International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2014, 24, 470  -479

http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0014
© 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.
www.IJSNEM-Journal.com
Consensus Statement

Nutrition Considerations
in Special Environments for Aquatic Sports
Trent Stellingwerff, David B. Pyne, and Louise M. Burke

Elite athletes who compete in aquatic sports face the constant challenge of arduous training and competition
schedules in difficult and changing environmental conditions. The huge range of water temperatures to which
swimmers and other aquatic athletes are often exposed (16–31 °C for open-water swimming), coupled with
altered aquatic thermoregulatory responses as compared with terrestrial athletes, can challenge the health,
safety, and performance of these athletes. Other environmental concerns include air and water pollution,
altitude, and jetlag and travel fatigue. However, these challenging environments provide the potential for sev-
eral nutritional interventions that can mitigate the negative effects and enhance adaptation and performance.
These interventions include providing adequate hydration and carbohydrate and iron intake while at altitude;
optimizing body composition and fluid and carbohydrate intake when training or competing in varying water
temperatures; and maximizing fluid and food hygiene when traveling. There is also emerging information on
nutritional interventions to manage jetlag and travel fatigue, such as the timing of food intake and the strategic
use of caffeine or melatonin. Aquatic athletes often undertake their major global competitions where accom-
modations feature cafeteria-style buffet eating. These environments can often lead to inappropriate choices
in the type and quantity of food intake, which is of particular concern to divers and synchronized swimmers
who compete in physique-specific sports, as well as swimmers who have a vastly reduced energy expenditure
during their taper. Taken together, planned nutrition and hydration interventions can have a favorable impact
on aquatic athletes facing varying environmental challenges.

Keywords: swimming, environment, nutrition

Athletes in modern elite aquatic sports, which include
swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, and water
polo, can face arduous training and competition schedules
in difficult and changing environmental conditions. For
example, depending on the event, age, and season, the
elite swimmer may have between 30 and 100 races per
year, crossing multiple time zones in varying countries,
all with differing environmental, cultural, food, and fluid
choices. Similar types of travel and competition demands
are also placed on other aquatic athletes. They may also
incorporate specialized programs involving adaptation to
altitude, either by traveling to locations at high altitude
or sleeping in simulated hypoxic conditions in nitrogen
houses or tents. During peak competition phases, all
aquatic athletes generally have accommodations that
feature all-you-can-eat buffets, which challenge dietary
restraint, especially in the more physique-dependent
disciplines of synchronized swimming and diving.
Stellingwerff is with the Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Vic-
toria, British Columbia, Canada. Pyne is with the Physiology
Dept., and Burke the Nutrition Dept., the Australian Institute
of Sport, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Address author
correspondence to Trent Stellingwerff at tstellingwerff@
csipacific.ca.
The variability in water temperature can also be a
significant environmental and physiological hurdle. The
official rules of the international governing body for
swimming, the Fédération Internationale de Natation
(FINA), state that during competition temperatures must
be between 25 and 28 °C for pool water and 16 and 31 °C
for open-water swimming (OWS) for the 10-km Olympic
marathon and the 5-, 10-, or 25-km races at the FINA
World Championships (Shaw et al., 2014). In training,
elite aquatic athletes can cover between 10 and 100 km/
week-1 (10 and 35 hr/week-1) in pool and OWS in which
temperatures are not necessarily regulated. Furthermore,
many swimmers undertake periodic altitude training or
OWS in potentially polluted air and water. Together, these
environmental challenges can add significant undesired
and potentially detrimental stress that may compromise
energy balance, recovery, immune function, optimal train-
ing adaptation, and ultimately performance. However,
several nutritional interventions may help to mitigate the
negative environmental effects and enhance adaptation
and performance. Given the large diversity of needs and
interests across varying aquatic sport disciplines, it is
impossible to cover all areas in adequate detail. Therefore,
we focus on the specific issues, and subsequent nutrition
recommendations, faced by swimmers who are exposed
to altitude training, varying water temperatures, and

470

air and water pollution. The challenges of global travel
and living in competition villages shared by all aquatic
athletes are also addressed.
Unique Physiological Responses
Associated With Varying
Swimming Environments
An appreciation of the unique and specific physiological
responses associated with swimming sets the stage for
understanding how varying environmental conditions,
and associated nutritional interventions, may affect
aquatic athletes. Swimming training can place significant
stress on various physiological systems and is distinctive
in that it is the only sport conducted entirely in a body
weight–supported prone or supine position in water, fea-
turing simultaneous use of arms and legs for propulsion
with low eccentric and central nervous system demands
(Pyne & Sharp, 2014).
In terms of cardiodynamics, despite the prolonged
hours of training, most elite swimmers actually dem-
onstrate typical hemoglobin mass and blood plasma
volumes that are similar to those of recreational to
national-class endurance athletes (Heinicke et al., 2001;
Wachsmuth et al., 2013). This outcome may relate to
the water-based training environment of swimmers, in
which the normal increase in aldosterone and antidiuretic
hormone (or vasopressin) secretion and decreased glo-
merular filtration rate and urine volume typically found
during endurance training are reduced (and possibly
even abolished) during training in the water (Böning et
al., 1988). Whether this adaptation is due to water itself
or to the prone and supine training position of swimmers
remains to be determined. Nevertheless, both body posi-
tions reduce venous pooling of blood in the legs, shifting
blood to the thorax via increased central venous pres-
sure and triggering increased diastolic ventricle filling,
higher cardiac stroke volumes, and increased diuresis
(Boning et al., 1988; Echt et al., 1974). Accordingly,
compared with terrestrial athletes, swimmers need lower
total blood volume to fill the active circulation during
exercise (Boning et al., 1988; Echt et al., 1974). Thus,
plasma and red cell volume-induced training adaptations
appear to be attenuated by swim training as compared
with upright terrestrial endurance training (Heinicke et
al., 2001; Wachsmuth et al., 2013), which potentially
affects training and nutrition recommendations in altered
environments.
These cardiodynamic phenomena unique to swim-
ming also play a role in altered thermoregulatory
responses in water-based exercise compared with land-
based exercise. Body temperature regulation on land
occurs primarily via sweat evaporation. In contrast, both
convection and conduction are the two primary ways
to transfer heat in the water because evaporation does
not occur during exercise in water (Nielsen & Davies,
1976). Thermal conductivity is approximately 25 times
greater in the water than in the air, so water even mar-
Nutrition, Swimming, and Special Environments   471
ginally colder than body temperature is a significant
heat sink and has the potential to cause hypothermia.
Given that the normal human body temperature is about
37 °C, even swimming in 21 °C (~16 °C differential or
heat sink) for a prolonged time can cause hypothermia
(Brannigan et al., 2009; Castro et al., 2009). Conversely,
20 min of swimming at approximately 50% VO2max in 34
°C water (still a ~3 °C heat sink) yielded an esophageal
temperature increase of only 1 °C, whereas 20 min of
running at approximately 50% VO2max at a much cooler
temperature (21 °C) drove esophageal temperature to 39
°C (Holmér & Bergh, 1974). It has long been known that
there are greater VO2 demands when swimming in cold
water (McArdle et al., 1976), which is thought to relate to
decreased mechanical efficiency secondary to increased
shivering thermogenesis. This study also demonstrated
that decreased heart rates in cold-water swimming were
entirely compensated for by an increased cardiac stroke
volume (McArdle et al., 1976), possibly the result of
increased peripheral and cutaneous vasoconstriction
causing an even greater increase in central blood volume
and venous return. Taken together, not only do swimmers
have a completely different mechanism for heat dissipa-
tion than terrestrial athletes, many complex factors also
affect individual temperature regulation, including water
temperature, prone position while swimming, physique
of the athlete, length and intensity of the swimming,
acclimatization, and individual responses (Brannigan et
al., 2009; Castro et al., 2009; Gerrard, 1999; Holmér &
Bergh, 1974; Macaluso et al., 2013; McArdle et al., 1976).
In summary, given the substantial amount of time that
swimmers train in water in a prone or supine position,
coupled with alternative heat dissipation mechanisms
and altered hematological adaptive responses, some of
the conventional physiological responses with upright
training in varying environments may not directly apply
to aquatic sports (Boning et al., 1988; Brannigan et al.,
2009; Echt et al., 1974; Gerrard, 1999; Heinicke et al.,
2001; Wachsmuth et al., 2013). The physiological and
adaptive responses to altered environments and associ-
ated nutrition interventions in swimmers clearly warrant
further research attention.
Altitude Training in Swimmers
Altitude training is increasingly being used to prepare
primarily swimmers for international competitions.
Although use of altitude training has been explored for
almost 40 years, there have been few controlled, or even
observational, experimental altitude studies on top-level
swimmers (Wilber, 2007). Given the different demands
of the other aquatic disciplines, there has been little
research or interest in altitude training for synchronized
swimming, diving, and water polo. In more recent years, a
number of options for simulating altitude for training and
exposure have been developed, such as altitude chambers
or houses, tents, or rebreathing apparatuses. The benefits
of altitude training are typically small and variable and
depend on the level and duration of hypoxic stimulus and
472  Stellingwerff et al.
the underlying health and fitness of the athlete (Bonetti
& Hopkins, 2009). Our focus here is on real or classi-
cal altitude training and how nutritional requirements
might vary in comparison with near sea-level training.
We should highlight that nearly all altitude nutrition and
hydration studies have been conducted at more extreme
altitudes (>3,500 m), whereas most altitude-based swim-
ming pools are located at moderate altitudes (approxi-
mately 2,000–2,500 m), and most FINA competitions are
conducted in major cities near sea level.
Understanding nutritional requirements at altitude
requires knowledge of the physiological changes asso-
ciated with training and exposure. It is understood that
some athletes exhibit losses in both lean mass and fat
mass when undertaking altitude training, particularly at
very high altitudes. Altitudes higher than 3,500 m can
cause a 10%–17% increase in basal metabolic rate (But-
terfield, 1999), appetite suppression (Kayser, 1992), shifts
toward increased carbohydrate utilization (Brooks et al.,
1991), and ultimately weight loss (Butterfield et al., 1992;
Kayser, 1992). All these effects can be mitigated through
adequate carbohydrate and energy intake (Butterfield et
al., 1992; Kayser, 1992). Studies of energetic require-
ments, caloric intake, and changes in body composition
at moderate altitudes are lacking, but some swimmers
might be at risk for modest energy deficiency, particularly
if training loads are high. Therefore, daily monitoring of
body mass when training or competing in challenging
environments may be informative for swimmers, coaches,
and support staff.
Both erythropoietic and nonerythropoietic mecha-
nisms of adaptation to altitude training appear to be
involved (Gore et al., 2007); however, studies on physi-
ology and performance have produced mixed results.
A key requirement facilitating adaptive processes at
altitude is underlying iron status; thus, iron status should
be screened before altitude training. Erythropoietin is a
glycoprotein hormone responsible for production and
release of reticulocytes from bone marrow that drives an
increase in red cell mass (hemoglobin), blood volume,
and oxygen-carrying capacity. Iron is an integral part
of the hemoglobin molecule, and athletes with low iron
may have a compromised ability to produce erythrocytes.
Current guidelines indicate that athletes going to altitude
should increase their dietary intake of iron, or undertake
iron supplementation with advice from qualified support
staff, when prealtitude serum ferritin concentrations are
less than 30 μg/L-1 for females or less than 40 μg/L-1 for
males (Bergeron et al., 2012).
Several other nutritional interventions should be con-
sidered for maintaining immune function and antioxidant
capacity during altitude training. Altitude training and
exposure can induce mild to moderate fluctuations in
underlying immune parameters such as salivary immuno-
globulin A (Mazzeo, 2005) and cytokine and lymphocyte
proliferative responses (D.V. Pyne et al., 2000). The nutri-
tional countermeasures for the immune system center on
augmented carbohydrate and antioxidant consumption
and possibly plant polyphenols and probiotics (Gleeson,
2013). Emphasizing antioxidant dietary sources may
be important because antioxidant buffering capacity in
highly trained runners may not be sufficient to counter-
balance free radical overproduction generated by acute
hypoxic exposure with or without exercise or training
(Pialoux et al., 2009). In this study, mild exercise at high
altitude (3,000 m) elicited a substantial elevation in free
radicals and a reduction in antioxidant capacity. How-
ever, whether increased antioxidant intakes at altitude
would sustain or restore immune function or increased or
attenuated training adaptations remains to be elucidated.
Although requiring more scientific validation, given that
several sea-level studies have demonstrated attenuated
endurance training adaptations with pure single-source
high-dose antioxidant supplementation (e.g., >1 g/day-1 of
pure vitamin C; Gomez-Cabrera et al., 2008), dietary rec-
ommendations should include greater emphasis on food
sources of antioxidants rather than supplements alone.
Altitude training also results in increased demand for
fluids. The mountain conditions of most altitude venues
are characterized by cold and dry air that can increase
loss of respiratory water (Wilber, 2007). Altitude-induced
diuresis and impaired thirst are typical responses in the
initial hours of altitude exposure. Increased rates of ven-
tilation and dry (low-humidity) air can exacerbate loss of
water from the respiratory system. Collectively, the total
water losses from the urinary and respiratory systems
could be as high as 2 L/day-1, which needs to be made
up via increased hydration. Consequently, fluid intakes
of as much as 4–5 L/day-1 have been recommended
(Wilber, 2007) for athletes training and competing at
altitude in a variety of sports. Monitoring of fluid intakes,
urine-specific gravity, and body mass changes is useful
in identifying swimmers at risk for dehydration during
altitude training and exposure.
Thermoregulatory Responses
in Swimmers in Varying Water
Temperatures
The wide range of water temperatures encountered by
swimmers in training and OWS competition is the pri-
mary influence on deviations in core body temperature
(Brannigan et al., 2009; Castro et al., 2009). Thus, it
is important to recognize that the FINA OWS World
Championship features race distances of 5 k, 10 k, and
25 k, which take elite athletes approximately 1 hr, 2 hr,
and 5.5–6 hr, respectively.
Although the unfortunate death of American OWS
athlete Fran Crippen in October 2011 highlighted the
potential health dangers of prolonged warm-water swim-
ming, hypothermia is still the most prevalent medical
risk associated with OWS during long-distance events
(Gerrard, 1999). Several recent OWS studies of 10- to
19.2-km races, both conducted at a water temperature of
approximately 21 °C, had hypothermia incidence rates
of about 21%–83% (Brannigan et al., 2009; Castro et

al., 2009). However, there is much controversy as to the
most medically relevant criteria, thermometer type, and
measurement location to accurately classify hypothermia.
Probably the most important intervention to prevent,
or attenuate, OWS hypothermic responses appears to
be an athlete’s inherent body fat, which can be chroni-
cally manipulated by a combination of energy intake
and expenditure in a race-targeted periodized fashion.
Indeed, depending on the aquatic event, compared with
weight-supported terrestrial sports, extra body fat is of
less consequence to overall swimming performance and
may be of value in cold-water OWS conditions for both
buoyancy and protection against hypothermia (Branni-
gan et al., 2009; Gullstrand, 2000; Holmér et al., 1974;
Macaluso et al., 2013; Shaw et al., 2014). Nevertheless,
it is important to recognize that a higher fat physique
may limit an athlete’s ability to dissipate heat, and place
the athlete at higher risk for heat stress or heat stroke,
in warm-water conditions (Macaluso et al., 2013). Elite
open-water swimmers undertake different events in vary-
ing water temperatures around the world, so periodizing
body fat to the targeted event water temperature may
not be practically feasible given the frequency of com-
petitions. Finally, athletes should always be screened
for preexisting viral illness because some evidence has
suggested that this may predispose individuals to further
heat stress and put them at a higher risk of developing
a serious cardiomyopathy, especially in warm to hot
conditions (Casa et al., 2012; Kindermann et al., 2012).
Very few studies have examined nutrition interven-
tions in swimmers to moderate the physiological effects
of varying water temperatures, but extension of findings
from terrestrial exercise has provided some insights. First,
optimal prerace fueling (glycogen stores) and in-race
carbohydrate and fluid intake appear to combat shivering
thermogenesis and the preferential glycogen utilization
when cold (for a review, see Haman, 2006). Thus, opti-
mizing in-race OWS fueling should be a priority (Shaw
et al., 2014). A plethora of studies have also demonstrated
positive effects of cold water or slushy consumption on
lowering core body temperature, improving performance
in the heat, or both (for a review, see Burdon et al., 2010).
These results were also recently extended to swimmers,
with an attenuated increase in core body temperature
during a pool-based workout in a tropical climate when
athletes consumed a 1 °C beverage (Hue et al., 2013), but
no performance measures were made. Interestingly, under
conditions permitting full sweat evaporation, body heat
storage was actually lower with warm-water ingestion
(50 °C) during 75 min of cycling at 50% VO2max, com-
pared with 1.5, 10, and 37 °C beverages, likely because
of disproportionate modulations in sweat output arising
from warm-sensitive thermosensors in the esophagus
or stomach (Bain et al., 2012). Given that swimmers do
not dissipate heat via evaporation, it remains to be seen
whether warm-beverage consumption during OWS in
cold-water conditions would attenuate declines in core
body temperature, decrease the risk for hypothermia, or
increase performance.
Nutrition, Swimming, and Special Environments   473
Some evidence has suggested that an individual
athlete can partially physiologically adapt to cold water
(Vybíral et al., 2000). Conversely, heat acclimation
adaptations do not seem to occur as readily in swimmers
as in upright land-based athletes (D.F. Gerrard, unpub-
lished observations), possibly because of the altered
cardiodynamics in swimmers. For terrestrial athletes,
plasma volume expansion is a typical acute adaptation
(5–7 days) demonstrated with upright heat acclimation
training (Garrett et al., 2011), which is further augmented
through optimal protein and carbohydrate intake during
recovery (Goto et al., 2010). However, this plasma
volume response appears to be negated when exercising
and recovering in the supine position (Nagashima et al.,
2000). Furthermore, terrestrial heat acclimation also
causes an increased sweat rate, which does not offer
any thermoregulatory benefit to swimmers and could
potentially be detrimental to open-water swimmers via
accelerated dehydration. Obviously, much more research
is needed to target the unique physiological responses of
swimmers in varying water temperatures, coupled with
nutritional interventions known to enhance adaptation and
performance outcomes in terrestrial athletes.
Air and Water Pollution
There is a paucity of research on the impact of air pol-
lution on athlete health and performance (Cutrufello
et al., 2012; Rundell, 2012), let alone the impact that
nutrition may have in neutralizing these deleterious
effects in swimmers. A higher prevalence of air hyper-
responsiveness is evident in athletes who train and
compete in environmental conditions of cold dry air
or when air pollution reaches high levels (Rundell &
Sue-Chu, 2013). The primary preventive strategy is
avoidance by having athletes train indoors away from
outdoor venues at higher risk of air pollution. In aquatic
sports, some athletes experience intermittent respiratory
issues related to chlorination of pool water and poor air
quality (Bougault & Boulet, 2012, 2013). Accordingly,
as many as 74% of elite swimmers report nasal obstruc-
tion, rhinorrhea, sneezing, and nasal itching throughout
a training season, consistent with reports of as many as
76% of swimmers having symptomatic or asymptomatic
airway hyperresponsiveness, exercise-induced broncho-
constriction, or both (Bougault & Boulet, 2012). The
causes of these high rates of respiratory issues in elite
swimmers are not entirely clear but may relate to low
breathing frequency or high and forceful breathing or
tidal volumes that favor increased respiratory penetration
of volatile chlorinated products right at the pool surface
(Bougault & Boulet, 2012). Athletes with asthma may
benefit from antioxidant therapy that has yielded benefi-
cial clinical outcomes in nonathletic patients (Wood et
al., 2012). Increasing the dietary intake of carotenoids
(antioxidants) improved clinical asthma outcomes, but
only after increased fruit and vegetable intake, suggesting
that whole-food interventions are most effective. Similar
474  Stellingwerff et al.
to immune stress at altitude, aquatic athletes dealing with
air and water pollution may also potentially benefit from
nutritional interventions such as adequate carbohydrate
and antioxidant intake and possibly plant polyphenols and
probiotics (Gleeson, 2013). However, in both instances
more information in elite athletes, and aquatic athletes,
is required to make definitive recommendations.
FINA OWS rules (4.6) state that each OWS course
local organizing committee must provide a certificate
of suitability (water purity and swimmer safety) for the
use of the venue, issued by the appropriate local health
and safety authorities within 72 hr of race day. However,
beyond engaging the local health authority to assess water
purity according to globally varying local standards,
there are no specific or internationally standardized rec-
ommendations for water pollution standards for OWS
events. Given that swimmers naturally ingest some water,
especially in OWS in which athletes are in close proxim-
ity in a dynamic environment (e.g., swells and waves),
more research is required to assess the prevalence and
treatment of immune dysfunction, sickness, and gastro-
intestinal distress and related short- and long-term health
and performance outcomes. Practical recommendations
to minimize adverse effects of water pollution during
OWS include choosing clean-water venues for all train-
ing to minimize total pollution exposure and rehearsing
feed-zone practices to limit inadvertent consumption of
polluted water.
Travel Nutrition,
Jet Lag, and Travel Fatigue
With the ever-increasing globalization of aquatic sports,
modern athletes are constantly traveling to training camps
and competitions, resulting in travel fatigue, jet lag, and
new environmental stressors associated with their destina-
tion (e.g., altitude, food and fluid quality issues, cultural
differences). For nearly all aquatic athletes, the major
targeted global competitions (e.g., Olympic Games or
FINA World Championships) will involve travel to a loca-
tion that is both distant and foreign to the athlete’s home
base and culture. Travel fatigue is defined as negative
physiological, psychological, and environmental factors
that accrue during a single trip and that can accumulate
throughout an entire season, resulting in reduced recov-
ery and athletic performance (Samuels, 2012). Travel
fatigue can be independent of and dependent on jet lag.
Conversely, jet lag is a syndrome of symptoms manifested
exclusively due to the time-phase shift to a new time zone
(Reilly et al., 2005, 2007; Samuels, 2012). Addressing
travel challenges requires special considerations for both
the trip itself and the issues faced in the new environment.
Three major themes for nutrition during travel involve
the adjustment of the body clock during and after tran-
sit, alteration of travel nutritional needs, and change in
food availability because of cultural changes at the new
training camp or competition location. Table 1 provides
a summary of important issues and some practical sug-
gestions for how they should be addressed.
At the base of the hypothalamus are the suprachias-
matic nuclei cells, which are the site of the human body
clock. Reilly et al. (2005, 2007) provided a complete
biological review of the body clock, but in short the
suprachiasmatic nuclei are closely linked to the pineal
gland, which secretes endogenous melatonin. Supra-
chiasmatic nuclei are in circadian rhythm, and for an
individual’s body clock to optimally synchronize to his
or her environment, adjustments are made by zeitgebers,
which are defined as any external or environmental cues
that entrain, or synchronize, one’s biological rhythms to
the Earth’s 24-hr light–dark cycle. Natural daylight and
darkness provide the most dominate zeitgebers for body
clock readjustment, and endogenous melatonin release
is intimately linked to light–dark cycles. Accordingly,
one of the best ways to start to reset the body clock and
overcome jet lag is the timely exposure of light and dark
starting immediately on travel, according to the new time
zone (Reilly et al., 2005, 2007; Samuels, 2012). The
voluntary eating and drinking pattern is also relevant
to circadian readjustment, with recommendations to
eat and drink as normally as possible immediately on
commencing travel to the new time zone (Reilly et al.,
2007). Taken together, the physiological circadian rhythm
is optimally readjusted by both endogenous (e.g., clock
driven, such as endogenous melatonin release) and exog-
enous (voluntary environmental components such as the
timing of light and eating) factors, which are going to play
the most dominant role in mitigating jet lag symptoms.
Although more research is required to establish efficacy,
several other potential supplement and nutrition-based
interventions may assist in establishing a new circadian
rhythm when jet lagged, including the strategic timing
of caffeine (morning or early day of new time zone),
melatonin (evening of new time zone), high-glycemic-
index carbohydrate meals and tryptophan-containing
foods before sleeping (Reilly et al., 2007; Samuels, 2012).
Although the effects are highly individual, some
athletes use exogenous melatonin supplementation
(N-acetyl-5-methoxytrptamine) to assist with sleep onset
when dealing with jet lag (Herxheimer & Petrie, 2002);
general recommendations suggest 3–5 mg of melatonin
taken 30 min before the new time-zone bedtime (Herx-
heimer & Petrie, 2002; Samuels, 2012). When used
appropriately, a meta-analysis has indicated that mela-
tonin decreases sleep onset by an average of 7 min and
is well tolerated with little evidence of adverse effects or
hang-over symptoms (Buscemi et al., 2006). However,
whether a 7-min decrease is beneficial for recovery or
performance remains to be seen. Furthermore, the purity
of any supplement can never be guaranteed, and the indi-
vidual and long-term effects are always unknown; thus,
some caution is warranted.
Travel generally imposes several acute changes in
the athlete’s nutritional needs. First is the decrease in
energy requirements that accompanies the forced reduc-
tion in activity patterns while the athlete is in transit. In
the case of long-haul travel, especially for high training-
volume athletes, the trip will incur a dramatic reduction
in energy expenditure over several days. This may be
Table 1  Challenges and Solutions for the Traveling Athlete
Challenges of Traveling
• Disruptions to the normal training routine
and lifestyle while the athlete is en route
• Changes in climate and environment that
create different nutritional needs (which are
especially the case during training camps at
altitude or for heat acclimatization)
• Jet lag
• Changes to food availability, including
absence of important and familiar foods
• Reliance on hotels, restaurants, and take-
aways instead of home cooking
• Exposure to new foods and eating cultures
• Temptations of an all-you-can-eat dining
hall in an athletes’ village
• Risk of gastrointestinal illnesses as a result
of exposure to food and water with poor
hygiene standards
• Excitement and distraction of a new envi-
ronment
Note. From Burke (2008).
Strategies to Cope with the Challenges of Traveling
1. Planning ahead
· The athlete should investigate food issues on travel routes (e.g., airlines) and at the
destination before leaving home. Caterers and food organizers should be contacted
well ahead of the trip to let them know meal timing and menu needs.
2. Supplies to supplement the local fare
o A supply of portable and nonperishable foods should be taken or sent to the desti-
nation to replace important items that may be missing.
X Suitable items include breakfast cereal and cereal bars, powdered milk and liquid
meals, dried fruit and nuts, sports drinks and protein powders, juice concentrates,
and freeze-dried and canned meals.
X The athlete should consider what is available in the new location versus the
weight and convenience of traveling with extra food.
X The athlete should also check with the local countries’ customs and quarantine to
see what foods are permitted to be brought into the country of travel.
· The athlete should be aware that many catering plans only cover meals. Because
the athlete’s nutrition goals are likely to include well-timed and well-chosen snacks,
supplies should be taken to supplement meals en route and at the destination.
3. Eating and drinking well en route
· Many athletes will turn to boredom eating when confined. Instead, they should eat
according to their real needs, taking into account the forced rest while traveling.
· When moving to a new time zone, the athlete should adopt eating patterns that
suit his or her destination as soon as the trip starts. This will help the body clock to
adapt.
· Unseen fluid losses in air-conditioned vehicles and pressurized plane cabins
should be recognized, and a drinking plan should be organized to keep the athlete
well hydrated.
X Fluid choices should be appropriate to the athlete’s energy requirements.
X Caffeinated drinks have minimal negative effect on hydration and may even
supply a substantial amount of fluid to the diets of habitual consumers of tea or
coffee. However the intake of caffeine should be considered in view of sleep pat-
terns.
4. Taking care with food and water hygiene
· It is important to find out whether the local water supply is safe to drink. Other-
wise, the athlete should stick to drinks from sealed bottles or hot drinks made from
well-boiled water. Ice added to drinks is often made from tap water and may be a
problem.
· In high-risk environments, the athlete should eat only at good hotels or well-
known restaurants. Food from local stalls and markets should be avoided, however
tempting it is to have an authentic cultural experience.
· Food that has been well cooked is the safest; it is best to avoid salads or unpeeled
fruit that has been in contact with local water or soil.
5. Adhering to a food plan
· The athlete should choose the best of the local cuisine to meet his or her nutri-
tional needs, supplementing with his or her own supplies when needed
· The athlete should be aware that training and race or event schedule may overlap
with meal times, especially in countries with a different culture of eating patterns
or in locations in which catering options are inflexible. They may need to request
special consideration, including boxed meals or snacks that can be kept or taken to
the event venue.
· The athlete should be assertive in asking for what he or she needs at catering
outlets—e.g., low-fat cooking styles or an extra carbohydrate choice.
· The challenges of all-you-can-eat dining should be recognized. The athlete should
resist the temptation to eat what is there or what everyone else is eating in favor of
his or her own meal plan.
475
476  Stellingwerff et al.
further disrupted by poor eating practices associated
with the boredom of travel or exposure to inappropri-
ate energy-dense foods (e.g., reliance on fast foods)
coupled with the reduced training volumes during the
initial phases of overcoming jet lag. Conversely, athletes
who continue to have high energy requirements may
find themselves with inadequate access to food while
traveling. Although these experiences may not seem
significant in the athlete’s overall nutrition program, if
such travel is undertaken regularly, just before important
events, or both, it may interfere with good management
of physique and performance goals. Therefore, athletes
and management are advised to construct an eating plan
for travel that incorporates the best use of airline catering,
en-route restaurants, and opportunities to take personal
food supplies.
The impact of long-haul flight on hydration status
is equivocal (Landgraf et al., 1994; Schobersberger et
al., 2002; Schumacher et al., 2012) and will depend
on pretravel hydration status, length of flight, amount
of in-flight fluid consumption, and cabin humidity and
temperature. However, given the low humidity in airline
cabins, fluid intake should be emphasized to ensure
optimal whole-body hydration levels on arrival. Potential
travel dehydration is compounded by a lack of, or change
in, access to fluids and usual drinking practices. Some
athletes, particularly those with spinal cord injury, delib-
erately limit fluid intake during long-haul travel to avoid
the disturbance to sleep caused by a need for frequent
urination. Although the athlete will have reduced fluid
requirements during the trip itself, even mild dehydration
may exacerbate travel fatigue and jet lag. During travel,
generic advice is to avoid the intake of caffeinated drinks
(e.g., coffee or cola) because of the potential disturbance
to hydration attributed to caffeine intake. However,
despite common beliefs, the intake of small to moderate
amounts of caffeine has a negligible effect on diuresis
or the hydration status of habitual caffeine consumers
(Armstrong, 2002). Therefore, athletes who habitually
consume caffeinated drinks may actually reduce their
fluid intake and fluid balance if they are forced to avoid
these drinks in favor of fluids that are perceived as less
enjoyable. Heavily caffeinated drinks should continue to
be avoided because of their effects on diuresis, sleep, or
caloric contribution to the athlete’s overall nutrition plan
rather than their effects on urinary output. The exacer-
bation of the deleterious intoxicating effects of alcohol
on recovery, hydration, and health during aircraft travel
should also be taken into account.
The athlete may also face a variety of new environ-
mental (e.g., climate and altitude), cultural, and practical
challenges in meeting his or her nutritional needs once he
or she has arrived at the destination. A foreign location,
language differences, food allergies and intolerances,
and travel experience (athlete age), combined with an
unaccustomed and unknown food supply, may result in
inappropriate food choices. Athletes may find themselves
without the foods that underpin their nutritional, social,
and enjoyment practices. Even travel to a familiar location
will still expose athletes to different food and catering
situations with altered access to routine food and food
preparation. A substantial part of an athlete’s new food
intake may come from hotels and restaurants rather than
being tailored to individual athlete needs. Even when the
general catering has been organized according to sports
nutrition principles, it may not meet the meal timing
and individual needs of athletes, such as food allergies
or intolerances or religious practices (Cummings, 2010).
Many times, meal timing needs to be established
around pool availability dictating training times, espe-
cially with the limited number of pools at altitude. Cater-
ing must meet a variety of food preferences, including
cultural and religious diversity, dietary restrictions,
event-specific sports nutrition needs, and changes in
nutrition needs between periods of final training, taper,
competition, and celebration (Meyer et al., 2013; Pelly et
al., 2011). Generally there is much more free time during
the taper and competition period, which can result in
unnecessary eating as part of entertainment activities or
to fill time. This is especially true for cafeteria or buffet-
style eating, which is the standard or preferred catering
arrangement in most major global championships (Cum-
mings, 2010).
In some cases, the altered access to food leans in
the direction of too much rather than not enough. Many
athletes, especially young and inexperienced athletes, find
it difficult to maintain habitual or desired eating patterns
with buffet-style eating because it provides different
environmental cues than a conventional food environ-
ment. Challenges include the opportunity to overeat when
offered a large variety of foods in relatively unlimited
amounts and the absence of the normal supervision or
constraints to food intake (e.g., cost, availability). Social
science research has indicated that food choice and intake
are heavily influenced by many unappreciated external
factors underpinning the ambience of an eating occasion,
such as the environment (lighting, mood, and tempera-
ture), number of eating partners, and the presentation of
food (Stroebele & De Castro, 2004). Furthermore, ad
libitum energy intake is not immediately matched by
reduced energy expenditure, as is found during the com-
petition phase (Stubbs et al., 2004). Education may help
athletes to be firmly aware of their individual nutritional
requirements and to learn behavioral strategies that will
allow them to achieve their goals regardless of the food
environment.
In many countries, the standards of hygiene, food
handling, and water sources may be suboptimal. Con-
sequently, traveling athletes and their support staff risk
exposure to gastrointestinal pathogens and debilitating
illness, exacerbated through poor personal hygiene. Poor
food hygiene, coupled with a possible depression of the
immune system associated with heavy training or psycho-
logical pressures of high-stakes competition, can cause
a “perfect storm” for illness and infection. The impact
that nutrition can have on the immune system of aquatic
athletes is covered elsewhere (D. B. Pyne et al., 2014).
In summary, the experiences and opportunities afforded

athletes through international travel must be weighed
against the challenges and managed to enable them to
train and compete to their full potential.
Summary
Elite aquatic athletes are required to undertake arduous
training and competition schedules in challenging condi-
tions including varying water temperatures, air and water
pollution, altitude, and jet lag or travel fatigue. Nutrition
interventions that might mitigate the negative environ-
mental effects include adequate hydration, carbohydrate,
and iron intake while at altitude; manipulation of fluid
and carbohydrate intake during races according to varying
water temperatures; and careful food and fluid hygiene
practices when traveling.
Acknowledgments
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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