1st Lecture

Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)

BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

Applied Physics

The word physics comes from the Greek word meaning “nature”. Today physics is treated as the
most fundamental branch of science and finds numerous applications of life. Physics deals with
matter in relation to energy and the accurate measurement of the same. Thus physics is inherently
a science of measurement. The fundamentals of physics form the basis for the study and the
development of engineering and technology

APPLIED SCIENCE

All these branches of science, still have the common principle of employing observation and
experimentation. The branch of science, which co-ordinates the research work, for practical utility
and services of the mankind, is known as Applied Science.

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

The subject of Engineering Mechanics is that branch of Applied Science, which deals with the
laws and principles of Mechanics, along with their applications to engineering problems. As a
matter of fact, knowledge of Engineering Mechanics is very essential for an engineer in planning,
designing and construction of his various types of structures and machines. In order to take up his
job more skillfully, an engineer must peruse the study of Engineering Mechanics in a most
systematic and scientific manner.

DIVISIONS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

The subject of Engineering Mechanics may be divided into the following two main groups:

1. Statics, and 2. Dynamics.

STATICS

It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their effects, while
acting upon the bodies at rest.

DYNAMICS

It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their effects, while
acting upon the bodies in motion. The subject of Dynamics may be further sub-divided into the
following two branches:
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

1. Kinetics, and 2. Kinematics.

KINETICS

It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion due to the application of forces.

KINEMATICS

It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion, without any reference to the
forces which are responsible for the motion.

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

The measurement of physical quantities is one of the most important operations in engineering.
Every quantity is measured in terms of some arbitrary, but internationally accepted units, called
fundamental units.

All the physical quantities, met with in Engineering Mechanics, are expressed in terms of three
fundamental quantities, i.e.

1. length, 2. mass and 3. time.

DERIVED UNITS

Sometimes, the units are also expressed in other units (which are derived from fundamental units)
known as derived units e.g. units of area, velocity, acceleration, pressure etc.

SYSTEMS OF UNITS

There are only four systems of units, which are commonly used and universally recognized. These
are known as:

1. C.G.S. units, 2. F.P.S. units, 3. M.K.S. units and 4. S.I. units.

S.I. UNITS (INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS)

The eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures has recommended a unified and
systematically established system of fundamental and derived units for international use. This
system of units is now being used in many countries.
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

The following derived units will be used in this book:

Density (Mass density) kg / m3

Force N (Newton)

Pressure N/mm2 or N/m2

Work done (in joules) J = N-m

Power in watts W = J/s

SCALAR QUANTITIES

The scalar quantities (or sometimes known as scalars) are those quantities which have magnitude
only such as length, mass, time, distance, volume, density, temperature, speed etc.

VECTOR QUANTITIES

The vector quantities (or sometimes known as vectors) are those quantities which have both
magnitude and direction such as force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum etc.
Following are the important features of vector quantities:

1. Representation of a vector.

A vector is represented by a directed line. It may be noted that the length of vector represents the
magnitude of the vector OA. The direction of the vector is OA is from O (i.e., starting point) & A
(i.e., end point).

2. Unit vector.

A vector, whose magnitude is unity, is known as unit vector.

3. Equal vectors.

The vectors, which are parallel to each other and have same direction (i.e., same sense) and equal
magnitude are known as equal vectors.

4. Like vectors.

The vectors, which are parallel to each other and have same sense but unequal magnitude, are
known as like vectors.
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

5. Addition of vectors.

Consider two vectors PQ and RS, which are required to be added as shown in Fig. 1.3. (a). Take
a point A, and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to the vector PQ to some convenient
scale. Through B, draw BC parallel and equal to vector RS to the same scale. Join AC which will
give the required sum of vectors PQ and RS as shown in Fig. 1.3. (b). This method of adding the
two vectors is called the Triangle Law of Addition of Vectors.

Similarly, if more than two vectors are to be added, the same may be done first by adding the two
vectors, and then by adding the third vector to the resultant of the first two and so on. This method
of adding more than two vectors is called Polygon Law of Addition of Vectors.

6. Subtraction of vectors.

Consider two vectors PQ and RS in which the vector RS is required to be subtracted as shown in
Fig. 1.4 (a) Take a point A, and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to the vector PQ to
some convenient scale. Through B, draw BC parallel and equal to the vector RS, but in opposite
direction, to that of the vector RS to the same scale. Join AC, which will give the resultant when
the vector PQ is subtracted from vector RS as shown in Fig. 1.4 (b).
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

Dot Product

A vector has magnitude (how long it is) and direction:

Here are two vectors and they can be multiplied using the "Dot Product",

Calculating

The Dot Product gives a number as an answer (a "scalar", not a vector). The Dot Product is written
using a central dot: (a · b) This means the Dot Product of a and b

We can calculate the Dot Product of two vectors this way:

a · b = |a| × |b| × cos(θ)

Where:

|a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a

|b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b

 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

θ is the angle between a and b

So, we multiply the length of a times the length of b, then multiply by the cosine of the angle
between a and b

OR we can calculate it this way:

a · b = ax × bx + ay × by: So, we multiply the x's, multiply the y's, then add.

Example: Calculate the dot product of vectors a and b:

a · b = |a| × |b| × cos(θ)

a · b = 10 × 13 × cos (59.5°)

a · b = 10 × 13 × 0.5075...

a · b = 65.98 = 66 (rounded)

or we can calculate it this way:

a · b = ax × bx + ay × by
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

a · b = -6 × 5 + 8 × 12

a · b = -30 + 96

a · b = 66

Both methods came up with the same result (after rounding)

Also note that we used minus 6 for ax (it is heading in the negative x-direction)

Right Angles

When two vectors are at right angles to each other the dot product is zero. .

Calculate the Dot Product for:

Example: Sam has measured the end-points of two poles, and wants to know the angle
between them:

We have 3 dimensions, so don't forget the z-components:

a · b = ax × bx + ay × by + az × bz

a · b = 9 × 4 + 2 × 8 + 7 × 10

a · b = 36 + 16 + 70

a · b = 122
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

Now for the other formula:

a · b = |a| × |b| × cos(θ)

But what is |a| ? It is the magnitude, or length, of the vector a. We can use Pythagoras:

• |a| = √(42 + 82 + 102)

• |a| = √(16 + 64 + 100)

• |a| = √180

Likewise for |b|:

• |b| = √(92 + 22 + 72)

• |b| = √(81 + 4 + 49)

• |b| = √134

And we know from the calculation above that a · b = 122, so:

a · b = |a| × |b| × cos(θ)

122 = √180 × √134 × cos(θ)

cos(θ) = 122 / (√180 × √134)

cos(θ) = 0.7855...

θ = cos-1(0.7855...) = 38.2...°

Cross Product

A vector has magnitude (how long it is) and direction:

Two vectors can be multiplied using the "Cross Product".

 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

The Cross Product a × b of two vectors is another vector that is at right angles to both:

The magnitude (length) of the cross product equals the area of a parallelogram with vectors a and
b for sides:

Calculating
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

We can calculate the Cross Product this way:

a × b = |a| |b| sin(θ) n

• |a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a

• |b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b

• θ is the angle between a and b

• n is the unit vector at right angles to both a and b

So the length is: the length of a times the length of b times the sine of the angle between a and b,

Then we multiply by the vector n to make sure it heads in the right direction (at right angles to
both a and b).

OR we can calculate it this way:

When a and b start at the origin point (0,0,0), the Cross Product will end at:

• cx = aybz − azby

• cy = azbx − axbz

• cz = axby − aybx

Example: The cross product of a = (2,3,4) and b = (5,6,7)

• cx = aybz − azby = 3×7 − 4×6 = −3

• cy = azbx − axbz = 4×5 − 2×7 = 6

• cz = axby − aybx = 2×6 − 3×5 = −3

 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

Answer: a × b = (−3,6,−3)

Force

The force is an important factor in the field of Mechanics, which may be broadly defined as an
agent which produces or tends to produce, destroys or tends to destroy motion. e.g., a horse applies
force to pull a cart and to set it in motion. Force is also required to work on a bicycle pump.

Sometimes, the applied force may not be sufficient to move a body, e.g., if we try to lift a stone
weighing 2 or 3 quintals, we fail to do so. In this case we exert a force, no doubt, but no motion is
produced. This shows that a force may not necessarily produce a motion in a body; but it may,
simply, tend to do so.

EFFECTS OF A FORCE

A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it acts:

1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it in motion. And
if the body is already in motion, the force may accelerate it.

2. It may retard the motion of a body.

3. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in equilibrium.

4. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE

In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a body, we must know the following
characteristics of a force:

1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 100 N, 50 N, 20 kN, 5 kN, etc.)

2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along OX, OY, at 30° North of East
etc.). It is also known as line of action of the force.

3. Nature of the force (i.e., whether the force is push or pull). This is denoted by placing an arrow
head on the line of action of the force.

4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body
 1st Lecture
Applied Physics (Mechanics) (1st Semester)
BSc Mechanical Engineering Technology
SUIT Peshawar

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY OF FORCES

It states, “If a force acts at any point on a rigid body, it may also be considered to act at any other
point on its line of action, provided this point is rigidly connected with the body.”

SYSTEM OF FORCES

When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of forces. Following
systems of forces are important from the subject point of view:

1. Coplanar forces.

The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar forces.

2. Collinear forces.

The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as collinear forces.

3. Concurrent forces.

The forces, which meet at one point, are known as concurrent forces. The concurrent forces may
or may not be collinear.

4. Coplanar concurrent forces.

The forces, which meet at one point and their lines of action also lie on the same plane, are known
as coplanar concurrent forces.

5. Coplanar non-concurrent forces.

The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their lines of action lie on the same plane, are
known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.

6. Non-coplanar concurrent forces.

The forces, which meet at one point, but their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are
known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.

7. Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.

The forces, which do not meet at one point and their lines of action do not lie on the same plane,
are called non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.