…

Sear

Wireless power
transfer

Inductive charging pad for LG smartphone using the

Inductive charging pad for LG smartphone, using the
Qi system, an example of near-field wireless transfer.
When the phone is set on the pad, a coil in the pad
creates a magnetic field[1] which induces a current in
another coil, in the phone, charging its battery.

Wireless power transfer (WPT), wireless

power transmission, wireless energy
transmission (WET), or electromagnetic
power transfer is the transmission of
electrical energy without wires as a
physical link. In a wireless power
transmission system, a transmitter device,
driven by electric power from a power
source, generates a time-varying
electromagnetic field, which transmits
power across space to a receiver device,
which extracts power from the field and
supplies it to an electrical load. The
technology of wireless power transmission
can eliminate the use of the wires and
batteries, thus increasing the mobility,
convenience, and safety of an electronic
device for all users.[2] Wireless power
transfer is useful to power electrical
devices where interconnecting wires are
inconvenient, hazardous, or are not
possible.
Wireless power techniques mainly fall into
two categories, near field and far-field. In
near field or non-radiative techniques,
power is transferred over short distances
by magnetic fields using inductive coupling
between coils of wire, or by electric fields
using capacitive coupling between metal
electrodes.[3][4][5][6] Inductive coupling is
the most widely used wireless technology;
its applications include charging handheld
devices like phones and electric
toothbrushes, RFID tags, induction
cooking, and wirelessly charging or
continuous wireless power transfer in
implantable medical devices like artificial
cardiac pacemakers, or electric vehicles.

In far-field or radiative techniques, also

called power beaming, power is
transferred by beams of electromagnetic
radiation, like microwaves [7] or laser
beams. These techniques can transport
energy longer distances but must be
aimed at the receiver. Proposed
applications for this type are solar power
satellites, and wireless powered drone
aircraft.[8][9][10]
An important issue associated with all
wireless power systems is limiting the
exposure of people and other living things
to potentially injurious electromagnetic
fields.[11][12]

Overview

Generic block diagram of a wireless power system

Wireless power transfer is a generic term
for a number of different technologies for
transmitting energy by means of
electromagnetic fields.[13][14][15] The
technologies, listed in the table below,
differ in the distance over which they can
transfer power efficiently, whether the
transmitter must be aimed (directed) at
the receiver, and in the type of
electromagnetic energy they use: time
varying electric fields, magnetic fields,
radio waves, microwaves, infrared or
visible light waves.[16]
In general a wireless power system
consists of a "transmitter" device
connected to a source of power such as a
mains power line, which converts the
power to a time-varying electromagnetic
field, and one or more "receiver" devices
which receive the power and convert it
back to DC or AC electric current which is
used by an electrical load.[13][16] At the
transmitter the input power is converted to
an oscillating electromagnetic field by
some type of "antenna" device. The word
"antenna" is used loosely here; it may be a
coil of wire which generates a magnetic
field, a metal plate which generates an
electric field, an antenna which radiates
radio waves, or a laser which generates
light. A similar antenna or coupling device
at the receiver converts the oscillating
fields to an electric current. An important
parameter that determines the type of
waves is the frequency, which determines
the wavelength.

Wireless power uses the same fields and

waves as wireless communication devices
like radio,[17][18] another familiar
technology that involves electrical energy
transmitted without wires by
electromagnetic fields, used in cellphones,
radio and television broadcasting, and
WiFi. In radio communication the goal is
the transmission of information, so the
amount of power reaching the receiver is
not so important, as long as it is sufficient
that the information can be received
intelligibly.[14][17][18] In wireless
communication technologies only tiny
amounts of power reach the receiver. In
contrast, with wireless power transfer the
amount of energy received is the important
thing, so the efficiency (fraction of
transmitted energy that is received) is the
more significant parameter.[14] For this
reason, wireless power technologies are
likely to be more limited by distance than
wireless communication technologies.

Wireless power transfer may be used to

power up wireless information transmitters
or receivers. This type of communication
is known as wireless powered
communication (WPC). When the
harvested power is used to supply the
power of wireless information
transmitters, the network is known as
Simultaneous Wireless Information and
Power Transfer (SWIPT);[19] whereas when
it is used to supply the power of wireless
information receivers, it is known as a
Wireless Powered Communication
Network (WPCN).[20][21][22]

In the United States, the Federal

Communications Commission (FCC)
provided its first certification for a wireless
transmission charging system in
December 2017.[23]

These are the different wireless power

technologies:[13][16][24][25][26]
 Antenna Current and/or possible
Technology Range[27] Directivity[16] Frequency
devices future applications

Elect ric t oot h brush and

Induct ive razor bat t ery charging,
Short Low Hz – MHz Wire coils
coupling induct ion st ovet ops and
indust rial heat ers.

Tuned wire Charging port able devices

Resonant coils, (Qi), biomedical implant s,
induct ive Mid- Low kHz – GHz lumped elect ric vehicles, powering
coupling element buses, t rains, MAGLEV,
resonat ors RFID, smart cards.

Charging port able devices,

Met al power rout ing in large-
Capacit ive
Short Low kHz – MHz plat e scale int egrat ed circuit s,
coupling
elect rodes Smart cards, biomedical
implant s.[4][5][6]

Charging elect ric

Magnet odynamic Rot at ing
Short N.A. Hz vehicles,[25] biomedical
coupling magnet s
implant s.[28]

Parabolic
dishes, Solar power sat ellit e,
Microwaves Long High GHz phased powering drone aircraft ,
arrays, charging wireless devices
rect ennas

Charging port able

Lasers,
devices,[29] powering drone
Light waves Long High ≥THz phot ocells,
aircraft , powering space
lenses
elevat or climbers.
Field regions
Electric and magnetic fields are created by
charged particles in matter such as
electrons. A stationary charge creates an
electrostatic field in the space around it. A
steady current of charges (direct current,
DC) creates a static magnetic field around
it. The above fields contain energy, but
cannot carry power because they are
static. However time-varying fields can
carry power.[30] Accelerating electric
charges, such as are found in an
alternating current (AC) of electrons in a
wire, create time-varying electric and
magnetic fields in the space around them.
These fields can exert oscillating forces
on the electrons in a receiving "antenna",
causing them to move back and forth.
These represent alternating current which
can be used to power a load.

The oscillating electric and magnetic fields

surrounding moving electric charges in an
antenna device can be divided into two
regions, depending on distance Drange from
the antenna.[13][16][17][24][31][32][33] The
boundary between the regions is
somewhat vaguely defined.[16] The fields
have different characteristics in these
regions, and different technologies are
used for transferring power:

Near-field or nonradiative region – This

means the area within about 1
wavelength (λ) of the antenna.[13][31][32]
In this region the oscillating electric and
magnetic fields are separate[17] and
power can be transferred via electric
fields by capacitive coupling
(electrostatic induction) between metal
electrodes,[3][4][5][6] or via magnetic fields
by inductive coupling (electromagnetic
induction) between coils of
wire.[14][16][17][24] These fields are not
radiative,[32] meaning the energy stays
within a short distance of the
transmitter.[34] If there is no receiving
device or absorbing material within their
limited range to "couple" to, no power
leaves the transmitter.[34] The range of
these fields is short, and depends on the
size and shape of the "antenna" devices,
which are usually coils of wire. The
fields, and thus the power transmitted,
decrease exponentially with
distance,[31][33][35] so if the distance
between the two "antennas" Drange is
much larger than the diameter of the
"antennas" Dant very little power will be
received. Therefore, these techniques
cannot be used for long range power
transmission.
Resonance, such as resonant inductive
coupling, can increase the coupling
between the antennas greatly, allowing
efficient transmission at somewhat
greater distances,[13][17][24][31][36][37]
although the fields still decrease
exponentially. Therefore the range of
near-field devices is conventionally
divided into two categories:
Short range – up to about one
antenna diameter:
Drange ≤ Dant.[34][36][38] This is the range
over which ordinary nonresonant
capacitive or inductive coupling can
transfer practical amounts of power.
Mid-range – up to 10 times the
antenna diameter: Drange ≤ 10
Dant.[36][37][38][39] This is the range over
which resonant capacitive or inductive
coupling can transfer practical
amounts of power.
Far-field or radiative region – Beyond
about 1 wavelength (λ) of the antenna,
the electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to each other and
propagate as an electromagnetic wave;
examples are radio waves, microwaves,
or light waves.[13][24][31] This part of the
energy is radiative,[32] meaning it leaves
the antenna whether or not there is a
receiver to absorb it. The portion of
energy which does not strike the
receiving antenna is dissipated and lost
to the system. The amount of power
emitted as electromagnetic waves by an
antenna depends on the ratio of the
antenna's size Dant to the wavelength of
the waves λ,[40] which is determined by
the frequency: λ = c/f. At low
frequencies f where the antenna is much
smaller than the size of the waves,
Dant << λ, very little power is radiated.
Therefore the near-field devices above,
which use lower frequencies, radiate
almost none of their energy as
electromagnetic radiation. Antennas
about the same size as the wavelength
Dant ≈ λ such as monopole or dipole
antennas, radiate power efficiently, but
the electromagnetic waves are radiated
in all directions (omnidirectionally), so if
the receiving antenna is far away, only a
small amount of the radiation will hit
it.[32][36] Therefore, these can be used for
short range, inefficient power
transmission but not for long range
transmission.[41]
However, unlike fields, electromagnetic
radiation can be focused by reflection or
refraction into beams. By using a high-
gain antenna or optical system which
concentrates the radiation into a narrow
beam aimed at the receiver, it can be
 used for long range power
transmission.[36][41] From the Rayleigh
criterion, to produce the narrow beams
necessary to focus a significant amount
of the energy on a distant receiver, an
antenna must be much larger than the
wavelength of the waves used:
Dant >> λ = c/f.[42] Practical beam power
devices require wavelengths in the
centimeter region or below,
corresponding to frequencies above 1
GHz, in the microwave range or
above.[13]

Near-field (nonradiative)
techniques
At large relative distance, the near-field
components of electric and magnetic
fields are approximately quasi-static
oscillating dipole fields. These fields
decrease with the cube of distance:
(Drange/Dant)−3[33][43] Since power is
proportional to the square of the field
strength, the power transferred decreases
as (Drange/Dant)−6.[17][35][44][45] or 60 dB per
decade. In other words, if far apart,
doubling the distance between the two
antennas causes the power received to
decrease by a factor of 26 = 64. As a
result, inductive and capacitive coupling
can only be used for short-range power
transfer, within a few times the diameter of
the antenna device Dant. Unlike in a
radiative system where the maximum
radiation occurs when the dipole antennas
are oriented transverse to the direction of
propagation, with dipole fields the
maximum coupling occurs when the
dipoles are oriented longitudinally.

Inductive coupling …
Generic block diagram of an inductive wireless power
system

(left) Modern inductive power transfer, an electric

toothbrush charger. A coil in the stand produces a
magnetic field, inducing an alternating current in a coil
in the toothbrush, which is rectified to charge the
batteries.
(right) A light bulb powered wirelessly by induction, in
1910
 1910.

In inductive coupling (electromagnetic

induction[24][46] or inductive power transfer,
IPT), power is transferred between coils of
wire by a magnetic field.[17] The transmitter
and receiver coils together form a
transformer[17][24] (see diagram). An
alternating current (AC) through the
transmitter coil (L1) creates an oscillating
magnetic field (B) by Ampere's law. The
magnetic field passes through the
receiving coil (L2), where it induces an
alternating EMF (voltage) by Faraday's law
of induction, which creates an alternating
current in the receiver.[14][46] The induced
alternating current may either drive the
load directly, or be rectified to direct
current (DC) by a rectifier in the receiver,
which drives the load. A few systems, such
as electric toothbrush charging stands,
work at 50/60 Hz so AC mains current is
applied directly to the transmitter coil, but
in most systems an electronic oscillator
generates a higher frequency AC current
which drives the coil, because
transmission efficiency improves with
frequency.[46]
Inductive coupling is the oldest and most
widely used wireless power technology,
and virtually the only one so far which is
used in commercial products. It is used in
inductive charging stands for cordless
appliances used in wet environments such
as electric toothbrushes[24] and shavers, to
reduce the risk of electric shock.[47]
Another application area is
"transcutaneous" recharging of biomedical
prosthetic devices implanted in the human
body, such as cardiac pacemakers and
insulin pumps, to avoid having wires
passing through the skin.[48][49] It is also
used to charge electric vehicles such as
cars and to either charge or power transit
vehicles like buses and trains.[24][26]

However the fastest growing use is

wireless charging pads to recharge mobile
and handheld wireless devices such as
laptop and tablet computers, cellphones,
digital media players, and video game
controllers.[26]

The power transferred increases with

frequency[46] and the mutual inductance
between the coils,[14] which depends on
their geometry and the distance
between them. A widely used figure of
merit is the coupling coefficient
.[46][50] This
dimensionless parameter is equal to the
fraction of magnetic flux through the
transmitter coil that passes through
the receiver coil when L2 is open
circuited. If the two coils are on the same
axis and close together so all the
magnetic flux from passes through
, and the link efficiency approaches
100%. The greater the separation between
the coils, the more of the magnetic field
from the first coil misses the second, and
the lower and the link efficiency are,
approaching zero at large separations.[46]
The link efficiency and power transferred is
roughly proportional to .[46] In order to
achieve high efficiency, the coils must be
very close together, a fraction of the coil
diameter ,[46] usually within
centimeters,[41] with the coils' axes
aligned. Wide, flat coil shapes are usually
used, to increase coupling.[46] Ferrite "flux
confinement" cores can confine the
magnetic fields, improving coupling and
reducing interference to nearby
electronics,[46][48] but they are heavy and
bulky so small wireless devices often use
air-core coils.

Ordinary inductive coupling can only

achieve high efficiency when the coils are
very close together, usually adjacent. In
most modern inductive systems resonant
inductive coupling (described below) is
used, in which the efficiency is increased
by using resonant circuits.[32][37][46][51] This
can achieve high efficiencies at greater
distances than nonresonant inductive
coupling.
 Prototype Powermat inductive
inductive electric charging spots in a
car charging coffee shop.
system at 2011 Customers can set
Tokyo Auto Show their phones and
computers on them
to recharge.

Wireless powered
access card.
Resonant inductive coupling …

Resonant inductive coupling

(electrodynamic coupling,[24] strongly
coupled magnetic resonance[36]) is a form
of inductive coupling in which power is
transferred by magnetic fields (B, green)
between two resonant circuits (tuned
circuits), one in the transmitter and one in
the receiver (see diagram,
right).[17][24][32][47][51] Each resonant circuit
consists of a coil of wire connected to a
capacitor, or a self-resonant coil or other
resonator with internal capacitance. The
two are tuned to resonate at the same
resonant frequency. The resonance
between the coils can greatly increase
coupling and power transfer, analogously
to the way a vibrating tuning fork can
induce sympathetic vibration in a distant
fork tuned to the same pitch.

Nikola Tesla first discovered resonant

coupling during his pioneering experiments
in wireless power transfer around the turn
of the 20th century,[52][53][54] but the
possibilities of using resonant coupling to
increase transmission range has only
recently been explored.[55] In 2007 a team
led by Marin Soljačić at MIT used two
coupled tuned circuits each made of a
25 cm self-resonant coil of wire at 10 MHz
to achieve the transmission of 60 W of
power over a distance of 2 meters (6.6 ft)
(8 times the coil diameter) at around 40%
efficiency.[24][36][47][53][56]

The concept behind resonant inductive

coupling systems is that high Q factor
resonators exchange energy at a much
higher rate than they lose energy due to
internal damping.[36] Therefore, by using
resonance, the same amount of power can
be transferred at greater distances, using
the much weaker magnetic fields out in the
peripheral regions ("tails") of the near
fields.[36] Resonant inductive coupling can
achieve high efficiency at ranges of 4 to 10
times the coil diameter (Dant).[37][38][39] This
is called "mid-range" transfer,[38] in
contrast to the "short range" of
nonresonant inductive transfer, which can
achieve similar efficiencies only when the
coils are adjacent. Another advantage is
that resonant circuits interact with each
other so much more strongly than they do
with nonresonant objects that power
losses due to absorption in stray nearby
objects are negligible.[32][36]

A drawback of resonant coupling theory is

that at close ranges when the two
resonant circuits are tightly coupled, the
resonant frequency of the system is no
longer constant but "splits" into two
resonant peaks,[57][58][59] so the maximum
power transfer no longer occurs at the
original resonant frequency and the
oscillator frequency must be tuned to the
new resonance peak.[37][60]
Resonant technology is currently being
widely incorporated in modern inductive
wireless power systems.[46] One of the
possibilities envisioned for this technology
is area wireless power coverage. A coil in
the wall or ceiling of a room might be able
to wirelessly power lights and mobile
devices anywhere in the room, with
reasonable efficiency.[47] An environmental
and economic benefit of wirelessly
powering small devices such as clocks,
radios, music players and remote controls
is that it could drastically reduce the 6
billion batteries disposed of each year, a
large source of toxic waste and
groundwater contamination.[41]

Capacitive coupling …

Capacitive coupling also referred to as

electric coupling, makes use of electric
fields for the transmission of power
between two electrodes (an anode and
cathode) forming a capacitance for the
transfer of power.[61] In capacitive coupling
(electrostatic induction), the conjugate of
inductive coupling, energy is transmitted by
electric fields[3][14][4][6] between
electrodes[5] such as metal plates. The
transmitter and receiver electrodes form a
capacitor, with the intervening space as
the dielectric.[5][14][17][24][48][62] An
alternating voltage generated by the
transmitter is applied to the transmitting
plate, and the oscillating electric field
induces an alternating potential on the
receiver plate by electrostatic
induction,[14][62] which causes an
alternating current to flow in the load
circuit. The amount of power transferred
increases with the frequency[62] the square
of the voltage, and the capacitance
between the plates, which is proportional
to the area of the smaller plate and (for
short distances) inversely proportional to
the separation.[14]

Capacitive wireless power systems

Bipolar coupling

Monopolar
coupling
Capacitive coupling has only been used
practically in a few low power applications,
because the very high voltages on the
electrodes required to transmit significant
power can be hazardous,[17][24] and can
cause unpleasant side effects such as
noxious ozone production. In addition, in
contrast to magnetic fields,[36] electric
fields interact strongly with most
materials, including the human body, due
to dielectric polarization.[48] Intervening
materials between or near the electrodes
can absorb the energy, in the case of
humans possibly causing excessive
electromagnetic field exposure.[17]
However capacitive coupling has a few
advantages over inductive coupling. The
field is largely confined between the
capacitor plates, reducing interference,
which in inductive coupling requires heavy
ferrite "flux confinement" cores.[14][48] Also,
alignment requirements between the
transmitter and receiver are less
critical.[14][17][62] Capacitive coupling has
recently been applied to charging battery
powered portable devices[3] as well as
charging or continuous wireless power
transfer in biomedical implants,[4][5][6] and
is being considered as a means of
transferring power between substrate
layers in integrated circuits.[63]

Two types of circuit have been used:

Transverse design:[4][6][64][65] In this type

of circuit, there are two transmitter
plates and two receiver plates. Each
transmitter plate is coupled to a receiver
plate. The transmitter oscillator drives
the transmitter plates in opposite phase
(180° phase difference) by a high
alternating voltage, and the load is
connected between the two receiver
plates. The alternating electric fields
induce opposite phase alternating
potentials in the receiver plates, and this
"push-pull" action causes current to flow
back and forth between the plates
through the load. A disadvantage of this
configuration for wireless charging is
that the two plates in the receiving
device must be aligned face to face with
the charger plates for the device to
work.[15]
Longitudinal design:[14][62][65] In this type
of circuit, the transmitter and receiver
 have only one active electrode, and
either the ground or a large passive
electrode serves as the return path for
the current. The transmitter oscillator is
connected between an active and a
passive electrode. The load is also
connected between an active and a
passive electrode. The electric field
produced by the transmitter induces
alternating charge displacement in the
load dipole through electrostatic
induction.[66]
Resonant capacitive coupling …
Resonance can also be used with
capacitive coupling to extend the range. At
the turn of the 20th century, Nikola Tesla
did the first experiments with both
resonant inductive and capacitive
coupling.

Magnetodynamic coupling …

In this method, power is transmitted

between two rotating armatures, one in the
transmitter and one in the receiver, which
rotate synchronously, coupled together by
a magnetic field generated by permanent
magnets on the armatures.[25] The
transmitter armature is turned either by or
as the rotor of an electric motor, and its
magnetic field exerts torque on the
receiver armature, turning it. The magnetic
field acts like a mechanical coupling
between the armatures.[25] The receiver
armature produces power to drive the
load, either by turning a separate electric
generator or by using the receiver armature
itself as the rotor in a generator.

This device has been proposed as an

alternative to inductive power transfer for
noncontact charging of electric
vehicles.[25] A rotating armature embedded
in a garage floor or curb would turn a
receiver armature in the underside of the
vehicle to charge its batteries.[25] It is
claimed that this technique can transfer
power over distances of 10 to 15 cm (4 to
6 inches) with high efficiency, over
90%.[25][67] Also, the low frequency stray
magnetic fields produced by the rotating
magnets produce less electromagnetic
interference to nearby electronic devices
than the high frequency magnetic fields
produced by inductive coupling systems. A
prototype system charging electric
vehicles has been in operation at University
of British Columbia since 2012. Other
researchers, however, claim that the two
energy conversions (electrical to
mechanical to electrical again) make the
system less efficient than electrical
systems like inductive coupling.[25]

Far-field (radiative)
techniques
Far field methods achieve longer ranges,
often multiple kilometer ranges, where the
distance is much greater than the diameter
of the device(s). High-directivity antennas
or well-collimated laser light produce a
beam of energy that can be made to
match the shape of the receiving area. The
maximum directivity for antennas is
physically limited by diffraction.

In general, visible light (from lasers) and

microwaves (from purpose-designed
antennas) are the forms of
electromagnetic radiation best suited to
energy transfer.
The dimensions of the components may
be dictated by the distance from
transmitter to receiver, the wavelength and
the Rayleigh criterion or diffraction limit,
used in standard radio frequency antenna
design, which also applies to lasers. Airy's
diffraction limit is also frequently used to
determine an approximate spot size at an
arbitrary distance from the aperture.
Electromagnetic radiation experiences less
diffraction at shorter wavelengths (higher
frequencies); so, for example, a blue laser
is diffracted less than a red one.
The Rayleigh criterion dictates that any
radio wave, microwave or laser beam will
spread and become weaker and diffuse
over distance; the larger the transmitter
antenna or laser aperture compared to the
wavelength of radiation, the tighter the
beam and the less it will spread as a
function of distance (and vice versa).
Smaller antennae also suffer from
excessive losses due to side lobes.
However, the concept of laser aperture
considerably differs from an antenna.
Typically, a laser aperture much larger than
the wavelength induces multi-moded
radiation and mostly collimators are used
before emitted radiation couples into a
fiber or into space.

Ultimately, beamwidth is physically

determined by diffraction due to the dish
size in relation to the wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation used to make
the beam.

Microwave power beaming can be more

efficient than lasers, and is less prone to
atmospheric attenuation caused by dust or
water vapor.
Here, the power levels are calculated by
combining the above parameters together,
and adding in the gains and losses due to
the antenna characteristics and the
transparency and dispersion of the
medium through which the radiation
passes. That process is known as
calculating a link budget.

Microwaves …
An artist's depiction of a solar satellite that could send
electric energy by microwaves to a space vessel or
planetary surface.

Power transmission via radio waves can

be made more directional, allowing longer-
distance power beaming, with shorter
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation,
typically in the microwave range.[68] A
rectenna may be used to convert the
microwave energy back into electricity.
Rectenna conversion efficiencies
exceeding 95% have been realized. Power
beaming using microwaves has been
proposed for the transmission of energy
from orbiting solar power satellites to
Earth and the beaming of power to
spacecraft leaving orbit has been
considered.[69][70]

Power beaming by microwaves has the

difficulty that, for most space applications,
the required aperture sizes are very large
due to diffraction limiting antenna
directionality. For example, the 1978 NASA
study of solar power satellites required a
1-kilometre-diameter (0.62 mi)
transmitting antenna and a 10-kilometre-
diameter (6.2 mi) receiving rectenna for a
microwave beam at 2.45 GHz.[71] These
sizes can be somewhat decreased by
using shorter wavelengths, although short
wavelengths may have difficulties with
atmospheric absorption and beam
blockage by rain or water droplets.
Because of the "thinned-array curse", it is
not possible to make a narrower beam by
combining the beams of several smaller
satellites.

For earthbound applications, a large-area

10 km diameter receiving array allows
large total power levels to be used while
operating at the low power density
suggested for human electromagnetic
exposure safety. A human safe power
density of 1 mW/cm2 distributed across a
10 km diameter area corresponds to 750
megawatts total power level. This is the
power level found in many modern electric
power plants. For comparison, a solar PV
farm of similar size might easily exceed
10,000 megawatts (rounded) at best
conditions during daytime.
Following World War II, which saw the
development of high-power microwave
emitters known as cavity magnetrons, the
idea of using microwaves to transfer
power was researched. By 1964, a
miniature helicopter propelled by
microwave power had been
demonstrated.[72]

Japanese researcher Hidetsugu Yagi also

investigated wireless energy transmission
using a directional array antenna that he
designed. In February 1926, Yagi and his
colleague Shintaro Uda published their first
paper on the tuned high-gain directional
array now known as the Yagi antenna.
While it did not prove to be particularly
useful for power transmission, this beam
antenna has been widely adopted
throughout the broadcasting and wireless
telecommunications industries due to its
excellent performance characteristics.[73]

Wireless high power transmission using

microwaves is well proven. Experiments in
the tens of kilowatts have been performed
at Goldstone in California in 1975[74][75][76]
and more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin
on Reunion Island.[77] These methods
achieve distances on the order of a
kilometer.

Under experimental conditions, microwave

conversion efficiency was measured to be
around 54% across one meter.[78]

A change to 24 GHz has been suggested

as microwave emitters similar to LEDs
have been made with very high quantum
efficiencies using negative resistance, i.e.,
Gunn or IMPATT diodes, and this would be
viable for short range links.
In 2013, inventor Hatem Zeine
demonstrated how wireless power
transmission using phased array antennas
can deliver electrical power up to 30 feet.
It uses the same radio frequencies as
WiFi.[79][80]

In 2015, researchers at the University of

Washington introduced power over Wi-Fi,
which trickle-charges batteries and
powered battery-free cameras and
temperature sensors using transmissions
from Wi-Fi routers.[81][82] Wi-Fi signals were
shown to power battery-free temperature
and camera sensors at ranges of up to 20
feet. It was also shown that Wi-Fi can be
used to wirelessly trickle-charge nickel–
metal hydride and lithium-ion coin-cell
batteries at distances of up to 28 feet.

In 2017, the Federal Communication

Commission (FCC) certified the first mid-
field radio frequency (RF) transmitter of
wireless power.[83]

Lasers …
A laser beam centered on a panel of photovoltaic cells

provides enough power to a lightweight model

airplane for it to fly.

In the case of electromagnetic radiation

closer to the visible region of the spectrum
(tens of micrometers to tens of
nanometers), power can be transmitted by
converting electricity into a laser beam
that is then pointed at a photovoltaic
cell.[84][85] This mechanism is generally
known as 'power beaming' because the
power is beamed at a receiver that can
convert it to electrical energy. At the
receiver, special photovoltaic laser power
converters which are optimized for
monochromatic light conversion are
applied.[86]

Advantages compared to other wireless

methods are:[87]

Collimated monochromatic wavefront

propagation allows narrow beam cross-
section area for transmission over large
distances. As a result, there is little or no
 reduction in power when increasing the
distance from the transmitter to the
receiver.
Compact size: solid state lasers fit into
small products.
No radio-frequency interference to
existing radio communication such as
Wi-Fi and cell phones.
Access control: only receivers hit by the
laser receive power.

Drawbacks include:

Laser radiation is hazardous. Without a

proper safety mechanism, low power
levels can blind humans and other
animals. High power levels can kill
through localized spot heating.
Conversion between electricity and light
is limited. Photovoltaic cells achieve
40%–50% efficiency.[88] (The conversion
efficiency of laser light into electricity is
much higher than that of sun light into
electricity).
Atmospheric absorption, and absorption
and scattering by clouds, fog, rain, etc.,
causes up to 100% losses.
Requires a direct line of sight with the
target. (Instead of being beamed directly
 onto the receiver, the laser light can also
be guided by an optical fiber. Then one
speaks of power-over-fiber technology.)

Laser 'powerbeaming' technology was

explored in military weapons[89][90][91] and
aerospace[92][93] applications. Also, it is
applied for the powering of various kinds
of sensors in industrial environments.
Lately, it is developed for powering
commercial and consumer electronics.
Wireless energy transfer systems using
lasers for consumer space have to satisfy
laser safety requirements standardized
under IEC 60825.
The first wireless power system using
lasers for consumer applications was
demonstrated in 2018, capable of
delivering power to stationary and moving
devices across a room. This wireless
power system complies with safety
regulations according to IEC 60825
standard. It is also approved by the US
Food and Drugs Administration (FDA).[94]

Other details include propagation,[95] and

the coherence and the range limitation
problem.[96]
Geoffrey Landis[97][98][99] is one of the
pioneers of solar power satellites[100] and
laser-based transfer of energy, especially
for space and lunar missions. The demand
for safe and frequent space missions has
resulted in proposals for a laser-powered
space elevator.[101][102]

NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has

demonstrated a lightweight unmanned
model plane powered by a laser beam.[103]
This proof-of-concept demonstrates the
feasibility of periodic recharging using a
laser beam system.
Scientists from the Chinese Academy of
Sciences have developed a proof-of-
concept of utilizing a dual-wavelength
laser to wirelessly charge portable devices
or UAVs.[104]

Atmospheric plasma channel

coupling
In atmospheric plasma channel coupling,
energy is transferred between two
electrodes by electrical conduction
through ionized air.[105] When an electric
field gradient exists between the two
electrodes, exceeding 34 kilovolts per
centimeter at sea level atmospheric
pressure, an electric arc occurs.[106] This
atmospheric dielectric breakdown results
in the flow of electric current along a
random trajectory through an ionized
plasma channel between the two
electrodes. An example of this is natural
lightning, where one electrode is a virtual
point in a cloud and the other is a point on
Earth. Laser Induced Plasma Channel
(LIPC) research is presently underway
using ultrafast lasers to artificially
promote development of the plasma
channel through the air, directing the
electric arc, and guiding the current across
a specific path in a controllable
manner.[107] The laser energy reduces the
atmospheric dielectric breakdown voltage
and the air is made less insulating by
superheating, which lowers the density ( )
of the filament of air.[108]

This new process is being explored for use

as a laser lightning rod and as a means to
trigger lightning bolts from clouds for
natural lightning channel studies,[109] for
artificial atmospheric propagation studies,
as a substitute for conventional radio
antennas,[110] for applications associated
with electric welding and
machining,[111][112] for diverting power
from high-voltage capacitor discharges,
for directed-energy weapon applications
employing electrical conduction through a
ground return path,[113][114][115][116] and
electronic jamming.[117]

Energy harvesting
In the context of wireless power, energy
harvesting, also called power harvesting or
energy scavenging, is the conversion of
ambient energy from the environment to
electric power, mainly to power small
autonomous wireless electronic
devices.[118] The ambient energy may
come from stray electric or magnetic
fields or radio waves from nearby
electrical equipment, light, thermal energy
(heat), or kinetic energy such as vibration
or motion of the device.[118] Although the
efficiency of conversion is usually low and
the power gathered often minuscule
(milliwatts or microwatts),[118] it can be
adequate to run or recharge small
micropower wireless devices such as
remote sensors, which are proliferating in
many fields.[118] This new technology is
being developed to eliminate the need for
battery replacement or charging of such
wireless devices, allowing them to operate
completely autonomously.[119]

History

19th century developments and

dead ends
…

The 19th century saw many developments

of theories, and counter-theories on how
electrical energy might be transmitted. In
1826 André-Marie Ampère found Ampère's
circuital law showing that electric current
produces a magnetic field.[120] Michael
Faraday described in 1831 with his law of
induction the electromotive force driving a
current in a conductor loop by a time-
varying magnetic flux. Transmission of
electrical energy without wires was
observed by many inventors and
experimenters,[121][122][123] but lack of a
coherent theory attributed these
phenomena vaguely to electromagnetic
induction.[124] A concise explanation of
these phenomena would come from the
1860s Maxwell's equations[26][51] by
James Clerk Maxwell, establishing a
theory that unified electricity and
magnetism to electromagnetism,
predicting the existence of
electromagnetic waves as the "wireless"
carrier of electromagnetic energy. Around
1884 John Henry Poynting defined the
Poynting vector and gave Poynting's
theorem, which describe the flow of power
across an area within electromagnetic
radiation and allow for a correct analysis
of wireless power transfer
systems.[26][51][125] This was followed on
by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz' 1888 validation
of the theory, which included the evidence
for radio waves.[125]

During the same period two schemes of

wireless signaling were put forward by
William Henry Ward (1871) and Mahlon
Loomis (1872) that were based on the
erroneous belief that there was an
electrified atmospheric stratum accessible
at low altitude.[126][127] Both inventors'
patents noted this layer connected with a
return path using "Earth currents"' would
allow for wireless telegraphy as well as
supply power for the telegraph, doing away
with artificial batteries, and could also be
used for lighting, heat, and motive
power.[128][129] A more practical
demonstration of wireless transmission
via conduction came in Amos Dolbear's
1879 magneto electric telephone that used
ground conduction to transmit over a
distance of a quarter of a mile.[130]

Tesla …
Tesla demonstrating wireless transmission by
"electrostatic induction" during an 1891 lecture at

Columbia College.  The two metal sheets are

connected to a Tesla coil oscillator, which applies
high-voltage radio frequency alternating current.  An
oscillating electric field between the sheets ionizes
the low-pressure gas in the two long Geissler tubes in
his hands, causing them to glow in a manner similar
to neon tubes.

After 1890, inventor Nikola Tesla

experimented with transmitting power by
inductive and capacitive coupling using
spark-excited radio frequency resonant
transformers, now called Tesla coils,
which generated high AC
voltages.[51][53][131] Early on he attempted
to develop a wireless lighting system
based on near-field inductive and
capacitive coupling[53] and conducted a
series of public demonstrations where he
lit Geissler tubes and even incandescent
light bulbs from across a stage.[53][131][132]
He found he could increase the distance at
which he could light a lamp by using a
receiving LC circuit tuned to resonance
with the transmitter's LC circuit.[52] using
resonant inductive coupling.[53][54] Tesla
failed to make a commercial product out
of his findings[133] but his resonant
inductive coupling method is now widely
used in electronics and is currently being
applied to short-range wireless power
systems.[53][134]

(left) Experiment in resonant inductive transfer by

 (left) Experiment in resonant inductive transfer by
Tesla at Colorado Springs 1899. The coil is in
resonance with Tesla's magnifying transmitter nearby,
powering the light bulb at bottom. (right) Tesla's
unsuccessful Wardenclyffe power station.

Tesla went on to develop a wireless power

distribution system that he hoped would
be capable of transmitting power long
distance directly into homes and factories.
Early on he seemed to borrow from the
ideas of Mahlon Loomis,[135][136] proposing
a system composed of balloons to
suspend transmitting and receiving
electrodes in the air above 30,000 feet
(9,100 m) in altitude, where he thought the
pressure would allow him to send high
voltages (millions of volts) long distances.
To further study the conductive nature of
low pressure air he set up a test facility at
high altitude in Colorado Springs during
1899.[137][138][139] Experiments he
conducted there with a large coil operating
in the megavolts range, as well as
observations he made of the electronic
noise of lightning strikes, led him to
conclude incorrectly[140][130] that he could
use the entire globe of the Earth to
conduct electrical energy. The theory
included driving alternating current pulses
into the Earth at its resonant frequency
from a grounded Tesla coil working
against an elevated capacitance to make
the potential of the Earth oscillate. Tesla
thought this would allow alternating
current to be received with a similar
capacitive antenna tuned to resonance
with it at any point on Earth with very little
power loss.[141][142][143] His observations
also led him to believe a high voltage used
in a coil at an elevation of a few hundred
feet would "break the air stratum down",
eliminating the need for miles of cable
hanging on balloons to create his
atmospheric return circuit.[144][145] Tesla
would go on the next year to propose a
"World Wireless System" that was to
broadcast both information and power
worldwide.[146][147] In 1901, at Shoreham,
New York he attempted to construct a
large high-voltage wireless power station,
now called Wardenclyffe Tower, but by
1904 investment dried up and the facility
was never completed.

Near-field and non-radiative

technologies
…
Inductive power transfer between nearby
wire coils was the earliest wireless power
technology to be developed, existing since
the transformer was developed in the
1800s. Induction heating has been used
since the early 1900s.[148]

With the advent of cordless devices,

induction charging stands have been
developed for appliances used in wet
environments, like electric toothbrushes
and electric razors, to eliminate the hazard
of electric shock. One of the earliest
proposed applications of inductive
transfer was to power electric
locomotives. In 1892 Maurice Hutin and
Maurice Leblanc patented a wireless
method of powering railroad trains using
resonant coils inductively coupled to a
track wire at 3 kHz.[149]

In the early 1960s resonant inductive

wireless energy transfer was used
successfully in implantable medical
devices[150] including such devices as
pacemakers and artificial hearts. While the
early systems used a resonant receiver
coil, later systems[151] implemented
resonant transmitter coils as well. These
medical devices are designed for high
efficiency using low power electronics
while efficiently accommodating some
misalignment and dynamic twisting of the
coils. The separation between the coils in
implantable applications is commonly less
than 20 cm. Today resonant inductive
energy transfer is regularly used for
providing electric power in many
commercially available medical
implantable devices.[152]
The first passive RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification) technologies were invented
by Mario Cardullo[153] (1973) and Koelle et
al.[154] (1975) and by the 1990s were being
used in proximity cards and contactless
smartcards.

The proliferation of portable wireless

communication devices such as mobile
phones, tablet, and laptop computers in
recent decades is currently driving the
development of mid-range wireless
powering and charging technology to
eliminate the need for these devices to be
tethered to wall plugs during charging.[155]
The Wireless Power Consortium was
established in 2008 to develop
interoperable standards across
manufacturers.[155] Its Qi inductive power
standard published in August 2009
enables high efficiency charging and
powering of portable devices of up to 5
watts over distances of 4 cm (1.6
inches).[156] The wireless device is placed
on a flat charger plate (which can be
embedded in table tops at cafes, for
example) and power is transferred from a
flat coil in the charger to a similar one in
the device. In 2007, a team led by Marin
Soljačić at MIT used a dual resonance
transmitter with a 25 cm diameter
secondary tuned to 10 MHz to transfer 60
W of power to a similar dual resonance
receiver over a distance of 2 meters
(6.6 ft) (eight times the transmitter coil
diameter) at around 40% efficiency.[53][56]

In 2008 the team of Greg Leyh and Mike

Kennan of Nevada Lightning Lab used a
grounded dual resonance transmitter with
a 57 cm diameter secondary tuned to
60 kHz and a similar grounded dual
resonance receiver to transfer power
through coupled electric fields with an
earth current return circuit over a distance
of 12 meters (39 ft).[157] In 2011, Dr.
Christopher A. Tucker and Professor Kevin
Warwick of the University of Reading,
recreated Tesla’s 1900 patent 0,645,576 in
miniature and demonstrated power
transmission over 4 meters (13 ft) with a
coil diameter of 10 centimetres (3.9 in) at
a resonant frequency of 27.50 MHz, with
an effective efficiency of 60%.[158]

Microwaves and lasers …

Before World War II, little progress was
made in wireless power transmission.[159]
Radio was developed for communication
uses, but couldn't be used for power
transmission since the relatively low-
frequency radio waves spread out in all
directions and little energy reached the
receiver.[26][51][159] In radio communication,
at the receiver, an amplifier intensifies a
weak signal using energy from another
source. For power transmission, efficient
transmission required transmitters that
could generate higher-frequency
microwaves, which can be focused in
narrow beams towards a
receiver.[26][51][159][160]

The development of microwave

technology during World War 2, such as
the klystron and magnetron tubes and
parabolic antennas[159] made radiative
(far-field) methods practical for the first
time, and the first long-distance wireless
power transmission was achieved in the
1960s by William C. Brown.[26][51] In 1964
Brown invented the rectenna which could
efficiently convert microwaves to DC
power, and in 1964 demonstrated it with
the first wireless-powered aircraft, a model
helicopter powered by microwaves
beamed from the ground.[26][159] A major
motivation for microwave research in the
1970s and 80s was to develop a solar
power satellite.[51][159] Conceived in 1968
by Peter Glaser, this would harvest energy
from sunlight using solar cells and beam it
down to Earth as microwaves to huge
rectennas, which would convert it to
electrical energy on the electric power
grid.[26][161] In landmark 1975 experiments
as technical director of a JPL/Raytheon
program, Brown demonstrated long-range
transmission by beaming 475 W of
microwave power to a rectenna a mile
away, with a microwave to DC conversion
efficiency of 54%.[162] At NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory he and Robert
Dickinson transmitted 30 kW DC output
power across 1.5 km with 2.38 GHz
microwaves from a 26 m dish to a 7.3 x
3.5 m rectenna array. The incident-RF to
DC conversion efficiency of the rectenna
was 80%.[26][163] In 1983 Japan launched
MINIX (Microwave Ionosphere Nonlinear
Interaction Experiment), a rocket
experiment to test transmission of high
power microwaves through the
ionosphere.[26]

In recent years a focus of research has

been the development of wireless-
powered drone aircraft, which began in
1959 with the Dept. of Defense's RAMP
(Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform)
project[159] which sponsored Brown's
research. In 1987 Canada's
Communications Research Center
developed a small prototype airplane
called Stationary High Altitude Relay
Platform (SHARP) to relay
telecommunication data between points
on earth similar to a communications
satellite. Powered by a rectenna, it could
fly at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and stay
aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto
University built a more advanced craft
called MILAX (MIcrowave Lifted Airplane
eXperiment).

In 2003 NASA flew the first laser powered

aircraft. The small model plane's motor
was powered by electricity generated by
photocells from a beam of infrared light
from a ground-based laser, while a control
system kept the laser pointed at the plane.

See also
Beam-powered propulsion
Beam Power Challenge – one of the
NASA Centennial Challenges
Electricity distribution
Electric power transmission
Electromagnetic compatibility
Electromagnetic radiation and health
Energy harvesting
Friis transmission equation
Microwave power transmission
Qi (standard)
Space-based solar power
Resonant inductive coupling
Thinned array curse
uBeam - acoustic energy transfer
system
Wardenclyffe Tower
Wi-Charge - far-field infrared wireless
power
World Wireless System
References
1. The pad senses when a phone is on it
and turns on the field. The pad uses a
small amount of energy when not in
use, however in modern wireless
systems this "off" power is very small
compared to the power used when
charging. Hoffman, Chris (15
September 2017). "How Does
Wireless Charging Work?" . How-To
Geek. How-To Geek LLC. Retrieved
11 January 2018.
2. Ibrahim, F.N.; Jamail, N.A.M.; Othman,
N.A. (2016). "Development of wireless
electricity transmission through
resonant coupling". 4th IET Clean
Energy and Technology Conference
(CEAT 2016). Institution of Engineering
and Technology. p. 33.
doi:10.1049/cp.2016.1290 .
ISBN 9781785612381.
3. "World's first!! Production starts for
Capacitive Coupling Wireless Power
Transmission Module" . ECN
Magazine. 27 October 2011. Retrieved
16 January 2015.
4. Erfani, Reza; Marefat, Fatemeh;
Sodagar, Amir M.; Mohseni, Pedram
(2017). "Transcutaneous capacitive
wireless power transfer (C-WPT) for
biomedical implants". 2017 IEEE
International Symposium on Circuits
and Systems (ISCAS). pp. 1–4.
doi:10.1109/ISCAS.2017.8050940 .
ISBN 978-1-4673-6853-7.
5. Erfani, R.; Marefat, F.; Sodagar, A. M.;
Mohseni, P. (April 2018). "Modeling
and Characterization of Capacitive
Elements With Tissue as Dielectric
Material for Wireless Powering of
Neural Implants". IEEE Transactions on
Neural Systems and Rehabilitation
Engineering. 26 (5): 1093–1099.
doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2018.2824281 .
ISSN 1534-4320 . PMID 29752245 .
. Erfani, R.; Marefat, F.; Sodagar, A. M.;
Mohseni, P. (August 2017). "Modeling
and experimental validation of a
capacitive link for wireless power
transfer to biomedical implants". IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems
II: Express Briefs. 65 (7): 923–927.
doi:10.1109/TCSII.2017.2737140 .
ISSN 1558-3791 .
7. Miguel Poveda-García; Jorge Oliva-
Sanchez; Ramon Sanchez-Iborra;
David Cañete-Rebenaque; Jose Luis
Gomez-Tornero (2019). "Dynamic
Wireless Power Transfer for Cost-
Effective Wireless Sensor Networks
using Frequency-Scanned Beaming".
IEEE Access. 7: 8081–8094.
doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2886448 .
. Bush, Stephen F. (2014). Smart Grid:
Communication-Enabled Intelligence
for the Electric Power Grid . John
Wiley & Sons. p. 118. ISBN 978-
1118820230.
 9. "Wireless energy transfer" .
Encyclopedia of terms. PC Magazine
Ziff-Davis. 2014. Retrieved
15 December 2014.
10. New Scientist:Wireless charging for
electric vehicles hits the road
11. Lu, Yan; Ki, Wing-Hung (2017). CMOS
Integrated Circuit Design for Wireless
Power Transfer . Springer. pp. 2–3.
ISBN 978-9811026157.
12. Sun, Tianjia; Xie, Xiang; Wang, Zhihua
(2013). Wireless Power Transfer for
Medical Microsystems . Springer
Science and Business Media.
ISBN 978-1461477020.
13. Shinohara, Naoki (2014). Wireless
Power Transfer via Radiowaves . John
Wiley & Sons. pp. ix–xiii. ISBN 978-
1118862964.
14. Gopinath, Ashwin (August 2013). "All
About Transferring Power Wirelessly"
(PDF). Electronics for You E-zine: 52–
56. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 19 January 2015. Retrieved
16 January 2015.
15. Lu, X.; Wang, P.; Niyato, D.; Kim, D. I.;
Han, Z. (2016). "Wireless Charging
Technologies: Fundamentals,
Standards, and Network Applications".
IEEE Communications Surveys and
Tutorials. 18 (2): 1413–1452.
arXiv:1509.00940 .
doi:10.1109/comst.2015.2499783 .
1 . Sun, Tianjia; Xie, Xiang; Zhihua, Wang
(2013). Wireless Power Transfer for
Medical Microsystems . Springer
Science & Business Media. pp. 5–6.
ISBN 978-1461477020.
17. Sazonov, Edward; Neuman, Michael R.
(2014). Wearable Sensors:
Fundamentals, Implementation and
Applications . Elsevier. pp. 253–255.
ISBN 978-0124186668.
1 . Shinohara 2014 Wireless Power
Transfer via Radiowaves, p. 27
19. Krikidis, Ioannis; Timotheou, Stelios;
Nikolaou, Symeon; Zheng, Gan; Ng,
Derrick Wing Kwan; Schober, Robert
(2014). "Simultaneous wireless
information and power transfer in
modern communication systems".
IEEE Communications Magazine. 52
(11): 104–110. arXiv:1409.0261 .
Bibcode:2014arXiv1409.0261K .
doi:10.1109/MCOM.2014.6957150 .
20. Bi, Suzhi; Zeng, Yong; Zhang, Rui; Dong
In Kim; Han, Zhu (2016). "Wireless
powered communication networks: An
overview". IEEE Wireless
Communications. 23 (2): 10–18.
arXiv:1508.06366 .
doi:10.1109/MWC.2016.7462480 .
21. Lu, Xiao; Wang, Ping; Niyato, Dusit;
Dong In Kim; Han, Zhu (2018).
"Maximizing Ergodic Throughput in
Wireless Powered Communication
Networks". arXiv:1807.05543 [cs.IT ].
22. Bi, Suzhi; Ho, Chin Keong; Zhang, Rui
(2015). "Wireless powered
communication: Opportunities and
challenges". IEEE Communications
Magazine. 53 (4): 117–125.
doi:10.1109/MCOM.2015.7081084 .
23. "FCC approves first wireless 'power-at-
a-distance' charging system" .
Engadget. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
24. Valtchev, Stanimir S.; Baikova, Elena
N.; Jorge, Luis R. (December 2012).
"Electromagnetic field as the wireless
transporter of energy" (PDF). Facta
Universitatis - Series: Electronics and
Energetics. 25 (3): 171–181.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.693.1938 .
doi:10.2298/FUEE1203171V .
Retrieved 15 December 2014.
25. Ashley, Steven (20 November 2012).
"Wireless recharging: Pulling the plug
on electric cars" . BBC website. British
Broadcasting Corp. Retrieved
10 December 2014.
2 . Tomar, Anuradha; Gupta, Sunil (July
2012). "Wireless power Transmission:
Applications and Components" .
International Journal of Engineering
Research & Technology. 1 (5).
ISSN 2278-0181 . Retrieved
9 November 2014.
27. "short", "midrange", and "long range"
are defined below
2 . Jiang, Hao; Zhang, Junmin; Lan, Di;
Chao, Kevin K.; Liou, Shyshenq;
Shahnasser, Hamid; Fechter, Richard;
Hirose, Shinjiro; Harrison, Michael; Roy,
Shuvo (2013). "A Low-Frequency
Versatile Wireless Power Transfer
Technology for Biomedical Implants".
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical
Circuits and Systems. 7 (4): 526–535.
doi:10.1109/TBCAS.2012.2220763 .
PMID 23893211 .
29. "Israeli startup turns luminaires into
wireless power chargers" . eeNews
Europe. 15 January 2018. Retrieved
12 March 2018.
30. Coleman, Christopher (2004). An
Introduction to Radio Frequency
Engineerin . Cambridge University
Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-
1139452304.
31. Rajakaruna, Sumedha; Shahnia,
Farhad; Ghosh, Arindam (2014). Plug
In Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids:
Integration Techniques . Springer.
pp. 34–36. ISBN 978-9812872999.
32. Agbinya, Johnson I. (2012). Wireless
Power Transfer . River Publishers.
pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-8792329233.
33. Agbinya (2012) Wireless Power
Transfer, p. 126-129
34. Umenei, A. E. (June 2011).
"Understanding Low Frequency Non-
radiative Power Transfer" (PDF).
Fulton Innovation, Inc. Retrieved
3 January 2015.
35. Schantz, Hans G. (2007). "A real-time
location system using near-field
electromagnetic ranging" (PDF). 2007
IEEE Antennas and Propagation
Society International Symposium.
pp. 3792–3795.
doi:10.1109/APS.2007.4396365 .
ISBN 978-1-4244-0877-1. Retrieved
2 January 2015.
3 . Karalis, Aristeidis; Joannopoulos, J. D.;
Soljačić, Marin (January 2008).
"Efficient wireless non-radiative mid-
range energy transfer". Annals of
Physics. 323 (1): 34–48.
arXiv:physics/0611063 .
Bibcode:2008AnPhy.323...34K .
doi:10.1016/j.aop.2007.04.017 .
37. Wong, Elvin (2013). "Seminar: A
Review on Technologies for Wireless
Electricity" . HKPC. The Hong Kong
Electronic Industries Association Ltd.
Retrieved 3 January 2015.
3 . "Typically, an inductive coupled system
can transmit roughly the diameter of
the transmitter."(p. 4) "...mid-range is
defined as somewhere between one
and ten times the diameter of the
transmitting coil."(p. 2) Baarman,
David W.; Schwannecke, Joshua
(December 2009). "White paper:
Understanding Wireless Power" (PDF).
Fulton Innovation. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 9 April 2011.
Retrieved 3 January 2015.
39. "...strongly coupled magnetic
resonance can work over the mid-
range distance, defined as several
times the resonator size." Agbinya
(2012) Wireless Power Transfer, p. 40
40. Smith, Glenn S. (1997). An Introduction
to Classical Electromagnetic
Radiation . Cambridge University
Press. p. 474. ISBN 978-0521586986.
41. Tan, Yen Kheng (2013). Energy
Harvesting Autonomous Sensor
Systems: Design, Analysis, and
Practical Implementation . CRC Press.
pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-1439892732.
42. Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton,
Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1963). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. 1:
Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and
Heat . California Institute of
Technology. pp. 30.6–30.7. ISBN 978-
0465024933.
43. "Lighting Lamp by S-W Radio" (PDF).
Short Wave and Television. 8 (4): 166.
August 1937. Retrieved 18 March
2015. on
http://www.americanradiohistory.com
44. Agbinya, Johnson I. (February 2013).
"Investigation of near field inductive
communication system models,
channels, and experiments" (PDF).
Progress in Electromagnetics
Research B. 49: 130.
doi:10.2528/pierb12120512 .
Retrieved 2 January 2015.
45. Bolic, Miodrag; Simplot-Ryl, David;
Stojmenovic, Ivan (2010). RFID
Systems: Research Trends and
Challenges . John Wiley & Sons. p. 29.
ISBN 978-0470975664.
4 . Davis, Sam (July 2011). "Wireless
power minimizes interconnection
problems" (PDF). Power Electronics
Technology: 10–14. Retrieved
16 January 2015.
47. Wilson, Tracy V. (2014). "How Wireless
Power Works" . How Stuff Works.
InfoSpace LLC. Retrieved
15 December 2014.
4 . Puers, R. (2008). Omnidirectional
Inductive Powering for Biomedical
Implants . Springer Science &
Business Media. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-
1402090752.
49. Sun, Tianjia; Xie, Xiang; Zhihua, Wang
(2013). Wireless Power Transfer for
Medical Microsystems . Springer
Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-
1461477020.
50. Agbinya (2012) Wireless Power
Transfer, p. 140
51. Shinohara (2014) Wireless Power
Transfer via Radiowaves, p. 11
52. Wheeler, L. P. (August 1943). "Tesla's
contribution to high frequency".
Electrical Engineering. 62 (8): 355–
357. doi:10.1109/EE.1943.6435874 .
ISSN 0095-9197 .
53. Lee, C.K.; Zhong, W.X.; Hui, S.Y.R. (5
September 2012). Recent Progress in
Mid-Range Wireless Power Transfer
(PDF). The 4th Annual IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition
(ECCE 2012). Raleigh, North Carolina:
Inst. of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers. pp. 3819–3821. Retrieved
4 November 2014.
54. Sun, Xie, Wang (2013) Wireless Power
Transfer for Medical Microsystems, p.
3
55. Beams, David M.; Nagoorkar, Varun
(2013). "Design and simulation of
networks for midrange wireless power
transfer". 2013 IEEE 56th International
Midwest Symposium on Circuits and
Systems (MWSCAS). pp. 509–512.
doi:10.1109/MWSCAS.2013.6674697
. ISBN 978-1-4799-0066-4.
5 . Kurs, André; Karalis, Aristeidis; Moffatt,
Robert (July 2007). "Wireless Power
Transfer via Strongly Coupled
Magnetic Resonances" (PDF).
Science. 317 (5834): 83–85.
Bibcode:2007Sci...317...83K .
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.418.9645 .
doi:10.1126/science.1143254 .
ISSN 1095-9203 . PMID 17556549 .
57. Schormans, Matthew; Valente, Virgilio;
Demosthenous, Andreas (2016).
"Frequency Splitting Analysis and
Compensation Method for Inductive
Wireless Powering of Implantable
Biosensors". Sensors. 16 (8): 1229.
doi:10.3390/s16081229 .
5 . Rozman, Matjaz; Fernando, Michael;
Adebisi, Bamidele; Rabie, Khaled;
Kharel, Rupak; Ikpehai, Augustine;
Gacanin, Haris (2017). "Combined
Conformal Strongly-Coupled Magnetic
Resonance for Efficient Wireless
Power Transfer". Energies. 10 (4): 498.
doi:10.3390/en10040498 .
59. A graphical look at Resonance
0. Reconsideration of Wireless Power
Transfer principle which presented by
MIT
1. Webmaster. "Resonant Capacitive
Coupling" . www.wipo-
wirelesspower.com. Retrieved
30 November 2018.
2. Huschens, Markus (2012). "Various
techniques for wireless charging"
(PDF). EETimes-Asia. Retrieved
16 January 2015.
3. Meindl, James D. (2008). Integrated
Interconnect Technologies for 3D
Nanoelectronic Systems . Artech
House. pp. 475–477. ISBN 978-
1596932470.
4. Harakawa, Kenichi (2014). "Wireless
power transmission at rotating and
sliding elements by using the
capacitive coupling technology"
(PDF). 2014 ANSYS Electronic
Simulation Expo October 9–10, 2014,
Tokyo. ExH Corporation. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 25
September 2015. Retrieved 5 May
2015.
5. Liu, Na (2010). "Coupling games in
metamaterials" . Retrieved 18 January
2016.
 . Camurati, Patrick; Bondar, Henri
(2006). "Device for transporting energy
by partial influence through a dielectric
medium" . Google.ch/Patents. TMMS
Co. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
7. Shahan, Zach. "ELIX Wireless Rolls Out
A 10kW Wireless EV Charger With 92%
Efficiency" . EVObsession.com.
Retrieved 20 July 2015.
. Massa, A. Massa, G. Oliveri, F. Viani,
and P. Rocca; Oliveri, Giacomo; Viani,
Federico; Rocca, Paolo (June 2013).
"Array designs for long-distance
wireless power transmission – State-
of-the-art and innovative solutions".
Proceedings of the IEEE. 101 (6):
1464–1481.
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2013.2245491 .
 9. Landis, G. A. (1994). "Applications for
Space Power by Laser Transmission,
SPIE Optics, Electro-optics & Laser
Conference, Los Angeles CA, 24–28
January 1994". Laser Power Beaming,
SPIE Proceedings. Laser Power
Beaming. 2121: 252–255.
doi:10.1117/12.174188 .
70. G. Landis, M. Stavnes, S. Oleson and J.
Bozek, "Space Transfer With Ground-
Based Laser/Electric Propulsion"
(AIAA-92-3213) NASA Technical
Memorandum TM-106060 (1992).
71. Landis, Geoffrey A. (7–12 May 2006).
Reevaluating Satellite Solar Power
Systems for Earth (PDF). IEEE 4th
World Conference on Photovoltaic
Energy Conversion. p. 2. Retrieved
11 May 2012.
72. Experimental Airborne Microwave
Supported Platform Archived 2
March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
Descriptive Note : Final rept. Jun 64 –
Apr 65
73. "Scanning the Past: A History of
Electrical Engineering from the Past,
Hidetsugu Yagi" .
Ieee.cincinnati.fuse.net. Archived from
the original on 11 June 2009.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
74. "Space Solar Energy Initiative" . Space
Island Group. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
75. Wireless Power Transmission for Solar
Power Satellite (SPS) (Second Draft by
N. Shinohara), Space Solar Power
Workshop, Georgia Institute of
Technology
7 . Brown., W. C. (September 1984). "The
History of Power Transmission by
Radio Waves" . IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques. 32
(Volume: 32, Issue: 9 On page(s):
1230–1242+): 1230–1242.
Bibcode:1984ITMTT..32.1230B .
doi:10.1109/TMTT.1984.1132833 .
ISSN 0018-9480 .
77. POINT-TO-POINT WIRELESS POWER
TRANSPORTATION IN REUNION
ISLAND 48th International
Astronautical Congress, Turin, Italy, 6–
10 October 1997 – IAF-97-R.4.08 J. D.
Lan Sun Luk, A. Celeste, P.
Romanacce, L. Chane Kuang Sang, J.
C. Gatina – University of La Réunion –
Faculty of Science and Technology.
7 . Brown, W.C.; Eves, E.E. (June 1992).
"Beamed microwave power
transmission and its application to
space" . IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques. 40
(6): 1239–1250.
Bibcode:1992ITMTT..40.1239B .
doi:10.1109/22.141357 .
79. "Cota system transmits power
wirelessly at up to 30 feet" .
newatlas.com. 30 September 2013.
Retrieved 5 January 2018.
0. Etherington, Darrell. "Cota By Ossia
Aims To Drive A Wireless Power
Revolution And Change How We Think
About Charging" . TechCrunch.
Retrieved 5 January 2018.
1. Talla, Vamsi; Kellogg, Bryce; Ransford,
Benjamin; Naderiparizi, Saman;
Gollakota, Shyamnath; Smith, Joshua
R. (2015). "Powering the Next Billion
Devices with Wi-Fi". arXiv:1505.06815
[cs.NI ].
2. arXiv, Emerging Technology from the.
"First Demonstration of a Surveillance
Camera Powered by Ordinary Wi-Fi
Broadcasts" . Retrieved 28 September
2016.
3. "Energous Receives Industry-First FCC
Certification for Over-the-Air, Power-at-
a-Distance Wireless Charging ::
Energous Corporation (WATT)" .
Energous Corporation. Retrieved
5 January 2018.
4. "Power-by-Light" . Fraunhofer ISE.
5. Sahai, Aakash; Graham, David (2011).
"Optical wireless power transmission
at long wavelengths". 2011
International Conference on Space
Optical Systems and Applications
(ICSOS). pp. 164–170.
doi:10.1109/ICSOS.2011.5783662 .
ISBN 978-1-4244-9686-0.
 . Bett, Andreas W.; Dimroth, Frank;
Lockenhoff, Rudiger; Oliva, Eduard;
Schubert, Johannes (2008). "III–V
solar cells under monochromatic
illumination". 2008 33rd IEEE
Photovolatic Specialists Conference.
pp. 1–5.
doi:10.1109/pvsc.2008.4922910 .
ISBN 978-1-4244-1640-0.
7. Smith, David (4 January 2009).
"Wireless power spells end for
cables" . The Observer. London.
 . "power transmission via lasers" .
Laserfocusworld.com. Retrieved
4 June 2009.
9. Skillings, Jonathan (23 August 2008).
"Laser weapons: A distant target,
CNET news August 23, 2008 1:41 pm
PDT" . News.cnet.com. Retrieved
4 June 2009.
90. "Laser Weapons "Almost Ready?"
Not!" . Defensetech.org. 12 January
2006. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
91. "White Sands testing new laser
weapon system, US Army.mil, 30 Jan
2009" . Army.mil. 30 January 2009.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
92. "Lasers Power Planes, Drones" .
Defensetech.org. 6 November 2003.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
93. "Riding a Beam of Light" . Space.com.
24 October 2005. Retrieved 4 June
2009.
94. "Wi-Charge Wins CES 2018 Best of
Innovation Award" . Retrieved
12 March 2018.
95. "Free-Space Laser Propagation:
Atmospheric Effects" . Ieee.org.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
Propagation Characteristics of Laser
Beams – Melles Griot catalog
Andrews, Larry C; Phillips, Ronald L
(2005). L. C. Andrews and R. L.
Phillips, Laser Beam Propagation
through Random Media, 2nd ed. (SPIE
Press, 2005) . ISBN 978-0-8194-5948-
0. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
9 . Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta. "An explanation
of Coherence" . Rp-photonics.com.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
97. "An Evolutionary Path to SPS" .
Islandone.org. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
9 . "A Supersynchronous SPS" .
Geoffreylandis.com. 28 August 1997.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
99. Landis, Geoffrey A. (2001). "Papers
Relating to Space Photovoltaic Power,
Power beaming, and Solar Power
Satellites" . Astrobiology. 1 (2): 161–4.
Bibcode:2001AsBio...1..161L .
doi:10.1089/153110701753198927 .
PMID 12467119 . Retrieved 4 June
2009.
100. "Limitless clean energy from space" .
Nss.org. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
101. "Power Beaming (Climber)
Competition" . Spaceward.org.
Archived from the original on 24 July
2009. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
102. "From Concept to Reality" . The Space
Elevator. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
"Space Elevator Tethers Coming
Closer" . Crnano.typepad.com. 31
January 2009. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
103. "Dryden Flight Research Center,
Beamed Laser Power For UAVs" .
Nasa.gov. 7 May 2008. Retrieved
4 June 2009.
104. Wu, Chen-Wu; Wang, Jyhwen; Huang,
Chen-Guang (15 May 2018). "A
coupled model on energy conversion
in laser power beaming" . Journal of
Power Sources. 393: 211–216.
Bibcode:2018JPS...393..211W .
doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.010 .
105. Nawaz, Suddiyas. "Wireless Power
Transmission" . Academia 2015.
Retrieved 31 December 2015.
10 . Ray, Subir (2009). An Introduction to
High Voltage Engineering . PHI
Learning. pp. 19–21. ISBN 978-
8120324176.
107. "Electrolaser" . WiseGeek website.
Conjecture Corp. 2015. Retrieved
25 October 2015.
10 . Maik Scheller, Norman Born, Weibo
Cheng, and Pavel Polynkin, 'Channeling
the electrical breakdown of air by
optically heated plasma filaments',
Optica, Vol. 1, Issue 2, pp. 125-128
(2014)
doi:10.1364/OPTICA.1.000125
109. Rakov, Vladimir A.; Uman, Martin A.
(2003). Lightning: Physics and
Effects . Cambridge Univ. Press.
pp. 296–298. ISBN 978-0521035415.
110. Stahmann, J. R. (October 1964).
"LASER TYPE ULTRA-VIOLET
RADIATION FEASIBILITY FOR
LIGHTNING AND ATMOSPHERIC
PROPAGATION STUDIES" . DEFENSE
TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTER
OAI. LIGHTNING AND TRANSIENTS
RESEARCH INST ST PAUL MN.
Retrieved 16 January 2016.
111. Lawrence, Jonathan R.; Waugh, D.
(2014). Laser Surface Engineering:
Processes and Applications . Elsevier.
pp. 456–460. ISBN 978-1782420798.
112. Forestier, B.; Houard1, A.; Revel, I.; et
al. (2012). "Triggering, guiding and
deviation of long air spark discharges
with femtosecond laser filament" . AIP
Advances. 2 (1): 012151.
Bibcode:2012AIPA....2a2151F .
doi:10.1063/1.3690961 .
113. Giulietti, Antonio; Ledingham, Kenneth
(2010). Progress in Ultrafast Intense
Laser Science, Vol. 5 . Springer
Science and Business Media. pp. 111–
114. ISBN 978-3642038600.
114. Franklin, Steve (2015). Non-Lethal
Weapon Handbook (PDF). Digital
Services. pp. 161–162.
115. Quick, Darren (28 June 2012). "U.S.
Army weapon shoots lightning bolts
down laser beams" . Gizmag. Gizmag
Limited. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
11 . Kaneshiro, Jason (21 June 2012).
"Picatinny engineers set phasers to
'fry' " . news Archives. US Army official
website www.mil.gov. Retrieved
25 October 2015.
117. Clerici; et al. (19 June 2015). "Laser-
assisted guiding of electrical
discharges around objects" (PDF).
Science Advances. 1 (5): e1400111.
Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0111C .
doi:10.1126/sciadv.1400111 .
PMC 4640611 . PMID 26601188 .
Retrieved 25 October 2015.
11 . Beeby, Stephen; White, Neil (2010).
Energy Harvesting for Autonomous
Systems . Artech House. pp. 1–2.
ISBN 978-1596937192.
119. X. Kang et. al ``Full-Duplex Wireless-
Powered Communication Network
With Energy Causality , in IEEE
Transactions on Wireless
Communications, vol.14, no.10,
pp.5539-5551, Oct. 2015.
120. Richard Fitzpatrick (2007). "Ampère's
Circuital Law" .
121. Luigi Galvani (1791), Peter Samuel
Munk (1835), Joseph Henry (1842),
Samuel Alfred Varley (1852), Edwin
Houston, Elihu Thomson, Thomas
Edison (1875) and David Edward
Hughes (1878)
122. T. K. Sarkar, Robert Mailloux, Arthur A.
Oliner, M. Salazar-Palma, Dipak L.
Sengupta, History of Wireless, John
Wiley & Sons - 2006, pages 258-261
123. Christopher H. Sterling, Encyclopedia
of Radio 3-Volume, Routledge - 2004,
page 831
124. W. Bernard Carlson, Innovation as a
Social Process: Elihu Thomson and
the Rise of General Electric,
Cambridge University Press - 2003,
pages 57-58
125. Angelo, Joseph A. (2009).
Encyclopedia of Space and
Astronomy . Infobase Publishing.
pp. 292–293. ISBN 978-1438110189.
12 . Christopher Cooper, The Truth About
Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in
the History of Innovation, Race Point
Publishing - 2015, page 154, 165
127. Theodore S. Rappaport, Brian D.
Woerner, Jeffrey H. Reed, Wireless
Personal Communications: Trends and
Challenges, Springer Science &
Business Media - 2012, pages 211-
215
12 . Christopher Cooper, The Truth About
Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in
the History of Innovation, Race Point
Publishing - 2015, page 154
129. THOMAS H. WHITE, section 21,
MAHLON LOOMIS
130. Christopher Cooper, The Truth About
Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in
the History of Innovation, Race Point
Publishing - 2015, page 165
131. Tesla, Nikola (May 20, 1891)
Experiments with Alternate Currents of
Very High Frequency and Their
Application to Methods of Artificial
Illumination , lecture before the
American Inst. of Electrical Engineers,
Columbia College, New York.
Reprinted as a book of the same name
by . Wildside Press. 2006. ISBN 978-
0809501625.
132. W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of
the Electrical Age, Princeton University
Press - 2013, page 132
133. Christopher Cooper, The Truth About
Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in
the History of Innovation, Race Point
Publishing - 2015, pages 143-144
134. Leyh, G. E.; Kennan, M. D. (28
September 2008). Efficient wireless
transmission of power using
resonators with coupled electric fields
(PDF). NAPS 2008 40th North
American Power Symposium, Calgary,
September 28–30, 2008. IEEE. pp. 1–
4. doi:10.1109/NAPS.2008.5307364 .
ISBN 978-1-4244-4283-6. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 4 March
2016.
135. W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of
the Electrical Age, Princeton University
Press - 2013, page H-45
13 . Marc J. Seifer, Wizard: The Life and
Times of Nikola Tesla : Biography of a
Genius, Citadel Press - 1996, page 107
137. Robert Uth, Tesla, Master of Lightning,
Barnes & Noble Publishing - 1999,
page 92
13 . PBS, Tesla - Life and Legacy -
Colorado Springs
139. W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of
the Electrical Age, Princeton University
Press - 2013, page 264
140. Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). Tesla:
Inventor of the Electrical Age.
Princeton University Press. p. 301.
ISBN 1400846552
141. W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of
the Electrical Age, Princeton University
Press - 2013, pages 209-211
142. Tesla, Nikola (5 March 1904). "The
Transmission of Electric Energy
Without Wires" . Electrical World and
Engineer. 43: 23760–23761., reprinted
in Scientific American Supplement,
Munn and Co., Vol. 57, No. 1483, 4
June 1904, p. 23760–23761
143. Sewall, Charles Henry (1903). Wireless
telegraphy: its origins, development,
inventions, and apparatus . D. Van
Nostrand Co. pp. 38–42.
144. W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of
the Electrical Age, Princeton University
Press - 2013, page 252
145. Cooper, Drury W., internal document of
the law firm Kerr, Page & Cooper, New
York City, 1916. (Cited in Anderson,
Leland (1992). Nikola Tesla on His
Work with Alternating Currents and
Their Application to Wireless
Telegraphy, Telephony, and
Transmission of Power: An Extended
Interview . Sun Publishing Company.
p. 110. ISBN 978-1893817012.)

At that time I was

absolutely sure that I could
put up a commercial plant,
if I could do nothing else
but what I had done in my
laboratory on Houston
Street; but I had already
calculated and found that I
did not need great heights
to apply this method.  My
patent says that I break
down the atmosphere "at or
near" the terminal.  If my
conducting atmosphere is 2
or 3 miles above the plant, I
consider this very near the
terminal as compared to
the distance of my receiving
terminal, which may be
across the Pacific.  That is
simply an expression.  I saw
that I would be able to
transmit power provided I
could construct a certain
apparatus -- and I have, as I
will show you later.  I have
constructed and patented a
form of apparatus which,
with a moderate elevation
 of a few hundred feet, can
break the air stratum
down.

14 . Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the

Electrical Age, Ch. 14 & 15, p. 302-
367
147. Tesla, Nikola (June 1900). "The
Problem of Increasing Human
Energy" . Century Magazine. Retrieved
20 November 2014.
14 . Rudnev, Valery; Loveless, Don; Cook,
Raymond L (14 July 2017). Handbook
of Induction Heating (Second ed.).
ISBN 978-1351643764.
149. US Patent No. 527857A, Maurice
Hutin, Maurice Leblanc, Transformer
system for electric railways , filed 16
November 1892; granted 23 October
1894
150. J. C. Schuder, “Powering an artificial
heart: Birth of the inductively coupled-
radio frequency system in 1960,”
Artificial Organs, vol. 26, no. 11, pp.
909–915, 2002.
151. SCHWAN M. A. and P.R. Troyk, "High
efficiency driver for transcutaneously
coupled coils" IEEE Engineering in
Medicine & Biology Society 11th
Annual International Conference,
November 1989, pp. 1403-1404.
152. "What is a cochlear implant?" .
Cochlearamericas.com. 30 January
2009. Archived from the original on
24 December 2008. Retrieved 4 June
2009.
153. US Patent No. 3713148A, Mario W.
Cardullo, William L. Parks,
Transponder apparatus and system ,
filed 21 May 1970; granted 23 January
1973
154. Koelle, A. R.; Depp, S. W.; Freyman, R.
W. (1975). "Short-range radio-
telemetry for electronic identification,
using modulated RF backscatter".
Proceedings of the IEEE. 63 (8):
1260–1261.
doi:10.1109/proc.1975.9928 .
155. Sayer, Peter (19 December 2008).
"Wireless Power Consortium to
Unleash Electronic Gadgets" .
PCWorld. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
15 . "Global Qi Standard Powers Up
Wireless Charging" . PRNewswire.
UBM plc. 2 September 2009. Retrieved
8 December 2014.
157. Leyh, G. E.; Kennan, M. D. (28
September 2008). Efficient wireless
transmission of power using
resonators with coupled electric fields
(PDF). NAPS 2008 40th North
American Power Symposium, Calgary,
28–30 September 2008. IEEE. pp. 1–
4. doi:10.1109/NAPS.2008.5307364 .
ISBN 978-1-4244-4283-6. Retrieved
20 November 2014.
15 . Tucker, Christopher A.; Warwick, Kevin;
Holderbaum, William (2013). "A
contribution to the wireless
transmission of power" . International
Journal of Electrical Power & Energy
Systems. 47: 235–242.
doi:10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.10.066 .
159. Brown, W.C. (1984). "The History of
Power Transmission by Radio
Waves" . IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques. 32
(9): 1230–1242.
Bibcode:1984ITMTT..32.1230B .
doi:10.1109/TMTT.1984.1132833 .
1 0. Curty, Jari-Pascal; Declercq, Michel;
Dehollain, Catherine; Joehl, Norbert
(2006). Design and Optimization of
Passive UHF RFID Systems . Springer.
p. 4. ISBN 978-0387447100.
1 1. Glaser, Peter E. (22 November 1968).
"Power from the Sun: Its future" (PDF).
Science. 162 (3856): 857–861.
Bibcode:1968Sci...162..857G .
doi:10.1126/science.162.3856.857 .
PMID 17769070 . Retrieved
4 November 2014.
1 2. Friend, Michael; Parise, Ronald J.
"Cutting the Cord: ISTF 07-1726" .
Mainland High School, Daytona Beach,
Florida. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
1 3. Dickinson, R.M. (1976). "Performance
of a High-Power, 2.388-GHZ Receiving
Array in Wireless Power Transmission
over 1.54 km" (PDF). MTT-S
International Microwave Symposium
Digest . 76. pp. 139–141.
doi:10.1109/mwsym.1976.1123672 .
Retrieved 9 November 2014.

Further reading
Books and articles
de Rooij, Michael A. (2015). Wireless Power
Handbook . Power Conversion Publications.
ISBN 978-0996649216. Latest work on
AirFuel Alliance class 2 and class 3
transmitters, adaptive tuning, radiated EMI,
multi-mode wireless power systems, and
control strategies.
Agbinya, Johnson I., Ed. (2012). Wireless
Power Transfer . River Publishers. ISBN 978-
8792329233. Comprehensive, theoretical
engineering text
Shinohara, Naoki (2014). Wireless Power
Transfer via Radiowaves . John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-1118862964. Engineering text
Tomar, Anuradha; Gupta, Sunil (July 2012).
"Wireless power Transmission: Applications
and Components" . International Journal of
Engineering Research & Technology. 1 (5): 1–
8. ISSN 2278-0181 . Brief survey of state of
wireless power and applications
Kurs, André; Karalis, Aristeidis; Moffatt,
Robert (July 2007). "Wireless Power Transfer
via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances"
(PDF). Science. 317 (5834): 83–85.
Bibcode:2007Sci...317...83K .
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.418.9645 .
doi:10.1126/science.1143254 . ISSN 1095-
9203 . PMID 17556549 . Landmark paper on
MIT team's 2007 development of mid-range
resonant wireless transmission
Thibault, G. (2014). Wireless Pasts and Wired
Futures . In J. Hadlaw, A. Herman, & T. Swiss
(Eds.), Theories of the Mobile Internet.
Materialities and Imaginaries. (pp. 126–154).
London: Routledge. A short cultural history of
wireless power

Patents
U.S. Patent 4,955,562 , Microwave powered
aircraft, John E. Martin, et al. (1990).
U.S. Patent 3,933,323 , Solid state solar to
microwave energy converter system and
apparatus, Kenneth W. Dudley, et al. (1976).
 U.S. Patent 3,535,543 , Microwave power
receiving antenna, Carroll C. Dailey (1970).

External links
Howstuffworks "How Wireless Power
Works" – describes near-range and
mid-range wireless power transmission
using induction and radiation
techniques.
Microwave Power Transmission , – its
history before 1980.
The Stationary High Altitude Relay
Platform (SHARP) , – microwave beam
powered.
Marin Soljačić's MIT WiTricity – wireless
power transmission pages.
Rezence – official site of a wireless
power standard promoted by the
Alliance for Wireless Power
Qi – official site of a wireless power
standard promoted by the Wireless
Power Consortium
PMA – official site of a wireless power
standard promoted by the Power
Matters Alliance
WiPow – official site of the WiPow
Coalition, promoting standardized
 wireless power for medical, mobility and
wheeled devices

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Wireless_power_transfer&oldid=939526037"

Last edited 5 days ago by PrimeBOT

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.