Transport and Road Research Laboratory Department of the Environment Road Note 35 A guide for engineers to the design of storm sewer systems London: Her Majesty's Stationery OfficeCrown Copyright 1976 First published 1963 ‘Second edition amendments and metric units 1976 Extracts from the text may be reproduced provided the source It cknowledged. ISBN 0 11 550159 2Contents Foreword page 4 1 Introduction 6 2. Changes since the first edition 5 3. ‘Rational’ (Lloyd-Davies) formula 6 3.1. Design of unproductive lengths using the ‘rational’ formula 8 4 TRRL hydrograph method 8 4.1 Layout of data 42 Key plan and data tabulation u 4.3 Computational procedure and pres entation of results 13 4.4 Sub-areas 16 45. Storm water overflows and pumping stations 16 4.6 The design of unproductive lengths using the hydrograph method 19 4.7. The design of foul sewer systems carrying small amounts of surface water 20 4.8 General design consideration 20 5. References a a 6 Appendix 1. Selection of frequency of flooding and design rate of rainfall 22 7 Appendix 2. Determination of time of concentration, time of entry and time of flow 25 8 Appendix 3. Determination of the impermeable area 28 9 Appendix 4, Floodwave attenuation 28Foreword In 1962 The Road Research Laboratory published Technical Paper TP 55, describing what is still the largest programme of experimental urban hydro- logy ever undertaken in this country. This resulted in the development of a new method of urban storm water sewer design which was called the RRL Hydrograph Method, In 1963 the first edition of Road Note 35 was published as a gui for engineers in the use of the method. The research also showed the areas in which the ‘rational’ (Lloyd-Davies) formula could be satis- factorily applied and also included advice on this, method. ‘Since 1963 the RRL Hydrograph Method has. become the most commonly applied surface water sewer design method in the United Kingdom. Through experience of its use there have been modifications to the basic method and to the rain- fall input, and most recently the units used in the calculation have been metricated, This revised Note incorporates these changes, and also’ advises ‘on such problems as carrier sewers and cases where natural streams are diverted into surface water sewer systems, ‘A programme of hydrological research has recently been completed in East Africa, to adapt the RRL Hydrograph Method for tropical use. With the publication of the results of that work, and of this revision of Road Note 35, the Trans- port and Road Research Laboratory has no further commitment in this field. A. Silverteat Director TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1976A guide to the design of storm sewer systems for engineers 1. Introduction In 1963, as a result of research carried out by the Road Research Laboratory ,'a joint committee of the Road Research Board and the Ministry of Housing and Local Government issued a report, subsequently quoted in the first edition of Road Note No.35, which made recommendations about the design of storm sewer systems. One recom- mendation was to set up a working party whose functions were to help engineers to become familiar with the use of new techniques, to provide a computer service for the design of storm sewer systems, and to ensure that the results of cont- inuing research at both the Meteorological Offi and the Hydraulics Research Station were incorp- orated in the design methods. The working party met five times and one of its recommendations was that this revised edition of Road Note No.35 be prepared to incorporate the results of some of this further research, and to take advantage of the experience gained in the use of the TRRL hydrograph method for the design of storm sewer systems. It must be remembered that this Note is a ‘guide’ and not a detailed users ‘manual. 2. Changes since the first edition The principal changes in this edition are: 1. A major drawback in the original method was that the designer had either to ensure a reasonably tapered system or to have a recorded recession curve from which to derive a storage/low relation- ship. A more general solution was proposed in 1965 *2 by treating each pipe length separately as follows: a) The area/time diagram for the uppermost pipe is calculated in the normal manner. The unmodified or surface hydrograph is com- puted and routed through the pipe storage giving an outflow hydrograph which is stored the computer. b) For the second pipe a surface hydrograph is ‘computed as if it were the first pipe on a branch. The inflow from the upper pipe is then recalled and added to this hydrograph which is then routed through the storage of the second pipe, and the resulting outflow once again stored. ©) The procedure is repeated for all the pipes in the system. It will be seen that the restriction of a reason- able pipe taper for the system is neatly overcome. However, a price has to be paid, In the Mark | version the rainfall profile could vary with area, reflecting the typical reduction in depth of rain with distance from the storm centre in the local ised thunderstorms the design rainfall profile represents. In the Mark I! version this is not possible as once a pipe is designed the outflow from it is not recomputed. This means that where large sewer systems are being designed or checked, considerable thought has to be given to appropriate design storms for the different parts of the systems and the computation repeated for each sub-area, 2. As a result of research by the Meteorological Office the statistics on which both expected mean rates of rainfall and storm profiles are based have been revised. This means that the Meteorological Office can supply a table showing the variation of mean rates of heavy rainfall with frequency and duration for specified locations, ie, an equivalent of the ‘Bilham’ table but specially computed for the specified location. New sets of storm profiles that can be modified to suit particular localities are also supply profiles that vary duration, rainfall volume and profile peakedness as well as with frequency and locality for specific purposes. These data will be supplied for a small charge by the Meteorological Office, Met O8c, London Road, Bracknell, Berks. (See Appendix 1). 3. Recommendations for the design of carrier or unproductive sewers have been incorporated. The term ‘carrier sewer’ is normally used to describe a length of sewer to which no impermeable area directly contributes, and which connects either (a) several self-contained sewer systems to a common outfall or (b) a single sewer system to a distant outfall. Single lenaths of sewer to which no impermeable area directly contributes within @ normal sewer system are usually described as ‘unproductive’ lengths. These sewers are usually designed by the same methods as normal storm sewers. This is @ misapplication of the design methods and can introduce errors in the overall design, In the ‘rational’ method the effect of un- productive lengths is to increase the time of concentration while leaving the cumulative con- tributing area unaltered, resulting in a reduction in rate of flow. This reduction in rate of flow is, in most cases, in excess of the natural attenuation of flood waves in pipes and can lead to serious under design. In the hydrograph method the effect of unproductive lengths is not so obvious. There is no reduction in rate of flow due to an increase in time of concentration for unproductive lengths, as the hydrograph method is not, strictly speaking, a me-of-concentration method. However, there is a reduction in rate of flow due to an over-compen- sation in the correction for retention. The reduction in rate of flow is not as great as that given by the ‘rational’ method in similar circumstances. Pro- cedures for overcoming this problem are given in the appropriate sections describing the use of the 5‘rational’ and hydrograph methods. 4, The text has been enlarged to explain how to deal with certain aspects of the design of surface water drainage schemes such as overflows and pumping stations. 5. All the units have been metricated. 6. Programs for larger and more versatile com- puters have been written. The opportunity has also been taken to use a slightly more general form of the hydrograph method than was used in the original computer programs. As far as the engineer ‘concerned these changes manifest themselves only in a more detailed print-out of the results and the removal of the need to specify an estimated sewer volume when the sub-area technique des- cribed in Section 4.3 is used. 3. ‘Rational’ (Lloyd Davies) formula It is recommended that the use of the ‘rational’ formula should be confined to the design of drainage systems for small areas such as housing estates or villages where the diameter of the largest sewer is unlikely to exceed 600mm. The only recommendations in the application of this method are as follows: 1. The decimal classification of sewer lengths should be used (it is also recommended when using the hydrograph method for larger areas); The revised rainfall data should be used (see Appendix 1, p 22); 3. The Colebrook:White flow formula should be used (see Appendix 2, p 25). In this section of the Road Note rates of flow are given in units of litres/second (I/s) in order to be compatible with the tables published by the Hydraulics Research Station.‘In the section dealing with the hydrograph method cumecs (m*/s) are Used as the units of flow, to be in line with current engineering usage (1 cumec is 1000 litres/sec.) The following procedure is suggested: i. A key plan of the proposed sewer system should first be prepared (Fig. 1). The decimat classification of the sewer lengths between ‘manholes shown in the figure is recommended. Each pipe length is given a number in the form ux where u, the ‘integral part’ of the number, denotes the branch to which the length belongs and v, the ‘fractional part’ of the number, denotes the position of the length within the branch, The integral part of the number is called the branch number. The procedure for numbering the lengths is as follows: (a) the longest sewer upstream from the outfall is numbered 1 and its individual lengths between manholes are numbered 1.0; 1.1;... 1.9;1.10; 1.11; 1.12; and so on to the outfall. It should be noted that 1.0 refers to the farthest up- stream length and that 1.9 is followed by 1.10; 1.11; 1.12 ete and not by 2.0 as it would be with ordinary decimal numbers; (b) The point is selected in Sewer 1 at which the first branch enters; the longest branch to this point is numbered 2 and individual lengths are Numbers indicate decimal clesiication ‘of sewer lengths between manholes Fig 1 KEY PLAN OF SEWER SYSTEM {c) The point is selected in Sewer 2 at which the first sub-branch enters; the longest sub-branch to this point is numbered 3 and individual lengths are numbered 3.0; 3.1, and so on. If, after a scheme has been numbered in this way, it becomes necessary to add a new branch, or in some other way alter the layout, it does not matter as far as the calculation is concerned if branch numbers are inserted out of strict sequence. This procedure is continued until the whole system has been numbered, At the same time the basic design data are entered in the design table (Table 1); at this stage Columns 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10 and 11 can be completed. The figure in Column 11 is the area of surface directly connected into each length, and is given by the sum of the figures in Columns 9 and 10, Where the run-off from an area is taken directly into a manhole it is considered to bbe relevant to the length downstream of the man- hole, The determination of the frequency of the design storm, the rate of rainfall, the time of entry, the time of flow, the time of concentration, and the impermeable area are discussed in Append: 1 to 3 (pp 22 — 28) ji, Column 12 of Table 1 is then completed by ‘adding in the contributions from the branches at the appropriate junctions. This columnpeppe » somes esz | oer | eo0o 0 | eo | ass or wo | uz ey ex | zo | om zes | seco | oro | owo | coo | coo woe zo | art a co | oso | ve | voc | evo | sao | coo | cooo | soe oz sso | om 2 ors | ao | ov pve zones zeze | avi | asco | seco | izvo | os os wo | ove ee ca | ow | eo pappe ¢ somes cur | eo | sero | coo | oro | soo we eco | we | ce evs | so | zz zz | evo | ro | evo o | so osz eso | ow or so | eo | oc sv | vo | oo | sovo | swo | ovo ace wo | ut oe vr | vo | ve vec | vero | vero | tao | evo | sze we wo | we | aw | on | oz | zoo | ovo | 1900 o | wo | ws we wo | or | on | coo | ceo | ze cos | eco | oa | coro | woo | sz we s90 os vo four ov sx | aro | avo | eso | cao | ou sez exo “s veo | or | on (or+e) | -sspien aanemung | —rei0, | ‘ssurping | speou wm | oy yew, mou (ory w) so | Aion 0007 ey eave eyqeewsodusy wn 1 eh a u o 6 8 ‘ 9 s » © suns z Aunua jo oui, ‘wus 9° 1uaID4j909 ssauybnoy sie9A'| ul avo Aauanboxy Wiors, 3204s ubis9p ejnuuuoy jeuoney Laev.vi. ives the total area of surface contributing to the flow in a length. For exemple, for Lengths Nos. 1.0, 1.1. and 1.2 Column 12 is the cumulative sum of Column 11. At the lower end of Length 1.2, Sewers 2 and 3 join (Fig.1) and therefore they have to be added in thus ‘Area contributing to Length 1.2 + area contributing to Length 2.2 + increment of area for Length 1.3 = full area contributing to Length 1. 9. 0.409 + 0.647 + 0.336 = 1.392 jt may be convenient to carry out the next three steps on a separate sheet of paper. A pipe size (Column 14) is assumed. The pipe full velocity of flow (Column 6) in that pipe is found from published tablestand the time of flow (Column 6) calculated from columns 3 and 5. The time of concentration (Column 7) is the total time of flow up to and including the length under consideration plus the time of entry, two minutes in this Where sewers join, the is taken to be the greatest time to the man- hole concerned. The rate of rainfall (Column 8) corresponding to the time of concentration is found from suitable tables obtained from the Meteor- ological Office. In this example the rainfall table (Table 7 in Appendix 1) is used merely to illustrate the procedure. ‘The expected peak rate of flow in the pipe is then given by the ‘rational’ formula Ag. (ha) x i (mm/h) Q (m/s) = 360 Ag (ha) x i (mm/h) Qii/s) = 0.360 using the figures given in Columns 8 and 12. The assumed pipe size is then checked to see if it can carry the expected peak flows; if not 2 larger pipe is assumed and Steps ili, iv and v fare repeated until a pipe of sufficient size is. reached, If these steps have been carried out ‘on a separate sheet of paper the data relating to the pipe finally chosen are entered in the appropriate columns of the form. In Step iii, it is usual to assume that the pipe will have a size equal to the previous pipe in ‘the branch unless it is the first pipe when the smallest diameter to be used is chosen. It is sometimes helpful not to assume a pipe size but to increase the time of concentration by half a minute. In this case the expected peak rate of flow is found as in Step iv. A pipe that can carry this expected rate of flow is then assumed for the process of Step iii. This procedure often saves time if there is a big increase in the permeable area such as can occur at junctions. The table thus completed is the minimum requirement when using the ‘rational’ formula for a simple case of a completely separate surface-water sewer. Additional columns may be added to the table if necessary, eg in the case of a combined system or a partially separate system a column for dry-weather flow would be desirable, vil, When the sizes of all the pipes in the system hhave been calculated consideration should be given to any lengths in which large areas of unpaved surface are drained directly into the system. The expected flow from such areas should be estimated using the methods given in Appendix 3 and the pipes modified accord- ingly. 3.1 The design of unproductive lengths using the ‘rational’ formula In Section 2 attention was drawn to a spurious reduction in the expected rate of flow that can arise when unproductive lengths are designed using the ‘rational’ formula, In order to compensate for it is suggested that the concept of an ‘effet time of concentration’ is used. The ‘effective time ‘of concentration’ is the time of concentration that includes times of flow for only those lengths that have impermeable areas directly contributing to suppose Lengths 1.9 and 1.10 in Fig.1 have no contributing areas, The entries in the rational design sheet would then be as in Table 2. If the times of flow in Lengths 1.9 and 1.10 had been added to the times of concentration for Lengths 1.0, 1.10 and 1.11 the flows in those lengths would have been 496.9, 485.7 and 504.6 1/5 respectively, changes of 3.7, 6.3 and 5.9 per cent. While in this particular case pipe sizes have not been altered, the reductions in flow are appreciable and much greater than the normal attenuation of a flood wave, 4.TRRL Hydrograph method ‘The Transport and Road Research Laboratory hydrograph method has been shown to provide an accurate sewer design for urban areas *, although the data required are no more than for the ‘rational’ formula. The calculations can normally be carried out only by an electronic digital computer, and a number of computer firms have service bureaux which are able to undertake designs and analyses of storm sewer networks. These firms advertise ‘their facilities from time to time in the appropriate technical press and by circulars to engineers. Alternatively engineers with suitable computer installations can prepare or have prepared for them suitable programs for use on their own computers. The operations carried out for each design length by the computer are broadly as follows A hydrograph representing the run-off contrib- ution from the impermeable area connected to the current design length is added to the outflow hydrograph from the upstream design length. This combined hydrograph is then routed through the reservoir formed by the pipe of the current design length. The peak rate of flow so calculated is then compared with the rate of flow that the pipe can carry at a proportional depth of 0.85 (about 7 per ‘cent greater than the full-bore rate of flow of the pipe). If this is thought to be undesirable the“wayt 01 Sunnnqysiuos Anzed1p eave sjqeouseduy OU oney s42BU9} Se Uo|esIUeDUED Jo BUT OL POPPE LOU MOI} 50.2UHLL sov'0 sw ce so ost ees zo ° ew ze so 261 9st ous wo ° aw ze 90 oz on zon igo 1690 ae ze (or +6) | sspi0n io, | ‘s6ujpuing | speou omy | (ory (wy | sequnw yew wonenvaaves | mols (muy » () ronojut | yi6ue7 yoo yo | Awowa | wuepep | asuer oad by eave ojqeouneduy, suutt) st u on 6 @ ‘ 9 s » € z ‘ sul Z Anus so aut 104009 ssauybnoy ‘194 |, ul avo Aauanbox, wHorg -vonenusouce yo aun ,aans9}y2, 40 asn :320ys uB}sep eINULIOS |eUOCREY zatavedesign engineer can increase the size of the pipes where this happens by one design increment (75 fmm or 3 inches). This will lead to slight inaccur- acies in the calculations for the downstream rates of flow, but it is unlikely that these will be serious. Im critical cases the engineer should have the system redesigned specifying the larger pipes. Fig.2 shows the outline flow diagram of the computer program of the hydrograph method. Subsequent calculations depend upon the purpose for which the method is being used. Broadly, there are two ma : 1, The design of a new sewer system. In this case when surcharge occurs the diameter of the pipe is increased by 75 mm increments until the pipe size Is large enough to carry the computed peak rate of flow, 2. The examination of an existing sewer system for incorrect sizes. In this case when surcharge occurs a warning is printed out together with the ratio of the computed peak rate of flow to the full-bore rate of flow of the surcharged pipe and the size of the circular pipe required to prevent the surcharge. If desired the calcul- ation may proceed as if this pipe actually replaces the surcharged pipe ie the system is ‘examined with surcharged lengths reconstruct: ed. There are no inherent safety factors in the design method and attention is drawn to Paragraph 2 in Section 4.8 ‘General design considerations’. It should also be noted that the examples and figures in this Road Note are merely illustrations and should not be taken as recommendations. Before the actual computation can be carried out by the computer the data must be punched ‘onto cards or paper tape. This task is greatly facilitated by ensuring that the tabulations con- form to the specification of the program that is to bbe used, see Section 4.1 It is helpful to remember that, in common with most accepted methods of what are loosely termed ‘sewer design methods’, the TRRL hydro- graph method calculates not sewer sizes but rates of flow. In a new design these rates of flow are checked against the capacities of assumed diameter whereas for an oxi ‘they are checked against the pipes that are already in existence (see Section 4). Generally speaking, when designing a com- pletely new sewer system itis necessary to specify a minimum of six items of data for each design length. These data are: atime of entry; ji. a pipe roughness coefficient for the type of pipe to be used; |. the return period for the rainfall profile to be used in the design; iv. the length of the proposed pip. v. its gradient; vi. the impermeable area directly connected to the design length. To these items must be added a label different- iating one particular pipe length from another. In most cases the first three items are constant for any particular design and are called the ‘initial data’. Provision is made for varying the time of 10 a Reed pipe data int Jeomaitions ¥ 4 ‘outiiow hyaroaraph t Route ou Sypecitied pipe lov one incremen Gan pion often Print warning and ranch a Fig 2 OUTLINE FLOW DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER, ROGRAM OF THE HYDROGRAPH METHODentry and pipe roughness for any particular length as the design proceeds. The remaining data, including the label identifying the particular pipe, are different for each pipe and are called the ‘pipe data’. If flows in an existing system are to be analysed it is necessary to add the size (and shape) of the existing pipe to the pipe data, Most prog rams allow for a variety of shapes, and sufficient columns are provided on the data sheet to specify the size and shape of the If the pipe is found to be too small to carry the expected flow, it can either be left as it is, or it ccan be redesigned to carry the expected flow. The particular choice must be specified in the manner appropriate to the program being used. In the following notes the actual entries to be made in each column of the data tabulation sheet are considered in detail. 4.1 Layout of data ‘There is no standard method of tabulating thedata, The methods vary according to the particular program being used. However, all follow the same general principles and there should be no difficulty in identifying the separate items requir- ed. Before tabulating any data the design engineer should obtain the data layout specification for the Program that he intends to use and to follow it exactly. Many computer firms issue specially printed forms for data tabulation and intending users should ask if these are available, Table 3 shows a typical data tabulation sheet that covers both the design of a new system and the analysis of flows in an existing system. 4.2 Key plan and data tabulation The key plan of the area should first be prepared by the engineer as described in Section 3 for the ‘rational’ formula. For the present description of ‘the method it is assumed that the area given in Fig. is the upper portion of a large catchment, ie the main sewer proceeds beyond the point marked ‘outfall’ to a final length, 1.55, further branches being connected in the normal manner. The key plan is not an essential part of the calculation, its Purpose being to act as a guide in tabulating the data in a reasonably logical order. ‘The Initial Data The selection of suitable values of the initial data, ie storm frequency; time of entry and roughness coefficient, are discussed in Appendices 1 and 2. ‘The values chosen should normally be entered either at the head of the data sheet or on a special ‘initial value’ data sheet. Provision is made for varying both time of entry and roughness coefficient for particular lengths; Columns 4 and 5 in Table 3 are provided on the data sheet for doing this. In the first edition of this note provision was also made for varying the storm frequency from length to length. Exper- jence has shown that this is an unsatisfactory procedure and if it is desiréd to design different arts of the sewer system for different values of storm frequency it is now recommended that the whole system should be designed completely for each value of storm frequency, a composite design then being built up by selecting the appropriate parts of the individual designs. It used to be necessary to specify maximum and minimum velocities so that the computer could print out a warning when the full-bore velocity of flow fell outside the specified limits, The actual full-bore velocity of flow is now print- ed for each design length and so it is not now necessary to specify any limits. Pipe Data Pipe data comprise mainly pipe length number, distance or length of pipe, gradient and imper- meable area. These four dataare tabulated similarly to Columns 1, 3, 4 and 11 of the ‘rational’ formula design sheet (Table 1). In Table 3 the actual entries would be put in Columns 1, 7, 8 and 9. Note that the impermeable area required is the area directly contributing to the pipe concerned; it is not a cumulative area as given in Column 12, Table 1. The determination of the impermeable area is discussed in Appendix 3. Any value that is zero should be entered as zero and not left blank, Zero gradients are not permitted. If these occur they should be given some arbitrary low value such as 1 in 5000 or the average gradient of the two adjacent pipe lengths. If areas of unpaved surface are to be drained ito the sewer system these areas should be ignored the computer design and calculations should be carried out later as described in Appendix 3. In a manual sewer design an engineer has no difficulty in allowing for the junctions of the various branches in a sewer network as he can see from the plans where junctions occur. A computer cannot ‘see’ a picture of the network and thus specific rules to allow for the effect of junctions have to be formulated. From the engineer’s point of view all that is required is a positive ‘notific- ation’ of the existence of a junction. This not- ification usually requires a separate entry on the data sheet and takes the form of a specification of the lengths immediately upstream of the junction, In Fig.1 Length 3.0 joins Length 2.1. These two ‘numbers have to be entered on the data sheet as directed by the detailed specification of the program being used. In the example illustrated in Table 3 the junctions are specified in Columns 2 and 3, headed ‘minor branch number’ (ie the branch terminating at the junction), and ‘major branch number’ (ie the continuing branch). The above data are all that are required to design a completely new system. Alternatively, if a pipe length is part of a system that is already in existence and the hydraulic adequacy of its pi is being checked, the dimensions of the pipe forming that length should be entered in the appropriate columns of the data sheet, Sufficient columns will be provided to specify both the size and shape of the pipe, In general, three bi shapes cover the majority of pipes. These are:~ 1. Circular 2. British Standard egg-shaped, 3. Rectangular. If the pipe is circular it is only necessary to enter a single dimension, the diameter, in mm. It is not necessary to write the word ‘circular’ as it i assumed that all single dimensions will refer to circular pipes. In the case of egg-shaped or rect: angular cross-sections the height and width in mm "az e| sauvo viva HLONSTadld sauvo NoLLoNAe 2010 j0 | oar yo mois | waryjeog | Ang sequnny wnbu27 | sae Aig | sseuysnoy | jo ew, ota sequinyy add | sequnn eda uouerg solew | youesa sous wo (9) (s) (w) te) zw w yooys enep poyrau ydesBouphy WHEL eaTavimust be specified and entered in the appropriate columns of the data sheet, together with a disting: uishing code letter, E for eggshape and 8 for rectangular or as otherwise directed. If the sewer is @ non-standard egg-shaped the nearest standard dimension should be quoted. The error caused by this approximation will be small. Trapezoidal and other cross sections can be incorporated by ‘arrangement with the chosen computer centre. In the example shown in Table 3, Columns 10, 12, 13 and 14 are used to define the size and shape of an existing pipe. If an existing pipe is to be redesigned on being found inadequate it will be necessary to enter an instruction in an appropriate column which is Column 15 of the data sheet (Table 3). If the computer is not asked to redesign inadequate lengths the results will give an estimate of the size of pipes required to prevent surcharge, but the calculation will proceed assuming that inadequate lengths are unaltered. It should be noted that hydrographs calculated for lengths downstream of badly overloaded pipes are reduced in accuracy. In general the computer programs have not been provided with facilities for printing out any ‘cross section other than circular. If it is desired to employ a different cross-section it is reasonably simple to calculate subsequently the dimensions of the given cross-section equivalent to the computed circular section. Possible dry weather flows can be allowed for both in new designs and in the analyses of existing systems. The value of dry weather flow in cumecs (m2/s) is entered in the appropriate column which is Column 6 of Table 3 for any length which carries such flow; the column is left blank for any length where there is no dry weather flow, The value entered is the actual dry weather flow entering the length concerned. It is not, as in the previous edition of this note, the cumulative total to the length concerned. 1 procedure and presentation of The information provided by the engineer on the data sheet is punched onto cards or tape at the ‘computer centre and is fed into a computer previously provided with a suitable program, ‘The tabulated data must be checked carefully to see that it conforms with the order of pipe lengths of the key plan. Considerable latitude is allowed in the order of tabulation but the engineer must ensure that junctions are specified in the correct order. Table 3 shows how the data for a new design should be tabulated. Note that there is a variation in the time of entry for Length 1.41. Tables 5 and 6, which illustrate certain non-standard uses of the program, are parts of existing systems and show the dimensions of existing pipes tabulated in the ‘diameter’ column. The calculations on the computer are, in general, carried out in the order in which the da are tabulated on the data sheet. This means that it is not strictly necessary to number the branches in any particular order but this should be checked with the specification of the program being used. The purpose of the key plan is to provide a simple cross check that the data have been ta ulated correctly. The data sheet and key plan should be checked together to ensure that the order of pipe lengths is correct and that the computer is not being asked to design a length before all the lengths upstream of it have been designed. Particular attention should be paid to ‘the following: 1. The fractional part of the number of the ‘most upstream length in a branch must be zero ie it must have the form u.O where u is the branch number. 2. Instructions to add all junctions must be entered. If branch addition instructions are omitted the calculations will proceed as if the branch did not exist. 3. Branch addition instructions must be entered the correct way round to ensure the correct branch is continued. 4. Only two branches can be added together by a single addition instruction. In the case of multiple junctions each branch must be added to the main length in separate instructions, eg if Lengths 4.5, 7.6 and 8.9 all join Length 1.10 at the same junction, three instructions are needed viz 1.10 + 4.5, 1.10 + 7.6 and 1.10 +89. The sequence 1.10 + 4.5 + 7.6 +89 is not allowed. (NB the actual use of the ‘+’ sign ‘may not be necessary and the program spec- ification should be consulted on this point.) After computation the results are printed and sent to the engineer. A typical print-out for the example in Table 3 is given in Table 4, The print- out should be examined carefully by the engineer. At this stage he should take any corrective ‘measures he considers necessary to prevent excess- ively high or low velocities, It will normally be possible for these to be corrected without further computation by simple adjustments to the grad- ients of the length concerned similar to those lustrated in Section 4.7. Alternative designs may be readily computed with changes in the basicdata, the only time required being that for the computer to carry out the new calculations. It is, for ex- ample, advantageous to be able to compute designs for a range of frequencies of design storms and to determine the effect of possible future develop- ‘ment in the area, In addition to the information printed out for each length in the design the computer can be instructed to print-out the full hydrograph (ordin- ates in cumecs) for any particular length. The data sheet will have @ column, (Column 11) in Table 3, that has to be entered if this infor: mation is required. Such an entry is made for Length 1.85 in the example, Some programs allow area/time diagrams and sewer volumes to be Printed also, This instruction to print may be used at any point in the sewer system. It is uneconomical to print out unnecessary information and it is envisaged that the facility will be useful when special considerations have to be given to the conditions at a particular point, for example where reservoir storage or pumping might be required, or at points where future extensions to the system are possible. The above notes in discus- sing the design and analysis of sewer systems have mentioned most of the columns in the illustration, Table 3. The remaining columns, which will not be 3toro toro Zoro ‘0%'0 eyo ero 1050 z90 ergo eect wee ‘sas et weg0 ‘3850 vero erro e1y0 e0r0 o0%'0 weer oeiz sez eve aseet sat (00000°E ssouysno1 o¢"0 Annus Jo ost ore ewe seve seit we ost'o eve t9¥0 eae'0 ses ou osto ore e6¥0 e860 ose op 00'0 ot es00 esoro see 8 000 oot 9900 200 aszz a 000 ae zez0 esto ‘oor & 0000 we revo Cr) asze ee cov a szo u90 gost ey cov ot ‘3500 e¥0°0 sz ee 000% act te00 sz0°0 ost a 000 tee 800 “000 case si 000 ont 900 ovoro asze 981'0 6s ‘0000 eel ve00 8100 ‘ast ero is sewing saw sown sewing ww yu we w w w ama peaxen, mous xO mo 48 eid easy warped asa asn wa ON ecg (moy e109 3124 uetp s2te036 5| molyyead poroodxe in YeU) SUES Mo\p¥Ead eu JBYJe ,9, aU, “LANE 10U pue PeuBISeP Useq sey JelaWEIP ayn EWA SUeaW SsOLoWlEIp OW J8H ,C, SLL) € 919e.u padeinges evep oy wos, snsoy vatave “q To sauvo viva off HLONST3did es & “ a un e é . siopoune . utnoy | soouns sauvo NoLLONAr youesg solew | youesg sou seaie-qns 10} sounue 2004s e2eq saavifound on all data tabulation sheets, are 16, 17 and 18, Column 16 is used to denote the end of a branch that is not being added to another branch. This facility is used when several systems are being processed in a single computer run. Columns 17 and 18 are used to specify information required to design certain types of non-circular culvert. The hydrograph method can be used to design such culverts provided the computer has been program- med to do so, Reference should be made to the detailed instructions for the program being used. 4.4 Sub-areas When either designing or examining a sewer system the best results are obtained from an analysis of the most detailed data tabulation that it is possible to prepare on a manhole-to-manhole basis. Under certain circumstances, such as when records are lost oF when designing a sewer system for areas which will not be developed for some years, not possible to tabulate the data in this detailed manner. An approximate solution may be obtain- ed by dividing these areas into sub-areas which, if each sub-area is of such a size as to warrant a 600 mm outfall or less, may be treated by considering ‘them as if they were single manhole lengths. In this solution the computer calculates for each sub- area a hydrograph whose peak value is the same as, the rate of flow that would be obtained using the ‘rational’ (Lloyd-Davies) method. In order to use this approximation the follow- ing data are entered in the data sheet (Table 5, Fig.3) a) The sub-area is allocated a pipe length number whose fractional part must be zero. b) An estimate of the time of concentration of the sub-area is made and entered as a time of entry in the appropriate column of the data sheet. ©) The actual length is given a zero value (some programs may require a nominal value, say T= Time of concentration of sub-erea Fig 3 USE OF SUBAREA PROCEDURE 6 ‘1m, to be entered). d) The gradient of the outfall length of the sub- area is entered in the ‘Gradient’ column. This Value is not used in calculating the peak flow of the hydrograph for the sub-area approx- imation, but is used. in calculating the full- bore rate of flow in the pipe. The fullbore rate of flow given in the print out will be ‘accurate only if the gradient entered in the column is a reasonably cose approximation to ‘the actual gradient of the outfall length in the sub-area, If this gradient is not known some arbitrary non-zero value, say 50, must be entered in the column and the full-bore rate of flow in the print-out will then relate to the itrary gradient and not to the true gradient. e) The impermeable area of the sub-area isentered in its appropriate column. The greater the value of this area in relation to the total impermeable area of the catchment, the greater the uncertainty in the results. f) The remaining columns should be completed in the normal way. 4) The previous edition of this note stated that it is necessary to estimate sewer volumes. This is not now required and no such estimate should be given. It is not necessary to enter any pipe dimen- sions when using the sub-area technique, ie it can be used in new designs. In the examination of a trunk or other main sewer, the sub-area approx- imation cannot be used to bring in areas along pipe length unless the area can be treated as a separate branch and then added to the main sewer. Diagram a of Fig. 4 shows an incorrect use of the approximation and Diagram b shows how the data should be tabulated by creating an imaginary branch (19.0 in the yram). If the sub-area large the area should be divided between three or four imaginary branches (Fig) joining the main sewer at equally spaced points. If the above instructions are followed the calculation will proceed automaticaly and no comments should be made on the data sheet. 4.5 Storm water overflows and pumping stations ‘The usual function of a storm water overflow is to divert all storm water above a predetermined level of flow out of the main sewer to a separate outfall. ‘The method of designing the remainder of the main sewer downstream of an over-flow is as follows (Fig.6, Table 6): 1. The drainage area upstream of the overflow is considered to be terminated at the overflow. 2. The fractional part of the pipe length number immediately downstream of the overflow put equal to zero, It is usually not necessary to change the branch number (the integral part of the pipe length number). Thus, if there are several outflows in the same branch there be a number of pipe lengths with the same number. As far as the calculations are concerned there will be no confusion, but if this repetition of numbers is undesirable for the maintenance of sewer records it can be avoided by using new branch numbers for the sewer lengths downstream of the overflows. 3. The maximum undiverted rate of flow fromcomments should be made on the data sheet. If the function of a pumping station is similar to that of a storm water overflow it can be allowed for as in 1t0 4 above. In the calculations described above it is assumed that the diverted flow passes more or less directly into a water course and the sewer carrying it is not included in the design process. The diverted flow can, however, pass into a main sewer which is itself part of the system being designed. This is a much more complex case because the diverted rate of flow will vary in the form of a hydrogreph with the tower part removed, The existing programs cannot, general, take account of this automatically but itis possible to estimate the design rate of flow by the following manual calculation. If the undiverted rate of flow is known to be only a small fraction of the total rate of flow (say less than 10 per cent) it is reasonable to assume that the whole hydrograph passes over the over- flow (this will slightly overestimate the rate of flow but not by an amount likely to affect the ‘sewer size). If the fraction is large the best pro- (a) Tncorrect use of sub-area procedure Subarea \ sub-area cannot be brought in 1.283 ha along atength 18.2 min 319 Sub-area 428! 19.2 min i) Correct use of an imaginary branch to bring in area along Imaginary branch added to main run in the usual manner 31.10 T= Time of concentration of subaree Fig 4 CORRECT AND INCORRECT USE OF ‘SUBAREA PROCEDURE Large sub-area spit into ‘8 number of smaller areas 148 Fig 5 REDUCTION OF A LARGE SUBAREA the overflow is added to the normal dry INTO SEVERAL SMALLER AREAS weather flow and is entered as dry weather flow in the appropriate column on the data sheet for the length immediately below the ‘overflow, ie the length referred to in 2 above, cedure is as follows (Fig.7) (NB Depending upon the type of overflow 1, As a first approximation, design the system this procedure may underestimate the divert- ignoring the effect of the diverted rate of flow ed flow. The construction and fun ‘on the sewer into which it is being diverted, the overflow should, if po ‘The sewer carrying the undiverted flow should ensure that realistic flows are being assumed.) be treated in the same manner as for the simple 4. If the overflow is at the end of a branch sewer overflow ie as in Paragraphs 2 and 3 page 16. ‘and the undiverted flow from it enters a main Instruct the computer to print hydrographs at sewer at a junction, the undiverted flow is both the overflow itself and also at the point added to the dry weather flow for the length in the intercepting sewer where the diverted immediately below the junction (eg the entry for pipe Lengths 1.0 and 1.7 on Table 6) as in 3 above. As the drainage area upstream of the 2. ‘overflow is considered to be terminated there no need to enter any branch addition instructions on the data sheet. If the above instructions are followed the calculation will proceed automatically and no flow will enter. Call these hydrographs ‘1’ and ‘2' respectively. Plot the Hydrographs 1. and 2 on graph paper (Fig, 7, Diagram a). Note that the rates of flow are plotted as ordinates. The two hydro- graphs will start from a common origin Provided that the point of entry in the inter ceptor sewer is close to the overflow. If it is ”2q 01 pownsse arate [erat TT ataraTeTor fetal TTT is over er wary | eaidso arouses, | ruaipeiy sequnn, Awa adia soouny sauvo viva Hionayaaa [49H xen sauvo NoILoNAr renin | equiny acta | soqnn acta] aves sofew | yours souny smoysono soyemuusors 104 eyep Jo uoNeINGeL gatavi 18Decimal part of Sy Storm water WF iertloming to branch number 1.0 (4 Separate cutfal sat to 20r0 DWE setting of overtlow added 10 DWF of 1.0 and entered in the DWF column of tabulation 120 WF setting from SWO at 18.2 ‘added to DWF entered for 1.7 DWF Dry weather flow SWO Storm water overflow Fig 6 SURFACE WATER OVERFLOWS NUMBERING OF LENGTHS. not, Hydrograph 2 should be displaced in time for a period equal to the time of flow along the connecting pipe. Draw a horizontal line on Hydrograph 1 to represent the rate of the excess flow will be illustrated in Fig. 7, Diagram b the diverted rate of flow is added to Hydrograph 2 to give the resultant hydrograph in the intercepting sewer. 4. Add the difference ‘b’ between the old peak and new peak of the Hydrograph 2 to the peak rates of flow printed for the interceptor sewer, increasing the pipe sizes, if necessary, ‘along the sewer until a length is reached where the difference no longer affects the size of the pipe. 4.6 The design of unproductive lengths using the hydrograph method ‘Where an unproductive or carrier sewer is less than about 300 m long, it is recommended that any possible reduction in rate of flow is ignored. If the unproductive length constitutes an outfall it is recommended that the design is terminated at the last length having a contributing area. The outfall lengths are then assumed to be equal in size to the last designed length, assuming the gradients are the Unproductive sewers which are more than 300 m long can serve the situations illustrated in Fig.8, Where either separate self-contained areas are ‘connected by a long carrier to a common outfall (Diagram a) or where the carrier sewer connects the drainage area to a distant outfall (Diagram b). Under these circumstances it is recommended that ‘the whole system including the carrier is first designed by the normal hydrograph method in 10 63 Overflow 1.0 tet Catchment ‘Tebulate data for each catchment to that there is no connection between the two and print hydrographs for lengths 1.2 and 6.1 rs) Rate of flow Resultant hyarogranh Rate of flow Time 7 MANUAL COMPUTATION OF DIVERTED FLOW FROM A STORM WATER, OVERFLOW 19order to obtain the input hydrographs to all the points A, B,C, D, & and F (Fig, 8 Diagram a) Where the self-contained areas discharge into the carrier. The flood wave attenuation in the unprod: uuctive lengths can then be calculated using the method suggested by the Hydraulics Research Station * , and given in Appendix 4. It would be rare for such attenuation to have a large effect on the flood hydrograph. Where the carrier sewers are very long (say more than 2000 metres) attenuation ‘can affect the sewer size and advice on the use of the method should be sought. 4.7 The design of foul sewer systems carrying small amounts of surface water Foul sewer systems are often designed to carry a certain amount of storm water for flushing pur- poses. Such systems will have many unproductive lengths and the rates of flow of storm water are too low for any storm water sewer design method to be applied accurately. The most satisfactory ‘way to treat this case is to use the effective time of concentration method described in Section 3.1 on page 8. 4.8 General design considerations Since the issue of the first edition of this Note, experience gained in the use of a computer to calculate the rates of flow in storm water sewer systems has shown that in order to make the best use of the computer the engineer must give consid- erable initial thought to the overall design consid- erations so that the data can be compiled to give the results in the most useful form, This is part- icularly necessary in the preparation of the data for the investigation of rates of flow in existing systems. The engineer should satisfy himself that (a) Self contained sewer systems connected by alongcariersewer ABCDEF toe 20 the ‘selection of the initial parameters is realistic. This is especially important when considering the choice of rainfall frequency. Appendix 1 gives some guidance on the choice of rainfall frequen- cies but it should be noted that if an existing sewer system was designed originally using a once-per-year storm then there is little point in specifying a once-in-ten-years storm, as the system will almost certainly be so heavily surcharged that ‘no useful information about the system is gained. If it is desired to reconstruct the system to cope with a once-in-ten-years storm this should, of course, be specified, realising that the resulting design’ will bear Jittle relation to the existing system. ‘The designer should also consider whether he wishes to retain the existing layout. If the layout is to be changed the data should be tabulated with these changes in mind. If, for example, the flow in a trunk sewer known to be over-loaded is to be reduced by cutting the existing sewer line and diverting the flow into an interceptor sewer the data should be tabulated to show this. For example, in Diagram 1, Fig.9, excessive flow in Sewer AB is to be reduced by diverting all the flow from upstream from point A into a proposed interceptor Sewer AC as in Diagram b. The new sewer AC should be considered as the continuation of the main sewer line while the second down- stream of the cut is regarded as a branch or a series of branches feeding the interceptor. If the original trunk sewer is not to be cut but only paralleled, then the new sewer should be ignored in the first calculation. The expected rates of flow in the sewer should be determined in the usual manner and the capacity of the duplicate sewer is considered to be equal to the difference between the capacity of the existing sewer and the ‘Outtalt (0) Sewer system with 2 singe: ‘outfall connecting it to 8 distant ‘outfall io 8 CARRIER SEWERS13 127 128 129) 1.30) (a) Sewer betore alteration of layout (b) Sewer atter alteration Fig 9 PROVISION OF AN INTERCEPTOR SEWER, CUTTING THE ORIGINAL TRUNK SEWER expected rate of flow. It is sometimes difficult to decide on the pro- posed gradient of the new sewer. If doubt exists an obvious choice, such as the ground gradient, should be used for the calculation. If after the calculations have been made this choice proves Unsatisfactory the designer can choose another pipe at a different gradient but with the same carrying capacity. For example if the design calls for a 300 mm diameter pipe at a gradient of 1 in 50 with ak value of 0.6 mm with a capacity of 0.16 cumecs to carry a computed peak rate of flow of 0.155 cumecs, it could be replaced by a 400 mm diameter pipe at a gradient of 1 in 200. Generally, it is uneconomical for an engineer to spend much time carrying out manual caleul- ations to assess the suitability of layouts or grad- ients prior to calculations on the computer. Minor alterations can always be made to the computed results if the alterations provide approximately the same carrying capacity as the original design. {f, however, large-scale alterations are contemplated the design should be recomputed, 5. References 1, WATKINS, LH. The design of urban sewer systems — research into the relation between the rate of rainfall and the rate of flow in sewers, Department of Scientific and Indust- rial Research, Road Research Technical Paper No 55, London, 1962 (HM Stationery Office). 2. WATKINS, LH and C P YOUNG. Develop. ments in urban hydrology in Great Britain, TRRL LN8B5. July 1965 (Unpublished). 3. YOUNG, C P. Urban Drainage in the United Kingdom. Proc.CIRIA Research Colloquium. Rainfall, runoff and surface water drainage of urban catchments. University of Bristol, April 1973, ACKERS, P. Tables for the hydraulic design of storm drains, sewers and pipelines. 2nd Edition (Metric Units), Hydraulics Research Paper No 4, London 1969 (HM Stationery Office) ACKERS, P and A J M HARRISON. Atten- uation of flood waves in pipes. Proc Inst C E Vol 28 pp 361-382 July 1964 also discussion Proc Inst CE Vol 32 Dec 1965 pp 608-622. Flood Studies Report. Natural Environment Research Council 1975. ACKERS, P. Charts for the Hydraulic design ‘of Channels and Pipes. HRSP DE2 3rd Edition (Metric Units) London 1969 HMSO, SWINNERTON, C J, MJ HALL and T O'DONNELL. A dimensionless hydrograph design method for motorway stormwater drainage systems. Journal of the Institute of Highway Engineers, November 1972. YOUNG, C P and J PRUDHOE. The estim- ation of flood flows from natural catchments, Department of the Environment, TRRL Report LR565. Crowthorne 1973 (Transport ‘and Road Research Laboratory). 26. Appendix 1 Selection of frequency of flooding and design rate of rainfall Frequency of flooding. \t must be remembered that in this context flooding merely means that the design flows have been exceeded. Actual flood- ing with water coming out of manholes or not ‘being able to get down gulleys will probably occur at a much lower frequency, depending upon the amount of surcharge that the system can tolerate. At the moment it is not possible to determine to what extent surcharge will affect the frequency of actual as opposed to ‘technical’ flooding. Suitable design frequencies range from once per year for separate surface-water sewers in modern estates or roads, to once per 50 or 100 years for combined sewers in old development with basements. The factors that must be taken into account in estimating the seriousness of a given frequency of flooding are always local in character and cannot be determined by a general formula. For example, at one area a given volume of flood water might merely hinder traffic for a short period, but at another it would cause serious harm by flooding property, particularly where the flood water contains foul sewage. Selection of design rates of rainfall. The results of the Meteorological Office's investigations into the variation of rates of rainfall in different parts of the country, mentioned in the first edition of this Road Note, are now available. *How these results are used depends upon the method of design chosen. It is not possible to give a single formula that covers the whole country and the engineer may have to consult the Meteorological Office for complete guidance. The ‘rational’ method. For use with the ‘rational’ (Lloyd-Davies) formula it is appropriate to use a mean rate of rainfall during a storm, The duration of the storm should be taken as being equal to the time of concentration of the drainage area to the point for which the calculation is being made. The method of calculating the time of concentration is described in Appendix 2. The small areas for which the use of the ‘rational’ method is recommended are unlikely to have times of concentration much in excess of 15 minutes. Research carried out by the Meteorological Office has led to a method of determining the rainfall of any specified duration and return period for any location in the British Isles ® that replaces ‘the Bilham formula previously recommended. An equivalent of the Bilham Table for any urban or rural area can be obtained from the Meteorological Office, Met 8c, London Road, Bracknell, Berk- shire, The engineer must specify the National Grid Reference of the approximate centre of the drainage area. A small charge will be made for the information. Table 7 shows the rates of rainfall calculated for Crowthorne, Berks. Figure 10 illustrates the geographical variation of expected quantities of rainfall and shows the variation of the quantity of rainfall expected in 60 minutes with a frequency of once in five years. 22 Note that although the values range from 12 mm in the extreme north of Scotland to 24 mm in the highest mountains the variation over 85 per cent of the country is within + 3 mm of 18 mm, ie approximately 18 mm + 17 per cent. However, the variation with geographical location increases significantly with increasing duration and increas- ing return period. Strictly speaking the information above refers to ‘point’ rainfall, ie that measured by a rainfall recorder. If required an allowance can be made for the size of the catchment area for which the data are required. The hydrograph method. This uses a curve called a ‘storm’ or ‘rainfall’ profile which relates the rate of rainfall to the time after the start of the rainfall. The results of the Meteorological Office's research show that for the greatest accuracy the choice of a suitable rainfall profile depends upon {al the frequency of occurrence, (b) duration, (c) the ‘peakedness’ ie departure from the mean value of the profile, (d) the rainfall volume and (e) the locality. However, for a great many practical Purposes, if the profiles in Table 8 are used then the variations (b) and (c) are not important. The profiles in Table 8 should not be used if flow volumes as opposed to peak flows are required og for use in the design of balancing tanks. The pro- files in Table 8 are, also, not suitable for areas with very long times of concentration eg much in excess of one hour. For such areas the Meteorological Office can produce profiles to cover all the possible variations and if an engineer feels that a particular set of circumstances warrant a much more special- ised investigation he should consult the Meteor- ological Office to obtain suitable profiles. These will be in a form suitable for practically all the hydrograph method computer programs. However, most of the programs will accept only profiles of Up to 120 or 200 ordinates ie 120 or 200 minutes. There are no hydrological reasons why these numbers should not be increased. The changes required jin the program are very small and most computers have the space to accommodate them. Table 8 shows the basic rainfall profiles for five recurrence frequencies which should cover most applications. It should be noted that these profiles, unlike those given in the first edition, are symmetrical, These basic profiles need to be multiplied by a factor F, to take account of location, Figure 11 shows the variation of F with locality. Hence, to use the profiles the engineer ‘chooses first the frequency. He then looks at the map (Fig.11) and chooses the appropriate value of F eg for Birmingham a value of 0.92 would be appropriate. Each ordinate of the profile is mul plied by the value of F. In Table, as the profiles are symmetrical, only one half of the full profile is given. The complete profile is formed by re- writing the given ordinates from the centre out- wards towards the assumed start of the storm ie the first half of the profile is the mirror image of that given in the table. For areas with an F value about 0.95 the effect of these new profiles is little different from the original profiles quoted in the first edition of this Note,TABLE 7 Rates of Rainfall in mm/h for a range of duration and return period for a specified location in the United Kingdom National Grid Reference 4833E 1633N RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) DURATION 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 20 MINS 756 1208 188 187 21a 25 MINS. 765 1134 149 7 202 30 MINS. 66.3 1072 141 168 192 35 MINS 628 101.7 135 ter, 184 4.0 MINS 596 968 128 154 176 4.1 MINS, 59.1 959 127 182 174 42MINS 585 950 126 181 173 43 MINS 579 941 128 150 12 44 MINS 574 932 124 149 170 45 MINS, 569 924 123, 148 169 46 MINS 56.3 918 122 46 168 4.7 MINS 558 121 145 168 43 MINS 553 120 144 165 49 MINS. 548 119 143. 164 5.0 MINS 54.3 118 142 163 5.1 MINS, 539 877 117 vat 162 5.2 MINS. 53.4 87.0 16 140 160 5.3. MINS 530 363 5 138 159 5.4 MINS 525 858 8 138 188 5. MINS 52.1 349 14 137 187 5.6 MINS 517 842 113 136 186 5.7 MINS 512 835 112 138 185 58 MINS 508 829 mt 134 184 59 MINS 504 323 10 133, 183, 60 MINS 50.0 ars 110 132 152 2 MINS 49.3 80.4 108 130 160 6.4 MINS 435 792 107 129 148. 6.6 MINS 478 74 105 127 146. 68 MINS 474 79 104 128 144 7.0 MINS 464 759 102 124 143 7.2 MINS 458 749 101 122 141 74 MINS. 452 739 100 121 139 78 MINS. “5 na 99 119 138 78 MINS 40 ng 7 118 136 8.0 MINS 434 no 96 7 135 8.2 MINS 428 70.1 95 115 133 8.4 MINS. 423 3 94 114 132 8.6 MINS 418 a4 93 413 131 88 MINS 412 676 92 112 129 9.0 MINS 408 668 0 110 128 9.2 MINS 403 660 20 109 127 9.4 MINS 399 65.3 89 108 128 9.6 MINS 294 eas. 88 107 124 98 MINS 39.0 638 87 108 123 10.0 MINS 338 63.1 86 105 121 105 MINS 376 ois 3s 102 118 11.0 MINS 36.7 599 82 100 116 11.5 MINS 358 58.4 80 97 113 120 MINS 360 570 B 95 rr) 125 MINS 342 557 76 93 108 13.0 MINS 334 544 5 a1 108 13.5 MINS 32.7 533 3 89 104 140 MINS 320 521 n 87 102 145 MINS 314 510 70 86 100 18.0 MINS 308 500 6 34 98 160 MINS 296 36.1 48.1 66 81 94 170 MINS 238 348 463 64 B a 18.0 MINS 278 335 447 76 38 19.0 MINS 26.7 324 432 60 73 85 20.0 MINS, 259 314 as 58 n 83, 23TABLES Rainfall intensities (mm/hr) for 2-hour storms symmetrical about their centre point ‘Roturn Poriod in Years Duration minutes) from centre 1 2 8 10 20 o-1 20.0 960 1240 1479 178.0 1-2 510 610 799 940 1120 2-3 38.0 420 540 640 760 3-4 26.7 320 410 490 58.0 4-5 224 268 345 410 49.0 5-6 19.1 28 234 350 20 6-7 163 196 25.1 300 360 7-8 134 79 218 260 310 9 123 147 189 279 106 127 164 230 95 11a 147 208 as 108 138 193 82 9B 26 73 78 on "7 166 74 as 109 155 6s 79 10.2 143 63 78 97 137 60 72 93 13.4 58 69 a9 1268 55 66 as 120 83 63 at 115, Ba 6a 73 a4 49 5B 78 108 a7 56 72 102 45 84 69 99 43 52 67 95 42 80 6s 92 40 4a 62 a8 39 48 60 as 37. aa 57 at 36 43 55 79 35 42 54 77 34 49 52 74 33 39 50 72 32 38 49 79 30 37 aa 67 29 38 45 65 28 34 4a 62 27 33 42 60 26 3a 40 57 25 30 35) 55 24 29 37 52 23 27 35 50 22 26 34 48 24 25 32 45 19 24 30 43 18 22 29 40 17 2a 27 33 16 20 25 36 15 13 24 33. 14 1 22 31 13 168 20 29 12 15 19 27 12 15 19 27 12 15 19 27 12 15 19 27 12 15 19 27 12 15 19 27 12 15 19 27 42 15 19 27 ‘Mean intensity 78 94 124 17.0) for 2hour storm 24Fig 10 A SIMPLIFIED MAP OF GOMINUTE 5-YEAR RAINFALL 7. Appendix 2 Determination of time of concentration, time of entry and time of flow Time of concentration. The time of concentration of an area is the time taken for water to reach the point under consideration after falling on the most remote part of the surface, and its value is given by the sum of the time taken to flow across the surface and enter the sewer (time of entry) and the time of flow along the sewer assuming a full-bore velocity. Time of entry. \t is recommended that a time of entry of two minutes should be used for normal urban areas, increasing to up to four minutes for areas with exceptionally large paved surfaces with slack gradients. There is no purpose in attampting to estimate times of entry to an accuracy greater than, say, % minute. Table 7 shows that for areas with small times of concentration a change of one minute in the time of entry would make at the most achange of about 15 per cent in the design rate of rainfall for normal frequencies, wh of pipe sizes aveJ} National Gri F > 0.95 shades 3 0.78 " s 5 ose) 2 7 0.92 0.85 100 km Fig 14 size from 150 mm to 230 mm roughly trebles the flow-carrying capacity. For longer times of con- centration, although the range of pipe sizes be- comes relatively closer, the change in the design rate of rainfall becomes insignificant, At times of concentration of about one hour a change of one minute causes only a change of intensity of about 0.2 mm/h. 26 MAP OF RATIO, F Time of flow. The time of flow along the sewer is calculated assuming full-bore velocities. The most satisfactory formula for the calculation of the velocity of flow for a given pipe size and gradient is the Colebrook. White formula, and the Hydraulics Research Station have published tables’, to simplify the use of this formula. Table 9 which gives suitable values of roughness coefficient forTABLE Recommended roughness values, k IN mm. Classifieation Suitable design chart values of & (mm) {assumed clean and new unless otherwise stated) Good Norma Poor sMoorH Drawn non-ferrous pipes of aluminium, brass, copper, lead, ete. and ‘ommetalic pipes ot alkathene ies, Perspex, ete = oo02 ASBESTOS CEMENT ... = os = METAL Spun Bitumen lined E 0.03 = Spun concrete lined = O03 = Wrought iron 053 (008 ts Rusty wrought fon ny) 3 Uncosted steel ois = 00308 Coated ste os = Oss Gavanized tron 00s Os Coated castiron | 222: 0.08 18 O Uncoated cattiron’ ois O 08 Tate relied pipes ° ois 08 08 vet on pe (uterus Pistes 6 mmand under = 08 15 3 Pies over6 mm. 45 3 8 {Good ~ arth riveted oniy; normal: ~ tll iveied taper oF cviier Joints; poor: = ful riveted, bute-trap joints) Girl mate ai, wi th allowing dane ack slight 08 18 3 Moderate 18 3 8 Appreciale é is So Severe L PU ts » 0 {Gooa: — 4p io'20 yaar’ use’ ning! — 46 io 80 Year wie; poor: — 0-100 vearsuse), woop Wood save pipes, planed plank fumes. os 08 18 concrete ‘Class 4. Monolithic construction against cited steel forms, with no Ssurfce regularities, smooth-surfaced precest pipelines with houlders or depressions at the joints 005 outs = Class 4 Smooth surfaced pracest pipedines in units of deh or th spigot ond socket joints, or egos joints pointed internally : 015 oo class 3" Monelihic construction sgeinet soe orm, wet nx spun precan pipes or wi 7 asphalt coating oa os 18 Chass 2 Monolithic construction against rough forme, rough texture precait ips or cement ou ura very cour otra, te Feta spprejte in evidence) 06 1s : a recat lps wh rir wes in S 3 6 Smooth trowelled surfaces "= ae 03 o6 ts CLAYWaRE ETC Fitehore (lower value refers to fll bore flow 0003 oa = Glazed vititied cay: ‘Very accurately signed joints « 0.06 ~ = Int manne funder 600 mm dio” = ois 08 {00'mm and over = o3 08 in 0.6 m unite} under 200 mm ci : ots 88 {300mm and over E 03 08 Butejointed drain tle os 15 3 laze brickwork os. 13 3 Brickwork well poinied 13 3 8 Ota brickwork, in need of Bointing | 5 5 30 MATURE FOUL SEWERS, constructed of materia having F values tien new not exceeding thos given for mature conditions slimed to not more than mm © 08 1s 3 Lime inrustations, grease or sime not more than 2 im hick, cr” ven layer of fins sludge . 6 15 30 Gritty solids ving unevenly in invert Unig tgures relate 16 ‘shoal of debrie wt Froude numbers of order 6310.65) cy 150 300 UNLINED ROCK TUNNELS Granite and other homogeneous rocks 60 150 300 Diagonoly Becded ster S 300 00 (values to be used with design diametri EARTH CHANNELS Strelght uniform artificial channels : 6 © 150 Straight natural channels, free fom shoals, boulders and’ wads | 180 S00 600 27different types of sewer pipe is taken from this publication, 8. Appendix 3 Determination of th permeable area In the majority of urban areas, under British r fall conditions, the total surface area contributing to the flow in the sewers should be taken to be ‘only the area of paved surfaces directly connected to the sewer system. This will include footpaths from which the surface run-off passes directly into a gutter, but will exclude those from which the run-off flows on to unpaved surfaces. The justi- fication for this procedure arises from the fact that peak flows in sewers result from summer storms, when natural surfaces are permeable and the surface run-off is small and slow travel thus the peak flood from the paved surfaces is hardly affected by the run-off from the unpaved surfaces. There are two principal exceptions to this recommendation: 1, Roads in cuttings. Where the cutting is shallow, as in most urban areas, it is recommended that the area of the cutting slope should be neglected. In the case of the deep cuttings found on some major roads in open country this procedure could underestimate the impermeable area, The results of recent research on the design of road drainage systems is now available*. 2. Unpaved areas. As has been stated unpaved areas should normally be neglected when designing surface water sewer systems. However, when positive provision has been made for the drainage of unpaved areas to be connected to otherwise normal surface water sewer systems it may be necessary to allow for the resulting flow from such areas. The most usual situations of this type are either when a small stream is allowed to enter a piped sewer system or when a natural water course, which may or may not be culverted, acts as a carrier. In either of these cases the peak flows can be estimated by the methods given in the TRRL report LRSGS ‘The estimation of flood flows from natural catchments’* . If this expected peak rate of flow exceeds the capacities of the affected pipes they should be increased in size so that they can carry the greater flow. The peak discharge from the unpaved area tends to occur in winter whereas the peak discharge from the paved areas occurs in summer. Unpaved areas entering sewer systems by streams are likely to be comparatively large. Small unpaved areas may enter sewer systems through catchpits or some type of cutoff drain. It is still not possible to give recommendations based on fact for these situations. It is unlikely that such flows will be large and they can probably be ignored. If the situation is critical, efforts should be made to find existing similar drainage in the locality and estimate likely flows from the available evidence ~ such as silt and slime marks. It should not be inferred from the recom- mendations on the allowances to be made for unpaved areas that flows from such areas are always negligible or small. Although it is possible 28) to get considerable flows from these areas, they will usually occur much less often than the design flows usually allowed for in urban drainage sys- tems. If it is necessary to take account of large unpaved areas in the design of an urban drainage system then the rates of flow should be determined by the methods given in reference 9 or in the case of very large catchments (greater than 100 km? ) or for very infrequent storms (less frequent than ‘once in 50 years) by the methods given in the report of the United Kingdom Flood Studies team? . It is important that the procedures given references 9 and 6 should not be mixed. Natural drainage is often designed on rainfall more in- frequent than that used for urban drainage. 9. Appendix 4 The attenuation of the peak of a flood wave pipe The attenuation of the peak of a flood wave down a long pipe with no lateral inflow can be deduced by the method given by Ackers and Harrison *, which is as follows: ‘A hydrograph such as that illustrated in Fig.12 with a peak flow Qp is to be routed along a pipe with a diameter, D, and laid at a gradient, s, with a roughness, k. 1. Calculate Qy the full-bore rate of flow for the pipe. 2. From the hydrograph calculate (i) its volume V, and (ii) the mean slope, A/ AT of the rising limb given by Qp-Qs Tp-Ts AQ/ AT The point Ts, Qs is a point at which the hydrograph starts to rise to the peak. In the hydrograph illustrated the point Qo, 0 would Hatched area is hydrostaph y= Peak rate of flow Q, = Start of rise of steopest part of hydrograph y= Bate flow 20 2 28 2ob 15h 2 Rate of flow (m/s) Time after start (min) Fig 12. HYDROGRAPH TO BE ATTENUATEDProportional depth, d/D Proportional depth, d/D not be chosen as the hydrograph is not rising at the point. Calculate a first approximation to the depth and area of flow, hp, and Ap, corresponding to the peak rate of flow Qo. Calculate the depth of flow ho corresponding to the initial rate of flow Qg. The most satisfactory way to find the various areas and depths of flow is to tse graphs and tables (Table 10 and Fig. 13) taken from HRS Paper No 2”. Calculate the proportional rates of flow Qp/ Q} and Qo/Qt and find the corresponding proportional depths hp/D and ho/D from Fig. 13. Using these values of proportional depths find the corresponding proportional area Ap/ At. The proportional area Ag/Ay is not required. Table 10 also shows proportional hydraulic mean depths in case they are required for other applications. Calculate successive values of Qn where O “I Where Agi = Ap i ation due to gravity. From the value of Qn in Step 4 above find the corresponding area Ay. An should be less than or equal to An.1. If the ratio An:An.t is” less than 0.99 repeat the calculation in Step 4 Putting Ana = An until the ratio of Aq: Anat is greater than or equal to 0.99, teagvat \ % “1000 Ana GS, ially and g is the acceler- 1.00 co D — Pipe diameter 0.90 S — Percentage gradient/100 ough turbulence: = D/k 0.80] | Smooth turbulence: 6 = 3600 0S 1/9 (for water at 18°C, SI units) ransitiona a or|_| Tamitons: 0-5 + Gas7) (for water at 15%, St units) 0.60 0.50] 0.40 0.30 0.20 10 ° 0304 08 08 0: 09 10 Ma Proportional dicharge, Op 0.10 0.08 : - Pronettiona velocity 0.06 L _. aporionalalharg x70 0.08 4 | oz ° | 0 af 02 03 a4 05 06 07 08 08 10 11 42 Proportional velocity, Vp = V/Vo Fig 12 PROPORTIONAL VELOCITY AND DISCHARGE IN PART-FULL CIRCULAR SECTIONS 296. When a satisfactory value of A, is found Qf is the full-bore rate of flow in the pipe. calculate the corresponding depth of flow ha. NB. x can be negative. 7. Calculate a value x where 8, The attenvation in terms of proportional 1 depth, hi/d, at a distance L down the pipe is xed 1 now given by 7 TalD= Foi h/o-hoiD=V(2+7(L+x) 1P where Y = _[—a0! 9. If required the actual flow corresponding’ to TVG; this proportional depth can be calculated. The above procedure can easily be added to Be 1=15h/D ‘a sewer design and analysis program. TABLE 10 Proportional areas and hydraulic mean depths for circular pipes ‘corresponding to given proportional depths Proportion Proporional’ ‘Proportional Proportional Proporionsl Proportional Depth an Mo Benth A HM 600 0.0000, 0.0000 050 0.5000 7.0000 001 0017 o.ozes ost ota? tore 002 8.0048 0.0508 os2 05255, 410208 0.08 8.0087 o.0769 08a 0538 067 808 oot 0.1047 Osa 0.8609 10483 805, O0187 1.1302 08s Oe26 10808 008 0.0248 0.1866 086. 05762 toro O07 0.0308 0.1808 os? osa6e to3t0 0.08 80378 0.2063 O88 oor toate 808 o.oae 0.2298 O88 ota vio 0.10 9.0520 oe 080 o.g268 11108 ont 0.0808 O27 ost 0.5389 tite O12 0.0680 02018 oa2 o6si3 1125 ons ores 0.335 083 O.eae 11369 ona oes 0.3488 ose 09789 11409 O18 0.0981 oars oss o.gaet 11526 O18 0.1088 03082 cr 0.7002 11888 our ona? Oates oer o.rtza tie? O18 onze 0.4388 088 ozs va93e O18 o.1328 0.4607 08 0.7360 tires 020 o.taaa 0.4824 070 oar yeaa oat 0.1827 soa? on 0.7509 11902 O22 8.1831 Oza on 07708 14980 O28 o.t7a8 o8as7 ora 0.7022 11984 O24 o.1948 0.5662 O74 07984 12098 028 o.1958 o.se6s 075 O45 12087 026 0.2068 o.g088, 076 Oates 12087 oar 02178 o.gze2 on 08262 12128 028 oz oeas7 ore 0.8360 12149 029 0.2407 0.8649 079 oaare 12188 0.30 0.2528 ossee 020 oasis 12168 oat 0.2640 0.7024 ost 08677 rau 022 0.2750 07207 oaz oar sain O38 o2e78 0.7387 oss oae7s 12164 O38 0.2008 0.7565 oss 0.8967 12180 0.38 O38 07740 oa 09089 12131 036 oxzat oon oa. oata 12108 037 Ove 0.8080 oa? 09238 tort O38 0.3487 oaz8 Osa 09320 12028 0.29 O26 409 089 occa i900 020 0.3738 869 030 0.9480 tie21 oat 0.3860 08726 oat 09864 43083 oa 0.2086 8.8880 092 09628 ya6 oas o.atie 09031 033 2602 11604 oat 0.4288 09179 O04 oars 11890 045 04964 0.933 095 asst 1488 0.6 o.aao1 aces 096 o.98ee yaa16 oar oat 09604 037 0901 vane O48 0.4748 03729 bea 9.9982 Nooat oa 0.4873 eae ose 2983 ‘0862 080 2000 1.0000 1.00 4.0000 +9000 30 ‘Printed in England for Her Majesty's Statlonery Otlce by Studto Trade (ba 497025 K60 9/76 5 Ltd, Watford, Herts, WO1 BSA.HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE Government Bookshops 49 High Holborn, London WC1V 6H 1a Castle Street, Edinburgh EH2 3AR 41 The Hoyes, Cardiff CF1 1 Brazennose Street, Manchester M6O BAS ‘Southey House, Wine Street, Bristol 8S1 28 268 Broad Street, Birmingham B1 2HE ‘80 Chichester Street, Belfast 8T1 45 Government Publications are aso available through booksellers 'sBN 0 11 850159 2