binder viscosity for all
three binder grades and two sources.
 Air voids of Superpave samples could be dependent on the bin-
der source and WMA technology when conducting an optimum
asphalt binder content analysis using the Superpave mix
designs.
 The optimum binder contents of HMA mixtures with various
RAP contents generally are 4.5% regardless of asphalt binder
source and type. The increased RAP content does not obviously
change the optimum binder contents. Additionally, foaming
technology generally has similar effects on the optimum binder
contents with HMA technology.
 The VMA value of WMA mixture reduces as the RAP percentage
increases regardless of binder source. In addition, the WMA
technology and RAP concentration play key roles in determining
the VMA of WMA mixtures in this study.
 All mixtures have the VFA values between 70% and 78%, a value
set forth by SCDOT. In addition, no obvious trends in VFA values
can be found as the RAP percentage increases. It can be con-
cluded that the aggregate source and binder source affect the
VFA values in this study.
 All D/A ratios are between 0.6 and 1.2, meeting the criteria of
Superpave mix design. An increased RAP percentage results in
an increase in D/A ratio regardless of binder source and aggre-
gate source. In addition, WMA technology generally does not
affect the D/A ratios but RAP content does influence the D/A
ratios of all mixtures.
1087
1.2
HMA Evotherm Foaming
1.0
0.86 0.86
0.79 0.79
Dust/asphalt ratio
0.8 0.72 0.69 0.86
0.65 0.63
0.76
0.6 0.65
0.59
0.4
0.2
0.0
20% 30% 40% 50%
RAP percentage (%)
(b)
References
[1] G.C. Hurley, B.D. Prowell, Evaluation of potential processes for use in warm mix
asphalt, J. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technol. 75 (2006) 41–90.
[2] G.C Hurley, B.D. Prowell, Evaluation of EvothermÒ for Use in Warm Mix
Asphalt, NCAT Report 06-02, National Center for Asphalt Technology, 2006.
[3] R Mallick, J. Bradley, R. Bradbury, Evaluation of Heated Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement Material and Wax-Modified Asphalt for Use in Recycled Hot-Mix
Asphalt, Transportation Research Record No. 1998, Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies, 2007.
[4] F. Xiao, J. Jordan, S. Amirkhanian, Laboratory investigation of moisture damage
in warm-mix asphalt containing moist aggregate, J. Transp. Res. Board 2126
(2009) 115–124.
[5] F. Xiao, W. Zhao, T. Gandhi, S.N. Amirkhanian, Influence of anti-stripping
additive on moisture susceptibility of warm mix asphalt mixture, J. Mater. Civ.
Eng. 22 (10) (2010) 1047–1055.
[6] F. Xiao, V.S. Punith, S.N. Amirkhanian, C. Todesen, Improved resistance of long
term aged warm mix asphalt to moisture damage containing moist aggregates,
J. Mater. Civil Eng. (ASCE) 25 (7) (2013) 913–922.
[7] J. Wielinski, A. Hand, D.M. Rausch, Laboratory and Field Evaluations of Foamed
Warm-Mix Asphalt Projects, Transportation Research Record No. 2126,
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, 2009.
[8] W. Hodo, A. Kvasnak, E.R. Brown, Investigation of Foamed Asphalt (Warm Mix
Asphalt) with High Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) Content for
Sustainment and Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavement, in: TRB 88th Annual
Meeting, Washington DC, 2009.
[9] H. Wayne, Field and Laboratory Investigation of Foamed Asphalt (Warm-Mix
Asphalt) with High Recycled Asphalt Pavement Content for Sustainment and
Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavement, in: TRB 88th Annual Meeting, Washington
DC, 2009.
[10] B. Middleton, R.W. Forfylow, Evaluation of warm-mix asphalt produced with
the double barrel green process, J. Transp. Res. Board 2126 (2009) 19–26.
[11] F. Xiao, V.S. Punith, B. Putman, Effect of compaction temperature on rutting
and moisture resistances of foamed warm mix asphalt mixtures, J. Mater. Civ.
Eng. 25 (9) (2013) 1344–1352.
[12] National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Recommended
Use of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement in the Superpave Mix Design Method:
Guidelines, Research Results Digest No. 253, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, 2001.
[13] Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Guidelines for the Design of
Superpave Mixtures Containing Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement, Superpave
Mixture Expert Task Group, Washington, D.C., 1997.
[14] Z. Leng, A. Gamez, I. Al-Qad, Mechanical property characterization of warm-
mix asphalt prepared with chemical additives, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26 (2) (2014)
304–311.
[15] R.B. Mallick, P.S. Kandhal, R.L Bradbury, Using Warm-Mix Asphalt Technology
to Incorporate High Percentage of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Material in
Asphalt Mixtures Transportation Research Record No. 2051, Transportation
Research Board of the National Academies, 2008.
[16] B. Huang, G. Li, D. Vukosavljevic, et al., Laboratory investigation of mixing hot-
mix asphalt with reclaimed asphalt pavement, Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res.
Board 1929 (2005) 37–45.
[17] S. Zhao, B. Huang, X. Shu, et al., Laboratory performance evaluation of warm-
mix asphalt containing high percentages of reclaimed asphalt pavement,
Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board 2294 (2012) 98–105.