Week 2

CHAPTER 1
Sample preparation-continued
2 March 2015

Week 2 1
 Preparing solutions
How to prepare a solution?
How to prepare a solution with a
certain concentration?

Expression of concentration
Concentration is the quantity of solute in a known amount of
volume or mass of solution or solvent
Concentration = Amount of solute
Amount of solution
Unit for concentrations
 Molarity (M)  Formality (F)
 Normality (N) (not common)  Molality (m)
 Part per thousand (ppt)
 Parts per million (ppm)
 Parts per billion (ppb)
 Percent concentration (%w/w, %w/v, %v/v)
Week 2 2
  Molarity (M) = number of moles of solute
liters of solution
concentration of a particular chemical species

• Molality (m) = number of moles of solute

kilograms of solution

 Formality (F) = number of moles of solute

liters of solution
substance's total concentration without regard to its specific chemical form

Week 2 3
• For substances that DO NOT ionize in solution, such as glucose, molarity and
formality are the SAME
• For substances that ionize in solution, such as NaCl, molarity and formality are
DIFFERENT.

NaCl (aq) → Na+ + Cl–

initial 0.1 mol - -
final 0.0 0.1 mol 0.1 mol

The molarity of NaCl zero since there is no undissociated NaCl in solution. The
solution, instead, is 0.1 M in Na+ and 0.1 M in Cl–. When we state that a solution is
0.1 M NaCl we understand it to consist of Na+ and Cl– ions.
The formality of NaCl 0.1 F because it represents the total amount of NaCl in
solution.

The unit of formality is used only when it provides a clearer description

of solution chemistry.
4
Week 2 4
• Normality  concentration in terms of an equivalent, which is the amount of
one chemical species reacting stoichiometrically with another chemical
species
 Normality (N) = number of equivalents of solute
liters of solution

Week 2 5
 Concentration in terms of
percent composition
The concentration of substance in commercial aqueous reagents, organic
solvents and commercial household products are usually expressed in
percent composition

• Weight percent = Weight of solute x 100%

(%w/w) Weight of solution

• Volume percent = Volume of solute x 100%

(%v/v) Volume of solution

• Weight-volume = Weight of solute x 100%

(%w/v) Volume of solution

Example: 37% is labeled on a HCl reagent bottle. This means that it contains 37 g
HCl per 100 g solution

Week 2 6
The w/w % unit may also be expressed as a fraction
e.g. 37% (w/w) can be expressed as 37 parts per hundred
How about smaller fractions??
• Parts per thousand (ppt ) = g of solute
103 g solution
Or = mg/g

• Parts per million (ppm) = g solute

106 g solution
Or = µg/g

As the density of aqueous solution often very close to 1.00 g/L, we usually
correlates 1 g water with 1 mL water (approximation)

Therefore, 1 ppm = 1 µg/g = 1 µg/mL = 1 mg/L

• Parts per billion (ppb) = g solute

109 g solution
Therefore,1 ppb = 1 ng/g = 1 ng/mL = 1 µg/L
Week 2 7
 Converting percent composition to molar concentration
-converting ‘commercial term’ to ‘easier laboratory term’-
• Example:
A commercial aqueous ammonia (NH3 ) bottle is labeled as 28.0% w/w,
and has a density of 0.899 g/mL and MW of 17.03 g/mol. Let say you want
to convert the concentration into molarity for easier calculation in your lab
book, how can you do that?
density
= 28 g/100 g x 0.899 g/mL

= 0.2517 g/mL (part per thousand)

= 0.2517 g/mL / 17.031 g/mol MW

= 0.01478 mol/mL x 1000

= 14.8 mol/L or 14.8 M

8
Week 2 8
 Preparation of solution
Example: How to prepare 250 mL of 0.100 M Na from NaOH
solid? [MW: NaOH = 40, Na= 23.00]

1. Calculate the weight (g) of NaOH that is equivalent to the required moles
of Na in solution
Calculations ???
2. Weigh ??? g of solid (generally  0.1 mg, ie up to 4 decimal places in
grams)
3. Dissolve in water, transfer (quantitatively with rinsing) to a 250 mL
volumetric flask, and dilute to the mark

Dissolve and
Calculate Weigh
transfer

Week 2 9
 Dilution of solution
The moles solute in concentrated (1) solution equals the
moles in dilute (2) solution

 M1  V1 = M2  V2
M1 : Initial concentration of solution
V1 : Volume of concentrated solution transferred
M2 : Concentration of final solution (diluted)
V2 : Volume of concentrated solution transferred

Example: Describe the preparation of 50 mL of 0.100 M NaOH

solution from a 0.5 M solution
Calculations…
How to ???… 
Glassware requirement: ?? mL pipet and ?? mL volumetric flask

Week 2 10
 Week 2+3
CHAPTER 2
Data analysis and statistics

Week 2 11
 DATA ANALYSIS
Normal phrases in describing results of an analysis
“pretty sure”
“very sure” Replaced by using statistical tests important to
“most likely” understand the significance of data and therefore to
“probably” set limitations on each step of analysis.

Errors in chemical analysis

Is there such a thing as “ERROR FREE ANALYSIS”? How reliable
Impossible to eliminate errors.
What is the maximum error that we is our data??
can tolerate?
Can only be approximated to an
acceptable precision.

Week 2 12
 Accuracy is how close you
get to the bullseye. Precision
ACCURACY is how close the repetitive
•degree of agreement between measured value shots are one to another. It
and the true value (which may not be known!) is nearly impossible to have
•Therefore, it is the degree of agreement accuracy without good
precision
between measured value and the accepted true
value
PRECISION
•Degree of agreement between replicate
measurements of the same quantity;
repeatability of a result.
•Expressed by standard deviation, the coefficient
of variation, the range of the data or as
confidence interval (e.g. 95%) about the mean
value
•How similar are values obtained in exactly the
same way?
•Useful for measuring deviation from the mean.

di  x i  x
Week 2 13
High Precision
High accuracy

High precision
Low accuracy

Low precision
Low accuracy

Low precision
High accuracy

x
Week 2 14
 Types of error in chemical analysis
Accuracy is expressed in terms of error
A. Systematic (determinate) Error
•Determinable and that presumably can be either avoided or corrected.
•Can be constant (e.g uncalibrated weight used in all weighing) or variable (e.g.buret whose
volume readings are in error by different amount at different volumes)
•Readings all too high or too low that can affect accuracy.
•How to detect?analysis of reference sample or determine recovery after adding known
standard

B. Random/accidental (indeterminate) Error

•Represents experimental uncertainty occurred in any measurement
•Random and cannot be avoided. Affects precision, can only be
controlled
•Revealed by small differences in successive measurements made by
the same analyst under identical conditions can’t be
predicted/estimated but can be dealt with statistics
•Data scattered approximately symmetrically about a mean value.
C. Gross Errors
•Serious but very seldom occur in analysis.
•Usually obvious - give outlier readings.
•Detectable by carrying out sufficient replicate measurements.
•Experiments must be repeated.
e.g. Instrument faulty, contaminated reagent
Week 2 15
 SOURCES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Instrumental Error
1. All measuring apparatus contribute to systematic error; therefore need frequent calibration –
pipettes, volumetric flasks, burettes
2. Also for electronic devices such as spectrometers, pH meter
3. Examples:
a) Fluctuation in power supply
b) Temperature changes
Method Error
1. Due to inadequacies in physical or chemical behaviour of reagents or reactions (e.g. slow or
incomplete reactions, instability of reacting species, occurrence of side
reaction/interference).
2. Difficult to detect and the most serious systematic error (can be changed if the conditions of
determination are altered)
3. Correction by running
a) reagent blank- analysis on the added reagent only
b) 2 independent methods or SRM
Personal Error
1. Sources: Physical handicap, prejudice, not competent
2. Examples:
a) Insensitivity to colour changes
b) Transfer of solutions
c) Incomplete drying of samples
d) Tendency to estimate scale readings to improve precision
e) Math error in calculations
Week 2 16
 Significant figures (SF)
•The SF of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision.
• Zero is significant only when:
A. It occurs in the middle of a number. Examples:
a) 401 - 3 SF
b) 6.0015 - 5 SF
B. It is the last number to the right of the decimal point. Examples:
a) 3.00 - 3 SF
b) 6.00  102 - 3 SF
c) 0.0500 - 3 SF
Rounding off in the step of addition & subtraction
•Use the same number of decimal places (dp) as the number with the fewest
decimal places. Example:
12.2 + 0.365 + 1.04 = 13.605 = 13.6 (1 dp)
(1 dp) (3 dp) (2 dp)

SF in multiplication &Division
•Use the same number of digits as 40.1  0.1633 2
the number with the fewest number  3.21  10 (3 sf )
of digits. 204 . 228
Week 2 17
 Application of statistics in data analysis

•Defining the confidence interval (RANGE) of values around a set mean (x)
within which the population mean () can be expected with a given
probability

•Determining the number of replicates required to assure (at a desired

probability) that an experimental mean (x) falls within a predicted interval
of values around the population mean ().

•Estimating the probability that the experimental mean (x) and true value
() are different or two experimental mean are different (t test).
•Estimating the probability that data from two experiments are different
in precision (F-test).

•Deciding when to accept/reject outliers among replicates (Q-test/

Dixon’s).

•Treating calibration data.

Week 2 18
Statistical treatment of random error

Sample Mean/Average Median

N
Data in the middle if the number is odd,
arranged in ascending order.
xi If for large data set,
it is called population For even numbers, the mean of the median
x  i 1 mean (µ) pair is used.
N used when a set of data contains an outlier

Xi = individual values of x Errors

N = number of replicate measurements
Range
The difference between the highest
and lowest result.
•Absolute error = measured value – true value
E.g. if a 2.72 g sample is analysed to be 2.62g,
the absolute error is -0.10g
•Relative error is the absolute error expressed
as % of the true value
E.g. (-0.10g/2.72 g) x 100% = -3.7%

Week 2 19
 Standard Deviation (SD)
– a very important precision indicator
Each set of analytical results should be accompanied by an indication of the precision of the
analysis standard deviation which is measuring of the precision of a population of data.
Can be calculated using Excel spreadsheet

Small sample size (N=20) Population (N= >20)

s 

 xi  x  2


 xi    2
N1 N
Xi = individual values of x Xi = individual values of x
x = mean  = mean
N = number of replicate measurements N = number of replicate measurements

Smaller SD means more precise the analysis is

Week 2 20
 Relative Standard Deviation (RSD)
– also a very important precision
Varian, V indicator

The square of standard deviation. s

RSD   100%
For sample, V = s2 x
Acceptable RSD % depends on the
N type of analysis. I.e.
2 •Trace analysis, RSD % should be <5%
 i
( x  x ) •Environmental analysis <15%
•Pharmaceutical analysis <10 %
s 2 (V )  i 1
N 1

Week 2 21
Week 2 22
Examples:
HPLC chromatogram of toxins

1
Can you guess which result (peak)
2 with higher precision?
Replicate 1 example sd rsd.xlsx

1
2

Replicate 2

1 2

Replicate 3

Week 2 23
 Confidence limits (CL) and confidence
interval (CI)– how sure are you?
•Calculation of SD for a set of data provides indication of the precision inherent in
particular procedure.

•If for large data set, it doesn't by itself give any info about how close the
experimentally determined mean ( x ) to the true mean value (µ).

•Statistic allows to estimate range within which true value might fall, within a given
probability, defined by the experimental mean and sd.

•This range  confidence interval and the limits of this range confidence limit

The likelihood that the true value falls within the range is called 
probability or confidence level, usually expressed as %

Week 2 24
 Confidence interval for small data set (N = 20)

ts • Values of t depend on degree of freedom, v (N - 1) and

CI (  )  x  confidence level (from Table).
N
N=Number of • t also known as ‘student’s t’ and will be used in
measurements/replicates hypothesis test.

t=Student’s t values (constant and

given)
s= SD

Week 2 25
 Values of t at various confidence level

Degree Confidence Level

of
Freedom,
v
11 1.80 2.20 3.11
90 % 95 % 99 %
12 1.78 2.18 3.06
1 6.31 12.70 63.66 13 1.77 2.16 3.01
2 2.92 4.30 9.92 14 1.76 2.14 2.98
3 2.35 3.18 5.84 15 1.75 2.13 2.95
4 2.13 2.78 4.60 16 1.75 2.12 2.92
5 2.02 2.57 4.03 17 1.74 2.11 2.90
6 1.94 2.45 3.71 18 1.73 2.10 2.88
7 1.90 2.26 3.50 19 1.73 2.09 2.86
8 1.86 2.31 3.36 20 1.72 2.09 2.85
9 1.83 2.26 3.25 infinity 1.64 1.96 2.58
10 1.81 2.23 3.17
Week 2 26
Example:

Data for the analysis of calcium in rock are given by 14.35%, 14.41%, 14.40%, 14.32% and
14.37%. Within what range are you 95% confident that the true value lies??
ts
CI (  )  x 
N
Solution:
Mean, x = 14.37
SD, s = 0.037
From the table, at 95 % confidence level, N - 1 = 4, t = 2.78.

Therefore, CI is : 2.78  0.037

x
5
 14.37%  0.05%
So you are 95% confidence that (in the absence of determinate error),
the true value falls within 14.32% to 14.42%

Week 2 27
At different confidence level,

Confidence Level Confidence Interval

90%  = 14.37%  0.04

95%  = 14.37%  0.05

99%  = 14.37%  0.08

Summary:
If the confidence level increased, the confidence interval (CI)
also increased. The probability of the true mean value ()
appeared in the interval will increase

Week 2 28
 Confidence interval for large data set (N >20)

•since the exact value of population mean () cannot be determined, one must
use statistical theory to set limits around the measured mean, that probably
contain .

•CI only having meaning with the measured standard deviation, s, is a good
approximation of the population standard deviation, , and there is no bias in
the measurement.

•CI when  is known (population),

For the standard normal
z distribution, P(-1.96 < Z < 1.96) = 0.95,
x i.e., there is a 95% probability that a
standard normal variable, Z, will fall
N between -1.96 and 1.96
N = Number of measurements/replicates
z= the value from the standard normal
distribution for the selected confidence
level

Week 2 29
Table 1 Values for z at various confidence levels

Confidence Level, % z
50 0.67
68 1.00
80 1.29
90 1.64
95 1.96
96 2.00
99 2.58
99.7 3.00
99.9 3.29

Week 2 30
Examples:

At 90% confidence level, z  1.64,

σ
μ  x  1.64
N

At 95% confidence level, z  1.96,

σ
μ  x  1.96
N

At 99% confidence level, z  2.58,

σ σ σ
μ  x  2.58 or, x  2.58  μ  x  2.58
N N N

Week 2 31
 Other usage of confidence interval (CI)
•To determine number of replicates needed for the mean to be within the
confidence interval.
•To determine systematic error.

A. To determine number of replicates

If  is known (s  ), If  is unknown

ts
μ x 
z x 
N N

2
 
 z  2
N
   x 
 ts 
  N 
  x
Week 2 32
Example:
Calculate the number of replicates needed to reduce the confidence interval
to 1.5 g/mL at 95% confidence level. Given, s = 2.4 g/mL.

At 95% confidence level, t = 1.96,

2
 ts 
N 
  x
2
 1.96  2.4 
N   10
 1.5 

Week 2 33
 B. To determine systematic error
1) Calculation method 1
Example
A standard solution gave an absorption reading of 0.470 at a particular wavelength.
Ten measurements were done on a sample and the mean gave a value of 0.461,
with standard deviation (s) of 0.003. Show whether systematic error exists in the
measurements at 95% confidence level.

Solution
At 95% confidence level, N = 10, t = 2.26,

ts •Does the true mean 0.470

CI (  )  x  belong to the interval?
N
 0.461  2.26
0.003 •Does systematic error present?
10
 0.461  0.002
The calculation gives confidence limit of,
0.459 <  < 0.463

Week 2 34
 Values of t at various confidence level

Degree Confidence Level

of
Freedom,
v
11 1.80 2.20 3.11
90 % 95 % 99 %
12 1.78 2.18 3.06
1 6.31 12.70 63.66 13 1.77 2.16 3.01
2 2.92 4.30 9.92 14 1.76 2.14 2.98
3 2.35 3.18 5.84 15 1.75 2.13 2.95
4 2.13 2.78 4.60 16 1.75 2.12 2.92
5 2.02 2.57 4.03 17 1.74 2.11 2.90
6 1.94 2.45 3.71 18 1.73 2.10 2.88
7 1.90 2.26 3.50 19 1.73 2.09 2.86
8 1.86 2.31 3.36 20 1.72 2.09 2.85
9 1.83 2.26 3.25 infinity 1.64 1.96 2.58
10 1.81 2.23 3.17
Week 2 35
 B. To determine systematic error
2) Calculation method 2
Example
A standard solution gave an absorption reading of 0.470 at a particular wavelength.
Ten measurements were done on a sample and the mean gave a value of 0.461,
with standard deviation (s) of 0.003. Show whether systematic error exists in the
measurements at 95% confidence level.

Solution
At 95% confidence level, N = 10, t = 2.26,
N The tcalc >ttable
 t  x   
s Does systematic error
10 present?
 0.461  0.470
0.003
t  9.49

Week 2 36
 Testing a hypothesis
Observations

Hypothesis Model

NO
Valid? Reject

YES

Basis for further experiments

Week 2 37
 Significant tests
• Approach tests whether the difference between the two results is significant (due to
systematic error) or not significant (merely due to random error).

Hypothesis  Data  Theory

•Normally, the measured data is not always the same and seldom agree.

•We use statistics to test the disagreement.

Week 2 38
 Null hypothesis, ho
The values of two measured quantities do not differ (significantly) UNLESS we can
prove it that the two values are significantly different.

“Innocent until proven guilty”

•The calculated value of a parameter from the equation is compared to the

parameter value from the table.

•If the calculated value is smaller than the table value, the hypothesis is
accepted and vice-versa.

•Can be used to compare:

Week 2 39
 Values of t at various confidence level

Degree Confidence Level

of
Freedom,
v
11 1.80 2.20 3.11
90 % 95 % 99 %
12 1.78 2.18 3.06
1 6.31 12.70 63.66 13 1.77 2.16 3.01
2 2.92 4.30 9.92 14 1.76 2.14 2.98
3 2.35 3.18 5.84 15 1.75 2.13 2.95
4 2.13 2.78 4.60 16 1.75 2.12 2.92
5 2.02 2.57 4.03 17 1.74 2.11 2.90
6 1.94 2.45 3.71 18 1.73 2.10 2.88
7 1.90 2.26 3.50 19 1.73 2.09 2.86
8 1.86 2.31 3.36 20 1.72 2.09 2.85
9 1.83 2.26 3.25 infinity 1.64 1.96 2.58
10 1.81 2.23 3.17
Week 2 40
 t-test

• Comparison between experimental mean and true mean

( x and )
• To check the presence of systematic error
• Can be used to compare replicate measurement
• Can be used to compare individual difference

Week 2 41
 Steps in t-test
1) Comparing two mean values x and 

i) If  is not known,
ii) Calculate t or z (tcalc) from the data.
ts iii) Compare tcalc and ttable
x 
N
iv) If tcalc > ttable

 t  x -  
N Reject Null Hypothesis (Ho) i.e.   x 
s • The difference is due to systematic error.

If  is known,

v) If tcalc < ttable

  N (  x)
 z   x  μ Accept Null Hypothesis (Ho) i.e.

  σ • The different is due to random error.

Week 2 42
 Example:

The sulphur content in a sample of kerosene was found to be 0.123%. A new method
was used on the same sample and the following data is obtained:
%Sulphur : 0.112; 0.118; 0.113; 0.119

Show whether systematic error is present in the new method.

Null Hypothesis, Ho :  = x
x = 0.116%,  = 0.123%, s = 0.0032

N
 t  x   
s
4
 0.116  0.123 t table = 3.18 (95 %, N-1 = 3)
0.0032 Since tcalc> ttable, Ho is rejected and the
 4.38 (t calc ) two means are significantly different and
thus systematic error is present.

Week 2 43
 Other Solution:

x    0.116 - 0.123
 0.007 (experimental data)
ts
x 
N

x  3.18  0.0032

4
Ho is rejected, the difference ( x   ) is
  0 .0051 ( Table value ) significant and there is systematic error in
the measurement.
Since, x   calculated  x -  table
ts
x     (i.e. 0.007 > 0.0051)
N
Week 2 44
 2.Comparing two mean values x 1 and x 2
•Normally used to determine whether the two samples are identical or not.

•The difference in the mean of two sets of the same analysis will provide information on
the similarity of the sample or the existence of random error.

Data: x1 , x2 and s1, s2

Ho : x1= x 2
ts
We want to test whether x 1- x 2 =0   x1  1
1
N
1

ts
  x2  2
2
N
2

Week 2 45
 Assume,  1   2 and  1   2

Calculate the value of t;

x1 - x 2 N1N2
t calc 
sp N1  N2

Compare tcalc with ttable; if tcalc< ttable, Ho is accepted.

The pooled standard deviation, sp is calculated using:

(N1 - 1 )s12+(N 2 - 1 )s22

s p=
N1 + N 2  2
where,
N1, N2 are numbers of data in sets 1 and 2

Week 2 46
Example;

Since tcalc < ttable, Ho is accepted

and the source of the urine
statistically is the same.

Week 2 47
 Values of t at various confidence level

Degree Confidence Level

of
Freedom,
v
11 1.80 2.20 3.11
90 % 95 % 99 %
12 1.78 2.18 3.06
1 6.31 12.70 63.66 13 1.77 2.16 3.01
2 2.92 4.30 9.92 14 1.76 2.14 2.98
3 2.35 3.18 5.84 15 1.75 2.13 2.95
4 2.13 2.78 4.60 16 1.75 2.12 2.92
5 2.02 2.57 4.03 17 1.74 2.11 2.90
6 1.94 2.45 3.71 18 1.73 2.10 2.88
7 1.90 2.26 3.50 19 1.73 2.09 2.86
8 1.86 2.31 3.36 20 1.72 2.09 2.85
9 1.83 2.26 3.25 infinity 1.64 1.96 2.58
10 1.81 2.23 3.17
Week 2 48
 F-test
Comparing the precision of two measurements

•Is Method A more precise than Method B?

•Is there any significant difference between both methods?

2
Do you remember? v1 s1 nominator
V= s2 F  2
v2 s2 denominator

•With the degree of freedom = N – 1,

Ho : the precision is identical; s1 = s2
•Then, if Fcalc < Ftable , Ho is accepted.

Since the values of F (from table) are always greater than 1, the smaller
variance (the more precise) always become the denominator.
V1 > V2, so F  1

Week 2 49
 F values

v1 s 21
F  2
v2 s 2

Week 2 50
 Example:
The determination of CO in a mixture of gases using the standard procedure
gave an s value of 0.21 ppm. The method was modified twice giving s1 of
0.15 (10 degrees of freedom (N-1)) and s2 of 0.12 (10 degrees of freedom
(N-1))
Are the two modified methods more precise than the standard?

Solution:
Ho : s1 = sstd and Ho : s2 = sstd

s 2std 0.212 s 2std 0.212

F1  2  2
 1.96 F2    3.06
s1 0.15 s 22 0.12 2

In the standard method, s and the degrees of freedom becomes infinity.
Refer the F table:
Numerator =  , and denominator = 10; giving the critical: Ftable= 2.54

Since F1 < Ftable, Ho is accepted, while F2>Ftable, Ho is rejected.

Week 2 51
 Conclusions

Ho : s1 = sstd.
and
Ho : s2 = sstd.

Week 2 52
 The Dixon test (Q test)
A way of detecting outlier  a data that does not belong to the set.

Example:
Data: 10.05, 10.10, 10.15, 10.05, 10.45, 10.10

By inspection,10.45 seem to be out of the data normal range.

It is easier to see it when the numbers are arranged in a decreasing or

increasing order.

10.05, 10.05, 10.10, 10.10, 10.15, 10.45

At 95% confidence limit, should this data be eliminated??

If this data (10.45) is eliminated, the mean will

change from the original value!

Week 2 53
 x q - xn
Q exp t 
w
where,
xq = the questionable data
xn = its nearest neighbour
w = the difference between the highest and the lowest value (range).

The Qexpt or Qcalc will be compared with the Qcritical or Qtable,

and the Ho is checked.

Week 2 54
 Values of Q

Week 2 55
Solution:
xq - xn
Q exp t 
w
10.45 - 10.15
Q exp t  = 0.75
10.45 - 10.05
Qcritical (95%, n = 6) = 0.625
Qexpt > Qcritical
Data (10.45) can be
rejected.
Week 2 56
 Example:
An analysis on calcite gave the following percentage of CaO:
55.45, 56.04, 56.23, 56.00, 55.08
Q: Is there any that data should be
rejected at 95% confidence level?
Solution:
•Arrange data
55.08, 55.45, 56.00, 56.04, 56.08, 56.23
•Suspected data: 55.45 OR 56.23
Qtable from 5 determinations, 95% = 0.710
56.23 - 56.08
Q calc 
56.23 - 55.45 Qcalc<Qtable. Data cannot be rejected.
 0.19

55.45 - 56.00
Q calc  Qcalc = Qtable. Data cannot be rejected.
56.23 - 55.45
 0.71

Week 2 57