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2010 - A Model of Workplace Environment Satisfaction Collaboration Experience - Article
2010 - A Model of Workplace Environment Satisfaction Collaboration Experience - Article
2 – November 2010
ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS:
1. INTRODUCTION
White-collar work today has become increasingly interactive and collaborative, and
the value of collaboration to organizational performance has been increasingly
recognized (Lawler, 2001; Nadler et al., 1997). Intended to reduce real estate costs and/or
energy for commuting, alternative work styles, such as home offices, virtual offices, and
telecommuting, are gradually transforming physical workplaces into a place to meet and
interact rather than a place for carrying out individual tasks.
This paper presents a questionnaire that assesses collaborative work environments
through occupant satisfaction with workplace spatial settings (including both individual
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workstations and shared spaces, with the emphasis on the latter), occupant satisfaction
with their collaboration-related work experience, and occupant perceived collaboration
effectiveness. The goal for developing this survey instrument is to enable the exploration
the effect of spatial settings on office workers’ work environment satisfaction, their
collaborative work experience, and perceived work performance. The survey instrument
was tested in a field study, the data collected from which were used for preliminary
validation of the instrument. Furthermore, the data collected identifies key spatial
characteristics of workplace that support collaboration effectiveness and offers a
theoretical model for evaluating, designing, and managing workplace. The model
highlight effective workplace designs that effectively deal with the tension between the
need for individual, concentrated work and interactive group work.
2. BACKGROUND
2.1. Communication
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meeting spaces, shared spaces for office equipments, coffee or other services and
amenities, circulation areas, as well as outdoor break areas, that are strategically laid out.
2.3. Privacy
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Sundstrom (1986) used “speech privacy” to refer to one’s ability to hold a
conversation without being overheard by others and “visual privacy” to refer to the
ability to block oneself from being observed. The visual and acoustic shield provided by
walls, doors, and high partitions in a workplace may contribute to the sense of privacy
because they give occupants more control over their access. Characteristics of spatial
settings associated with perceived privacy include workstation type (open or closed), the
number of enclosure sides, the height of enclosures, and the density of the workspace
(Oldham, 1988; Oldham & Rotchford, 1983; Hatch, 1987).
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Figure 1. Modified collaboration effectiveness model
(Adapted from the model by Cohen & Bailey, 1997, by adding the component of “workplace spatial settings”)
3. Hypotheses
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This paper contributes to the methodology and tool development by testing the
following hypotheses based on data collected using the new survey tool:
Hypothesis 1: The measures of satisfaction with the collaborative work environment
can be reduced to two factors that respectively represent satisfaction with the facilitation
from work environment for collaboration (positive) and satisfaction with the level of
distraction from various sources at work (negative).
Hypothesis 2: The two-factor can be related to collaboration-related work
experience.
Hypothesis 3: Both the two-factor satisfaction measures and collaboration-related
work experience can be related to perceived collaboration performance.
4. Methods
4.1. Sites
Field studies were carried out in eleven office buildings in eight US cities. Altogether,
27 workgroups on 22 different floors were studied. Often reflecting the divisions of
departments, workgroups were defined based on information obtained both prior to the
field studies and on site. A workgroup occupied either an entire floor or part of a floor.
The age of the buildings studied varied, which reflects the office building stock in the US.
The workgroups were selected based on the nature of their work, which required a certain
level of collaboration.
4.2. Participants
All occupants in each workgroup who were present on the days of field study
were eligible to participate. Taking into account an even physical distribution of samples
on the floor plans, approximately 20% of the occupied workstations in each workgroup
were sampled, with as many occupants being contacted as the researchers had time to
approach during their time on site. The total 308 participants in this study are white-collar
office workers with various job categories, including executive/managerial,
professional/technical, and clerical/support. Table 1 shows characteristics of the sample
used for statistical analysis. Confidentiality and voluntary participation were emphasized
after explaining the study to the occupants. The participants were assured that their
responses to the questionnaire would only be used in an aggregated manner for research
purposes. Response rates were not formally recorded, but approximately 90% of the
occupants who were invited agreed to answer the questionnaires. The numbers of
participants working in open-plan cubicles and those working in closed offices by and
large reflected the proportion of these two major types of individual workstations in each
workgroup studied.
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4.3. Measures
Participants were invited to fill out a two-page, paper-based “Workplace
Collaborative Environment Questionnaire” consisting of five major sections. The section
investigating perceived collaboration performance was added to the questionnaire after
the initial launch of the project. The purpose of the questionnaire was to assess white-
collar office workers’ opinions of the quality of their workplace’s spatial environment for
collaboration, their collaboration-related experience at work, and their perceived
collaboration effectiveness. Questions were developed based on a review of the relevant
literature and field assessments of workplace spatial design choices that facilitate
interaction and collaboration. In addition to the questionnaire, systematic spatial
documentation and floor plan analysis were carried out for the work environment of each
workgroup studied.
Table 2:
Collaborative environment satisfaction items and rotated two-factor exploratory factor analysis results
Factor #1: Factor #2:
Statement
Facilitation Distraction
Adequate types of collaborative places at work .81
Availability of places for collaboration needs .81
Availability of suitable places for collaboration needs .80
Availability of meeting spaces .79
Good variety of collaborative places at work .79
Arrangement and furnishing of meeting places .70
Collaboration environment in general .68
Tools and technology in meeting places .58
Different-sized meeting rooms .50
Distraction from common copier/printer areas .77
Reluctance to talk in kitchen/coffee areas .73
Distraction from kitchen/coffee areas .69
Distraction from circulation areas .60
Reluctance to talk in common copier/printer areas .55
Distraction from meeting places .50
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Enough space in individual workstation for meetings
Arrangement and furnishing of kitchen/coffee areas
Enough space in circulation areas for conversations
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4.3.4. Perceived collaboration effectiveness
A four-item scale of perceived collaboration effectiveness, adopted from
Dabbish’s (2006) survey of communication on the job, was added to the “Workplace
Collaborative Environment Questionnaire” at a later stage of this study. Participants in
three buildings (a total of 84 participants on seven different floors) responded on a five-
point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree”) (5), to the following
statements: “we work together in a well-coordinated fashion”, “we have very few
misunderstandings about what to do”, “we accomplish tasks smoothly and efficiently”,
and “there is much confusion in the way we accomplish tasks”.
4.4. Analyses
In this study, Hypothesis 1 was tested using exploratory factor analysis and
confirmatory factor analysis. Structural equation modeling was carried out to test
Hypotheses 2 and 3. Hypotheses 1 and 2 were tested based on the full sample; Hypothesis
3 was tentatively tested based on the part of the sample that has data on perceived
collaboration performance.
Univariate outliers with standardized scores more than three standard deviations
from the mean were identified and excluded from the analyses. Multivariate outliers,
which were also excluded, were those with Mahalanobis distance statistics p<.001.
Univariate normality was assessed using the skewness index (<3) and the kurtosis index
(<10). Full information maximum likelihood estimation was used in the presence of
missing data. The data sets were also examined for multicollinearity (correlations >.80).
The model fit for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling was
assessed using multiple fit indices, including Chi-square, Chi-square/degree of freedom,
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), and
Bentler-Bonett Normed fit index (NFI).
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5. Results
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5.1.2. Exploratory factor analysis
Subset 1 (N=160) was used for exploratory factor analysis in order to identify latent
variables of satisfaction with collaborative work environment. The Pearson correlation of
the eighteen items disproved the existence of multicollinearity. The largest correlation
coefficient observed was 0.799, occurring between “I can always find a place to carry out
collaborative work when I need it” and “I can always find suitable place for certain type
of conversation or collaborative work”. All eighteen items were included in an
exploratory factor analysis to identify the possible latent constructs.
The exploratory factor analysis with oblique rotation identified two factors with
Eigenvalue greater than 1 (5.25 and 2.52), which were retained for a two-factor solution.
The scree plot also supported this solution. The two factors were labeled “perceived
facilitation from work environment for collaboration” and “perceived distraction from
various sources at work”. The two factors together accounted for 44.4% of the total
variance observed. A loading of .40 or greater was used as the criteria for items to be
included in a factor; no cross-loading was observed. Nine items, which shared the
conceptual meaning of perceived facilitation from work environment for collaboration,
loaded significantly on the first factor; and six items, indicating perceived distraction
from various sources in work environment, loaded significantly on the second factor.
There were three items that did not load significantly on either factor; therefore, they
were dropped from the solution. The internal consistency, indicated by Cronbach’s α, was
satisfactorily high for both factors (Table 2).
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Table 5: Fit statistics of the confirmatory factor analysis
X2 X2/df RMSEA NFI CFI
<3 < .10 >.90 >.90
Model 1 - Sample 2
224.0 2.517 .102 .782 .851
(N=147)
Model 2 - Sample 2
149.9 1.764 .072 .854 .928
(N=147)
Model 2 - Full sample
186.5 2.194 .062 .904 .944
(N=307)
.71
E_1-1 Variety
.41 .79
E_1-19 Support_envir
Figure 2: AMOS output of CFA Model 2 with standardized estimates (Full sample N=307)
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5.2.2. Collaboration experience factor structure
One factor with an Eigenvalue of 4.81 was identified for the 12 collaboration-related
work experience items. The factor accounted for 40.1% of the total variance observed.
Using a loading of .40 or greater as the criteria, all 12 items loaded significantly on this
factor (Table 3). Although accepting an additional factor could add 9.8% to the variance
explained, it would cause cross-loading. Adding complexity did not significantly
contribute to increasing the variance explained; therefore, the one-factor model was
retained. The internal consistency of the 12 items, indicated by Cronbach’s α, was
satisfactorily high at 0.89.
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.68
E_1-1 Variety
.17 .74 .82
E_1-3 Adequate .19
Intime E_2-3
.53 .35
Expertise E_2-4
.59 .44
E1 Experience .52
.67 .45
Collab_value E_2-12
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5.3. Hypothesis 3 – structural equation modeling
The four perceived collaboration performance items were added to the questionnaire
after the initial launch of the study. Eighty-four participants responded to this part of the
questionnaire. Eighty cases with complete data, no outliers and satisfactory normality (no
excessive skewness or kurtosis) were used for the analysis of all variables. The Pearson
correlation matrix revealed no evidence of multicollinearity. The largest correlation
coefficient observed was 0.600, occurring between “We work together in a well-
coordinated fashion” and “We have very few misunderstandings about what to do”.
All four items, including three positive statements and one negative statement
reversed in the analysis, all loaded on a single factor that explained 45.2% of the total
variance. The factor loadings were 0.721, 0.761, 0.733 and 0.412. Reliability was at a
satisfactorily high level, with Cronbach’s α at 0.77.
In order to test Hypothesis 3, a structural equation model was constructed based on
Model 4, with additional unidirectional paths from the two factors of satisfaction with
collaborative work environment (“facilitation” and “distraction”) to perceived
performance and a unidirectional path from collaborative work experience to perceived
performance (Figure 4). According to the results of the structural equation model, a
marginal fit was identified, possibly related to the small sample size for this part of the
analysis. Model fit statistics were reported in Table 7. All paths were significant with a
small correlation coefficient except for those from facilitation to perceived performance
and from distraction to performance. However, eliminating these two paths did not
improve the fit of the model.
6. CONCLUSIONS
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E_1-3; E_1-4 and E_1-5; E_1-4 and E_1-8; and E_1-10 and E_1-11) improved the model
fit. The two scales, facilitation and distraction, were negatively associated with each other,
.69
E_1-1 Variety
.01 .77
.83
E_1-3 Adequate .30
E_1-11 Tools_mtg
.32 .56 .29
Expertise E_2-4
.44
.68 .47
E2 E1 .34
.58
Commit E_2-9
.36
.60
Ease f-to-f E_2-10
.40 .30
.63
Freq f-to-f E_2-11
.26
.51
Collab_value E_2-12
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with the coefficient of -0.41. The purpose of this 15-item satisfaction with the
collaborative work environment measure was to gather evidence of occupant preference
for shared spaces in the workplace. The two satisfaction scales reflected the intrinsic need
for the work environment to support both interaction and concentration (Brill and
Weidemann, 2001). It can be used to evaluate the extent to which both needs are fulfilled.
Hypothesis 2 was supported by results from the structural equation modeling. The
model fit (Model 4) was satisfactory according to most goodness-of-fit indices, with all
paths in the model statistically significant. The scale of perceived facilitation from the
work environment for collaboration was positively associated with collaboration-related
work experience, with the coefficient of 0.23. Perceived distraction was negatively
associated with work experience, with the coefficient of -0.27.
Hypothesis 3 was not support by the data collected in this study. The model (Model 5)
demonstrated a marginal fit. All paths were significant, except those from facilitation to
perceived performance and from distraction to performance, with small correlation
coefficients (0.07 and -0.06, respectively). The small sample site for this step of the
analysis allowed only a preliminary test of the hypothesis.
7. DISCUSSION
Shared spaces in the workplace were recognized by researchers in the managerial and
architectural fields as critical spots for interaction and collaboration (Allen & Henn, 2007;
Davenport, 2002). However, despite their importance, little is known about the impact of
the design and management of shared spaces on occupants and their collaboration
effectiveness. Because of the insufficient understanding of shared spaces at work,
workplace designers are experimenting with different approaches. Nevertheless, such
practices depend heavily on fashion or faith. The lack of reliable tools remains a barrier.
The development and field test of this tool will help fill this gap and support workplace
design and reengineering. It can be used to evaluate particular workplace settings,
generate knowledge of occupant preferences and explore supportive environments for
collaboration.
On the other hand, group effectiveness is a broad concept, and measuring it is a
challenge for both research and organizational practice. The performance outcomes,
which can be assessed in terms of the quantity and quality of outputs, are an important
part of group effectiveness, which also includes group member attitudinal outcomes, such
as group member job satisfaction, trust and commitment, and behavioral outcomes such
as absenteeism and turnover (Cohen and Bailey, 1997). The objective measures of group
performance used in both literature and practice are summarized in Table 8 for two
common types of white-collar teams.
One of the few efforts to quantify the direct impact of spatial work settings on
measured group performance, Teasley et al. (2000) carried out an experiment in a
Fortune 50 automobile company to test a team room setting, also known as “radical
collocation”. Radical collocation is an extreme work setting, in which all team members
and their artifacts are in one room for the duration of a certain project. The experiment
showed that radical collocation had a positive impact on group performance. The
performance measures used in the study showed that radically collocated teams produced
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twice as much as the company baseline in cycle time and function points per staff month.
The teams in project rooms completed jobs in about a third of the amount of time it took
those in standard cubicle settings. However, the change of setting was accompanied by
changes in managerial strategy, which not only complicates the study’s results but also
demonstrates the difficulties in measuring group performance.
Table 8. Objective group performance measures for project teams and management teams
(Adapted from Cohen & Bailey, 1997)
Group performance is not only difficult to measure, but it is also context dependent.
Indices used to describe collaboration are often different from case to case and across
different industries, organizations, and job types. As a result, it is difficult for a study of
multiple workplace settings to compare collaboration performance between organizations.
Finding performance measures that are relevant for various tasks at different
organizations remains a challenge. In some cases, self-rated and supervisor-related
performance has been used (Oldham, 1988), but they have been used mostly for
individual tasks. Based on empirical studies, Gittell (2002) claimed that perceived
relational coordination effectiveness has a significant positive association with measured
quality performance. Gittell’s claim reflects the role that frequent, timely, accurate, and
problem-solving-based communication plays in the process of coordination. Based on
Gittell’s study, and facing the practical difficulty of identifying and obtaining common
performance measures for various organizations, this study adopted self-perceived
coordination effectiveness as a collaboration performance indicator, but integrating
objective group performance measures into the tool remains a research goal.
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