metals

Article
Improvement of Damping Property and Its Effects on
the Vibration Fatigue in Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy Treated
by Warm Laser Shock Peening
Xiankai Meng 1,2, *, Yaomin Zhao 3 , Jinzhong Lu 3 , Shu Huang 3 , Jianzhong Zhou 3, * and
Chun Su 4
1 Institute of Advanced Manufacturing and Modern Equipment Technology, Jiangsu University,
Zhenjiang 212013, China
2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Green Process Equipment, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
3 School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
4 School of Mechanical & Vehicle Engineering, Changzhou Institute of Technology, Changzhou 213002, China
* Correspondence: mengdetiankong10@126.com (X.M.); zhoujz@ujs.edu.cn (J.Z.);
Tel./Fax: +86-511-8878-0219 (X.M. & J.Z.)




Received: 17 May 2019; Accepted: 25 June 2019; Published: 3 July 2019


Abstract: In order to increase the vibration life of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy, warm laser shock peening
(WLSP) is used to improve the damping properties and thus decrease the vibration stress in this study.
Firstly, the Ti6Al4V specimens are treated by WLSP at different treatment temperatures from 200 ◦ C to
350 ◦ C. Then the damping ratios of untreated and WLSPed samples are obtained by impact modal tests,
and the improvement of damping properties generated byWLSP is analyzed by the microstructures in
Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. Moreover, the finite element simulations are utilized to study the vibration
amplitude and stress during the frequency response process. Finally, the vibration fatigue tests are
carried out and the fatigue fracture morphology is observed by the scanning electron microscope.
The results indicate that the damping ratios of WLSPed specimens increase with the increasing treatment
temperatures. This is because elevated temperatures during WLSP can effectively increase the α phase
colonies and the interphase boundaries, which can significantly increase the internal friction of materials.
Moreover, due to the increasing material damping ratio, the displacement and stresses during vibration
were both reduced greatly by 350 ◦ C-WLSP, which can significantly decrease the fatigue crack growth
rate and thus improve the vibration fatigue life of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy.

Keywords: warm laser shock peening; Ti6Al4V titanium alloy; damping ratio; vibration fatigue;
α phase

1. Introduction
Due to the high strength and fracture toughness, Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is widely used in the
aerospace industry. However, the Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is always subjected to a failure under the
service conditions of fatigue and vibration [1]. At present, traditional heat treatment methods generally
use a temperature higher than the phase transition point to modify the material. This generally results
in high residual tensile stress on the surface [2,3], which is not conducive to the improvement of fatigue
life. Laser shock peening at room temperature (RT-LSP) has been proved to be an effective technology
to improve the fatigue resistance of materials by the high compressive residual stress (CRS) [4,5].

Metals 2019, 9, 746; doi:10.3390/met9070746 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2019, 9, 746 2 of 14

The CRS induced by RT-LSP can effectively inhibit the initiation and development of cracks on the
surface, which can decrease the fatigue crack growth rate [6,7]. Therefore, RT-LSP has been widely used
in aeroengine blades, integral blade discs, turbine blades and other thin-walled structural parts [8],
and can greatly prolong the service life of parts.
However, it has been confirmed that the CRS is subjected to a relaxation under cyclic loads,
which will significantly reduce the improvement of fatigue performance [9,10]. Thermo-mechanical
coupling effect is a technical means to control the strain-induced microstructures using thermal effects
to obtain the required excellent microstructures and properties of materials [11]. Some researchers
in Purdue University applied thermo-mechanical coupling technology to the field of laser shock
peening, and put forward warm laser shock peening (WLSP). The thermal-mechanical coupling
effect was used to optimize the microstructures on material surface treated by WLSP, so as to obtain
more stable residual stress field and mechanical properties than RT-LSP, such as material strength,
modulus of elasticity, fatigue strength, etc. [12,13]. Taking AA6061 aluminum alloy as the research
object, Liao et al. [14] investigated the stability of CRS induced by RT-LSP and WLSP under cyclic
loading. The results showed that the release rate of CRS induced by WLSP was much lower than that
induced by RT-LSP under the same external cyclic loading. Ye [15] analyzed the microstructures in
AISI4140 steel strengthened by WLSP. It was concluded that the dislocations produced during WLSP
were stably pinned by the Cottrell atmosphere, which was generated by dynamic strain aging (DSA).
Therefore, the microstructures generated by WLSP were extremely stable, which made the plastic
strain in material not easy to release, so the release rate of CRS was much lower than RT-LSP. Moreover,
Liao et al. [14] found a large amount of nanocrystalline precipitates in WLSPed AA6061 aluminum
alloy, which can also stabilize the microstructure and thus decrease the release rate of CRS. Due to the
CRS with high amplitude and stability, the fatigue life of AA6061 aluminum alloy and AISI4140 steel
were significantly improved by WLSP.
At present, LSP and WLSP processing are mainly used to improve the traditional fatigue properties
under low frequencies [16,17]. Nie studied the effects of RT-LSP impacts on the vibration life of TC6
titanium alloy under high frequencies [18]. It was found that the fatigue limit of vibration specimens
was greatly improved by RT-LSP. However, the mechanism for fatigue life prolonging induced by
RT-LSP/WLSP was still not clear. The effects of RT-LSP and WLSP on the vibration fatigue life under
high frequencies still need to be investigated further. In particular, the effects of RT-LSP/WLSP
processing on damping properties and their effects on the improvement of vibration fatigue life should
be further studied.
In order to reveal the mechanism of vibration fatigue life extension induced by RT-LSP and
WLSP, this study innovatively investigates the damping properties and their effects on the vibration
displacement/stress/fatigue life of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy treated by RT-LSP and WLSP. The WLSP
processing is conducted at different temperatures from 200 ◦ C to 350 ◦ C. Then the damping ratio
and the vibration amplitude/stress are researched by impact modal tests and frequency response
simulations. Moreover, the effects of RT-LSP and WLSP on the damping properties are analyzed by the
microstructures in Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. Finally, the vibration fatigue life and its fracture morphology
are measured to analyze the vibration fatigue improvement mechanism of WLSP.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials and Specimens

The material used in this study was Ti6Al4V (TC4) titanium alloy with the following chemical
composition (in wt%): 6.5 Al, 4.20 V, 0.30 Fe, 0.28 Si, 0.02 C, 0.03 N, 0.02 H, 0.13 O and balance Ti.
The mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy are shown in Table 1. The dimensions of Ti6Al4V
specimens used in WLSP processing and impact modal tests were 250 mm × 30 mm × 2 mm with four
boltholes for fixing, as shown in Figure 1.
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Table 1. Typical mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V (TC4) titanium alloy.

Table 1. Typical mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V (TC4) titanium alloy.
Young Modulus
Young Modulus
Yield Stress
Yield Stress
Ultimate
Ultimate Stress Elongation at
Elongation at
Material
Material
(GPa)
(GPa) (MPa)
(MPa) Stress (MPa) Fracture
(MPa) Fracture
Ti6Al4V titanium
Ti6Al4V titanium 110
110 826 826 1050 1050 9.6% 9.6%

Figure 1. Ti6Al4V specimens and WLSP processed area.

Figure 1.Ti6Al4V specimens and WLSP processed area.
2.2. RT-LSP and WLSP Processing
2.2. RT-LSP and WLSP Processing
The laser beam used in RT-LSP and WLSP was generated by a lamp-pumped Nd:YAG laser,
thelaser
The technical
beamparameters of which
used in RT-LSP andcan be seen
WLSP was in generated
Table 2. During RT-LSP and WLSP
by a lamp-pumped processing,
Nd:YAG laser, the
the samples were placed in front of the focus, as shown in Figure 1,
technical parameters of which can be seen in Table 2. During RT-LSP and WLSP processing,and silicone oil was used as the
the confining medium due to its high vapor point. An aluminum foil with a thickness of 120 µm
samples were placed in front of the focus, as shown in Figure 1, and silicone oil was used as the
was used as the absorbing material. The laser spots with an overlap ratio of 50% were utilized and
confining medium due to its high vapor point. An aluminum foil with a thickness of 120 μm was
each sample was treated once. In addition, the WLSP experiments were carried out at elevated
used astemperatures
the absorbingfrommaterial.
200 ◦ C to The
350 ◦laser spots
C, which is inwith an overlap
the regime ratio strain
of dynamic of 50% were
aging utilized and
temperature [15]. each
sampleThe was treated once. In addition, the WLSP experiments were carried out
processing parameters used in RT-LSP and WLSP can be seen in Table 3. In the process of vibration, at elevated
temperatures from 200and
the deformation °C stress
to 350of°C,
thewhich is inmainly
specimen the regime
occurredof in
dynamic strain
the stress aging temperature
concentration zone at the [15].
fixed end, parameters
The processing so RT-LSP andusedWLSP inwere only applied
RT-LSP and WLSP to thecan
stress
beconcentration
seen in Table area3.at In
thethe
fixed end
process of
of specimens in this study. The RT-LSPed and WLSPed area with a size of 50 mm
vibration, the deformation and stress of the specimen mainly occurred in the stress concentration × 20 mm and the
zone atlaser scanning paths are presented in Figure 1. In order to increase the performance, the RT-LSPed and
the fixed end, so RT-LSP and WLSP were only applied to the stress concentration area at the
WLSPed samples were all treated three times.
fixed end of specimens in this study. The RT-LSPed and WLSPed area with a size of 50 mm × 20 mm
and the laser scanning paths are Table
presented in Figure
2. Technical 1. Inoforder
parameters Nd:YAGtolaser.
increase the performance, the RT-
LSPed and WLSPed samples were all treated three times.
Parameters Value Parameters Value
Operation material Nd:YAG Frequency (Hz) 1–5
Table 2.Technical parameters of Nd:YAG laser.
Wavelength (nm) 1064 Power distribution Flat
Pulse power (J) <16 Spot shape Circle
Parameters
Pulse width (ns)
Value
<12
Parameters
Focus size (mm)
Value
Φ3–8
Operation material
BPP (mm·mrad) Nd:YAG
<20 Frequency
TEM mode (Hz) 001–5
Power
Wavelength (nm) 1064 Flat
distribution
Pulse power (J) <16 Spot shape Circle
Focus size
Pulse width (ns) <12 Φ3–8
(mm)
BPP (mm·mrad) <20 TEM mode 00
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Table 3. Processing parameters used in RT-LSP and WLSP.

Table 3. Processing parameters used in RT-LSP and WLSP.
Pulse Spot Diameter Export Pulse Width Laser Wavelength Frequency
Spot Diameter Export Pulse Width Laser Wavelength Frequency
Energy
Pulse (J) (J)
Energy (mm) Stability (ns) (nm) (Hz)
(mm) Stability (ns) (nm) (Hz)
9 3 <5% 10 1064 1
9 3 <5% 10 1064 1

2.3. Impact Modal Tests

2.3. Impact Modal Tests
The structural damping ratio of Ti6Al4V specimens was obtained by impact modal tests. The
impactThe structural
modal testerdamping
consistedratio
of aofPCB-086B80
Ti6Al4V specimens was obtained
mini-hammer, by impactacceleration
a PCB-352C22 modal tests. sensor
The impact
and
an oscilloscope. The impact modal tester and the fixtures of samples are shown in Figure and
modal tester consisted of a PCB-086B80 mini-hammer, a PCB-352C22 acceleration sensor an
2. The
oscilloscope.
damping The impact
properties weremodal tester and
evaluated by the fixturesdamping
structural of samplesratio
are shown
which in Figure
can 2. The damping
be obtained by the
properties were evaluated by structural damping ratio which can be obtained by the
analysis of the frequency response results. Five samples were tested for each WLSP temperature analysis ofand
the
frequency response results. Five samples were tested for each WLSP temperature and their
their average value was used to represent the structural damping ratio of the WLSPed samples at this average
value was used to represent the structural damping ratio of the WLSPed samples at this temperature.
temperature.

Figure 2. Equipment
Equipment and
and specimens
specimens used in the impact modal tests.

2.4. Frequency
2.4. Frequency Response
Response Simulations
Simulations
Frequency response
Frequency response simulations
simulations can can analyze
analyze the the relationship
relationship between
between structural
structural input
input (force,
(force,
pressure, etc.) and output (displacement, stress, etc.) at different excitation frequencies.
pressure, etc.) and output (displacement, stress, etc.) at different excitation frequencies. In order to In order to
obtain the
obtain theinfluence
influenceofof RT-LSP
RT-LSP andand WLSP on the
WLSP onmaximum
the maximum displacement and tensile
displacement and stress
tensileof stress
samples,of
the frequency response process of untreated, RT-LSPed and WLSPed
samples, the frequency response process of untreated, RT-LSPed and WLSPed specimens were specimens were simulated by
ABAQUS
simulated software
by ABAQUS basedsoftware
on the structural
based ondamping ratios damping
the structural obtained in impact
ratios modalin
obtained tests. According
impact modal
to the samples in Figure 1 and their fixtures in Figure 2, a finite element model
tests. According to the samples in Figure 1 and their fixtures in Figure 2, a finite element model with with 63,752 elements
was
63,752built, as shown
elements wasin Figure
built, 3a, andinC3D8R
as shown Figureelements were used
3a, and C3D8R in the were
elements model. Theinboundary
used the model. ofThe
the
finite element model was set to the solid boundary, and the material parameters
boundary of the finite element model was set to the solid boundary, and the material parameters used in simulation
can beinseen
used in Tablecan
simulation 1. The
be seenstress
in and
Tabledisplacement
1. The stresswere and defined
displacementas output
wereindefined
the frequency response
as output in the
simulation. During the frequency response simulations, the side with
frequency response simulation. During the frequency response simulations, the side with four four holes was fully fixed by
holes
complete
was fully constraints and theconstraints
fixed by complete pressure was anduniformly
the pressure loaded
wason the surface
uniformly of theon
loaded other side, which
the surface of theis
shown in Figure 3b,c. In addition, the pressure of 100 MPa, 200 MPa and 300
other side, which is shown in Figure 3b,c. In addition, the pressure of 100 MPa, 200 MPa and 300 MPa MPa was selected in the
frequency
was selectedresponse simulations.
in the frequency Frequency
response response
simulations. curves of
Frequency RT-LSPed
response samples
curves obtained
of RT-LSPed by the
samples
experiment
obtained byandthe simulation
experimentare and shown in Figure
simulation are4.shown
It can inbe Figure
seen that thecan
4. It natural frequency
be seen that theobtained
natural
by the simulation has small differences with that obtained by the experiment,
frequency obtained by the simulation has small differences with that obtained by the experiment, which confirms that the
finite element
which confirms model andfinite
that the material parameters
element model and in this study parameters
material are reasonable.
in this study are reasonable.
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Figure
Figure 3.3.Meshing
Figure Meshing
3. Meshingelements,
elements,constraints
elements, constraints and
constraints and
and loaded pressure
loaded
loaded infrequency
pressure
pressure in frequency response
in frequency simulations.
response
response (a)(a)
simulations.
simulations.
(a)Meshing
Meshing
Meshing elements,
elements,(b)
elements, Constraints,
(b)
(b) (c)
Constraints,
Constraints, Loaded
(c)(c)
Loaded
Loadedpressure.
pressure.
pressure.

Figure 4. Frequency response curve of RT-LSPed samples: (a) Experiment, (b) Simulation.
Figure4.4.Frequency
Figure Frequencyresponse
response curve
curve of RT-LSPed
RT-LSPed samples:
samples:(a)
(a)Experiment,
Experiment,(b)(b) Simulation.
Simulation.
2.5. Residual
2.5. Residual Stress
Stress Measurement
Measurement
2.5. Residual Stress Measurement
An X-ray tube with a chrome anode operated at 22 kV and 6 mA was utilized to measure the
An X-ray tube with a chrome anode operated at 22 kV and 6 mA was utilized to measure the
An X-ray
residual stresstube
on with a chromeand
the RT-LSPed anode
WLSPedoperated at 22
surface. ThekV and beam
X-ray 6 mAdiameter
was utilized
was 1tomm.
measure
The X-the
residual
residual
stress onon
stress
thethe
RT-LSPed
RT-LSPed
andand
WLSPed surface.
WLSPedplane surface.
The X-ray beam diameter was 1 mm. The X-ray
ray source was Cokα ray and the diffraction wasThe X-ray
a phase beam
(114) diameter
plane was 1calculation.
in the stress mm. The X-
source
rayThe was
source Cokα
was Cokα
scanning ray
angle ofand the
ray2θand diffraction
wasthefromdiffraction plane
plane
161° to 154° was
was
with a phase
a phase
a step (114)
angle(114) plane
of 0.1plane in the
in athe
°/s and stress
stresstime
present calculation.
calculation.
(time
The scanning angle ofof
2θ was ◦ to 154◦ with a step angle of 0.1 ◦ /s and a present time (time per
Theper measurements)
scanning angle of2θ s.from
1.0was Infrom 161
order to decrease
161° the errors,
to 154° with a stepfive points
angle were
of 0.1 °/schosen on the surface
and a present of
time (time
measurements)
pera measurements)
RT-LSPed or of WLSPed
1.0ofs.1.0
Ins. order
sample
In orderto
to decrease
measure theresidual
the
to decrease errors,
the five
fivepoints
stress,
errors, and were
their
points chosen
average
were chosen on
value the surface
on was
the surface
chosen ofof a
RT-LSPed
as the or
a RT-LSPed WLSPed
finalorresult.
WLSPedsample to measure
sample to measure the residual stress,
the residual andand
stress, theirtheir
average value
average waswas
value chosen as the
chosen
final result.
as the final result.
2.6. Vibration Fatigue Tests
2.6.2.6.
Vibration Fatigue
Vibration FatigueTests
The vibration Tests
fatigue life was tested by a high-frequency vibration system,the parameters of
which
The are shown
vibration in Table 4. In the vibration fatigue experiment, vibration
the excitation force was controlled
The vibrationfatigue
fatiguelife
lifewas
wastested
tested byby aa high-frequency system,
high-frequency vibration system,the the parameters
parameters of of
by the acceleration of the platform. During vibration tests, the accelerated speed of the vibration table
which
whichareare
shown
shown inin
Table 4. 4.
Table InIn the vibration
the vibrationfatigue
fatigueexperiment,
experiment,thetheexcitation
excitationforce
force was
was controlled
controlled by
was set as 98 m2/s. The vibration fatigue life of the structure was studied in the resonant state (the
thebyacceleration
the accelerationof theofplatform. During
the platform. vibration
During tests,
vibration thethe
tests, accelerated
accelerated speed
speedof of
thethe
vibration
vibration table was
table
excitation frequency
2 /s.98The
was near the natural frequency). Because the natural frequency of the structure
setwas setmas
asgenerally
98 m2/s. The vibration
vibration fatigue fatigue
life of lifestructure
the of the structure
was was studied
studied in the in the resonant
resonant
decreases with the increasing loading time, this paper tested the structural natural
state state
(the (the
excitation
excitationwas
frequency frequency
near thewas near the
natural natural frequency).
frequency). Because the Because thefrequency
natural natural frequency of the structure
of the structure generally
generallywith
decreases decreases with theloading
the increasing increasing
time,loading time,
this paper this the
tested paper tested the
structural structural
natural frequencynatural
every
50,000 times, and then used it as the excitation frequency to continue the vibration experiment. Thus
we can obtain the vibration fatigue life in resonance state. The excitation frequency of the vibration
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frequency every 50,000 times, and then used it as the excitation frequency to continue the vibration
system was set
experiment. based
Thus weon
canthe first-order
obtain natural fatigue
the vibration frequency. After
life in the specimens
resonance ruptured,
state. The thefrequency
excitation fractures
were
of theobserved
vibrationbysystem
SEM (Scanning Electron
was set based Microscope)
on the first-ordertonatural
analyzefrequency.
the fatigueAfter
crackthe
growth rate
specimens
during vibration.
ruptured, the fractures were observed by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) to analyze the fatigue
crack growth rate during vibration.
Table 4. Technical parameters of vibration system.
Table 4.Technical parameters of vibration system.
Parameters Value Parameters Value
Parameters
Exciting frequency (Hz) Value
5–4500 ExcitingParameters
force (N) 2940 Value
Exciting frequency
Maximum (Hz)
acceleration 5–4500 Exciting
Maximum force (N)
peak-peak 2940
980 40
(m/s2 ) displacement
Maximum(mm) peak-peak
Maximum acceleration (m/s2) 980 Maximum speed 40
Carrying capacity (kg) <120 displacement (mm) 2
(m/s)
Carrying capacity (kg) <120 Maximum speed (m/s) 2

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Microstructure in Ti6Al4V Titanium
3.1. Microstructure in Ti6Al4V Titanium
The original microstructure of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is shown in Figure 5a. It was found that the
The original microstructure of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is shown in Figure 5a. It was found that
original microstructure was mainly composed of β grains with a little schistose α phase. Moreover,
the original microstructure was mainly composed of β grains with a little schistose α phase. Moreover,
the β grains existed in the samples with a large average diameter and the schistose α phase mainly
the β grains existed in the samples with a large average diameter and the schistose α phase mainly
appeared around β grain boundaries, which led to a low volume fraction of interphase boundaries.
appeared around β grain boundaries, which led to a low volume fraction of interphase boundaries.

◦
Figure5.5. Microstructure
Figure Microstructurein
inthe
thesurface
surfaceof
of(a)
(a)Untreated,
Untreated,(b)
(b)RT-LSPed
RT-LSPedand
and(c)
(c)350
350 C-WLSPed
°C-WLSPedsamples.
samples.

The microstructure on the surface of RT-LSPed samples is shown in Figure 5b. The results
indicate that the plastic deformation with a high strain rate greatly decreased the average diameter
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The microstructure on the surface of RT-LSPed samples is shown in Figure 5b. The results indicate
of β grains,
that anddeformation
the plastic the distribution
withofa α phase
high in RT-LSPed
strain rate greatlysamples wasthe
decreased subjected
averagetodiameter
a significant
of βchange.
grains,
It was found that the acicularα phase developed from β grain boundaries to the
and the distribution of α phase in RT-LSPed samples was subjected to a significant change. It was found internal β grains,
which
that thewas caused
acicularα by the
phase movement
developed fromofβgrain
grain boundaries
boundaries to andthethe breakβofgrains,
internal schistose
whichα phase. In β
was caused
grains,
by the acicularofαgrain
the movement phase paralleledand
boundaries each other
the break and thus many
of schistose α phaseIncolonies
α phase. β grains, were formed.
the acicular
Moreover,the α phase colonies near β grain boundaries crossed each
α phase paralleled each other and thus many α phase colonies were formed. Moreover, the α phase other and thus some
basketweave
colonies near βmicrostructures
grain boundariesappeared
crossed each around
other βand grain boundaries.
thus some Therefore,
basketweave a mixed
microstructures
microstructure composed of α phase colonies and basketweave microstructures
appeared around β grain boundaries. Therefore, a mixed microstructure composed of α phase colonies was generated by
RT-LSP in Ti6Al4V titanium alloy.
and basketweave microstructures was generated by RT-LSP in Ti6Al4V titanium alloy.
The microstructure
The microstructure in in 350
350 ◦°C-WLSPed
C-WLSPed samplessamples is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5c.
5c. It
It was
was observed
observed that
that aa
large number of α colonies crossed each other inside the β grains, which greatly increased
large number of α colonies crossed each other inside the β grains, which greatly increased the volume the volume
fraction of
fraction of basketweave
basketweave microstructures
microstructures and and interphase
interphase boundaries.
boundaries. This was because
This was because the
the elevated
elevated
temperatures during
temperatures during WLSP
WLSP promoted
promoted the the movement
movement of of grain
grain boundaries
boundaries and and increased
increased the
the plastic
plastic
strain inside the β grains, which led to an increasing volume fraction of interphase
strain inside the β grains, which led to an increasing volume fraction of interphase boundaries. boundaries.

3.2. Damping Ratio and Residual Stress

The damping ratio of samples was mainly related to the decrease of energy during vibration.
Therefore, the
Therefore, the structural
structural damping ratio ηηcan
damping ratio can be
be written
writtenas
as[19]:
[19]:

∆E
E
η == (1)
U
22πU
where ∆E
where ΔE is
is the
the decrease
decrease of energy
energy during vibration, U
during vibration, U is
is the maximum potential energy during one
vibration period. The units of ∆E
vibration period. ΔE and U are both joule (J).
The structural damping ratios of the samples treated by laser shock peening at different
temperatures areare shown
shownin inFigure
Figure6.6.It It
waswas seen
seen that
that thethe damping
damping ratios
ratios of mode
of mode 1 mode
1 and and mode
2 both2
both increased
increased with with the increasing
the increasing treatment
treatment temperatures.
temperatures. The average
The average structural
structural dampingdamping
ratios ratios
of modeof
mode
1 and 1mode
and mode
2 in 350 350 ◦ C-WLSPed
2 in °C-WLSPed samples
samples were
were 3.21%
3.21% andand 3.01%,which
3.01%, whichincreased
increased47%
47% and
and 32%
compared with
with that
that in
in RT-LSPed
RT-LSPedsamples.
samples.

Figure 6.
Figure Damping ratios
6. Damping ratios of
of the
the samples
samples treated
treated by
by laser
laser shock
shock peening
peening at
at different
different temperatures.
temperatures.

Beside
Beside the
theinternal
internalfriction
frictionininmaterial,
material,the
thedecrease
decreaseof of
energy-generated ∆EΔE
energy-generated waswas
alsoalso
related to the
related to
samples’ dimensions, fixed method and some other factors. Therefore, the damping ratio
the samples’ dimensions, fixed method and some other factors. Therefore, the damping ratio of of samples
can be written
samples can beas:
written as:

 =material +other (2)

where ηmaterial is the material damping ratio generated by internal friction, ηother is the damping ratio
induced by some other factors.
Metals 2019, 9, 746 8 of 14

η = ηmaterial + ηother (2)

where ηmaterial is the material damping ratio generated by internal friction, ηother is the damping ratio
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
induced by some other factors.
In this paper, except for the microstructure changes induced by RT-LSP and WLSP, the other
In this paper, except for the microstructure changes induced by RT-LSP and WLSP, the other
experimental conditions have not changed. Thus, it can be concluded that:
experimental conditions have not changed. Thus, it can be concluded that:
η =
ηLSP
=+ ηuntreat = ηmaterial−LSP − ηmaterial−untreat = ∆ηmaterial
LSP + untreat   material-LSP   material-untreat   material
(3)
(3)

where Δη ∆η isisthe
thedifference
differenceofofstructural
structural damping
damping ratio
ratio in LSPed
in LSPed andand untreated
untreated samples,
samples, ηLSPηuntreat
ηLSP and and
η
are are the structural damping ratios of LSPed and untreated
the structural damping ratios of LSPed and untreated samples, Δηmaterial
untreat samples, ∆η is the difference
is the difference of
material
of material
material damping
damping ratio
ratio in LSPed
in LSPed andand untreated
untreated samples,
samples, ηmaterial-LSP
ηmaterial-LSP and ηmaterial-untreat
and ηmaterial-untreat are the
are the material
material
dampingdamping ratios in
ratios in LSPed andLSPed and untreated
untreated samples.samples.
Based on the structural
structural damping
damping ratioratio of
of the
the samples
samples in in Figure
Figure 6,6,the valueofof∆η
thevalue Δη material as a
material
function of treatment
treatment temperatures
temperaturesisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure7.7.ItItwas
wasseenseenthat the∆η
thatthe Δη of mode 1 and
material of
material
mode 2 both increased with the increasing treatment temperatures. The decrease of energy generated
by internal friction was mainly decided by the movement and friction between the microstructures
in materials, such as dislocations,
dislocations, grain boundaries
boundaries and and interphase
interphase boundaries
boundaries [20].[20]. InIn Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy, there are aa large number of α and β phases,
large number of α and β phases, as shown in
shown Figure 5.Figure 5. Thus the internal
friction between the phase boundaries was the most important part of the damping damping ratioratio of Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy,
alloy, andand the
thedamping
dampingratioratioincreased
increasedwithwiththe
theincreasing
increasing interphase
interphase boundaries.
boundaries. Based
Based on
on the microstructure in Figure 5, the increasing interphase boundaries generated by 350 ◦ C-WLSP
the microstructure in Figure 5, the increasing interphase boundaries generated by °C-WLSP
significantly increased the internal friction during vibration. Therefore, the damping ratio generated
by internal friction in the 350 ◦°C-WLSPedC-WLSPed sample
sample was was much
much greater
greater than
than that
that in RT-LSPed and
untreated samples.

Figure7.7.The
Figure Thevalue of∆η
valueof Δηmaterial asaafunction
material as functionofoflaser
lasershock
shockpeening
peeningtemperatures.
temperatures.

The
The residual
residual stress
stress on
on the
the surface
surfaceofofRT-LSPed
RT-LSPedsamples
samplesandandWLSPed
WLSPedsamples
samplesisisshown
shownininFigure 8.
Figure
It indicates that high compressive residual stress (CRS) is induced by RT-LSP and WLSP in
8. It indicates that high compressive residual stress (CRS) is induced by RT-LSP and WLSP in Ti6Al4V Ti6Al4V
titanium
titanium alloy.
alloy.Moreover,
Moreover,the amplitude of CRSofdecreases
the amplitude with the increasing
CRS decreases with the treatment
increasingtemperatures.
treatment
For example, the amplitude of CRS induced by 350 ◦ C-WLSP (492 MPa) decreased about 10.2%
temperatures. For example, the amplitude of CRS induced by 350 °C-WLSP (492 MPa) decreased
compared
about 10.2% with that induced
compared withbythat
RT-LSP (548 MPa).
induced The reason
by RT-LSP was that
(548 MPa). Thehigh temperature
reason was thatduring
high
WLSP resulted in a relaxation of CRS [21].
temperature during WLSP resulted in a relaxation of CRS [21].
Metals 2019, 9, x
746
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

Figure
Figure8.
Figure Residual
8.8.Residual stress
Residualstress on the
stress on surfaceof
the surface
surface ofRT-LSPed
of RT-LSPedand
RT-LSPed andWLSPed
and WLSPed samples.
WLSPedsamples.
samples.

3.3. Vibration Displacement and Stress

3.3.3.3. Vibration
Vibration Displacementand
Displacement andStress
Stress
TheThefrequency
frequencyresponse
responseprocess
processof of untreated, RT-LSPed and350
untreated, RT-LSPed 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samplesareare shown
The frequency response process of untreated, RT-LSPedand and 350°C-WLSPed
°C-WLSPed samples
samples shown
are shown
in in
Figure 9. It was found that the maximum displacement of RT-LSPed samples
Figure 9. It was found that the maximum displacement of RT-LSPed samples was about 11.542 mm was about 11.542 mm
in Figure 9. It was found that the maximum displacement of RT-LSPed samples was about 11.542 mm
andand0.16
0.16mm mm at at
thethe
natural frequency
natural frequency ofofmode
mode 1 and
1 andmodemode 2, 2,
while
whileit it
waswas only
only7.695
7.695mmmm andand0.11
0.11mm
and 0.16 mm at the natural frequency of mode 1 and mode 2, while it was only 7.695 mm and 0.11
350 ◦in
in mm C-WLSPed
350 °C-WLSPedsamples. It can be
samples. concluded
It can that the
be concluded maximum
that displacement
the maximum of 350of
displacement ◦ C-WLSPed
350 °C-
mm in 350 °C-WLSPed samples. It can be concluded that the maximum displacement of 350 °C-
WLSPed
samples samples
is much is much
lower lower thanand
than untreated untreated
RT-LSPedandsamples
RT-LSPed samples
during during
vibration vibration
because because
of the of
increasing
WLSPed samples is much lower than untreated and RT-LSPed samples during vibration because of
the increasing
damping damping
ratio. Based ratio. Based
on Equation (1),onthe
Equation (1), the
total input total E
energy input
t canenergy Et can
be written as:be written as:
the increasing damping ratio. Based on Equation (1), the total input energy Et can be written as:
Et  E  2U  2 (11 +η)U (4) (4)
EEtt =∆E U =
E +22πU  1   UU
 22π (4)
In Equation (4), the maximum potential energy U can be written as:
In Equation
In Equation (4),(4), the
the maximum
maximum potential energy U
potential energy U can
can be be written
written as:as:
1
U  11 kX 2 (5)
U
U = 2 kX 2
kX 2 (5)
(5)
22
where k is equivalent elastic coefficient, X is the maximum displacement during one vibration period.
Thus,kk the
where
where is equivalent
is equivalent elastic
total inputelastic coefficient,
energycoefficient, X
Et can also X iswritten
beis the maximum
the maximum
as: displacement during
displacement during one
onevibration
vibrationperiod.
period.
Thus, the total input energy E can also be written
Thus, the total input energy Ett can also be written as: as:
Et   k 1    X 2 (6)
k (11+
EEtt =πk  η)XX22
(6)
(6)

Figure 9. Frequency response process of untreated, RT-LSPed and 350 °C-WLSPed samples when the
loaded pressure is 300 MPa: (a) Mode 1, (b) Mode 2.
Frequency response
Figure 9. Frequency response process
process of untreated, RT-LSPed and 350 ◦°C-WLSPed
of untreated, C-WLSPed samples when the
loaded pressure is 300 MPa: (a) Mode 1, (b) Mode 2.
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It can be concluded that the maximum displacement during one vibration period decreases with
It can be concluded
the increasing that the maximum
structural damping ratio whendisplacement
the total inputduring oneisvibration
energy unchanged.period decreases with
the increasing structural damping ratio when the total input energy is unchanged.
The vibration maximum displacement as a function of loaded pressure at the frequency of 43.08
Hz and The265
vibration maximum
Hz is shown displacement
in Figure as found
10. It was a function
thatof loaded
the pressure
maximum at the frequency
displacement of 43.08
increased Hz
with
and 265 Hz is shown in Figure 10. It was found that the maximum displacement increased
the increasing loaded pressure and decreased with the increasing WLSP temperatures. The difference with the
increasing
of maximum loaded pressurebetween
displacement and decreased with the increasing
350 °C-WLSPed samples and WLSP temperatures.
untreated samplesThe difference
increased of
with
maximum displacement betweenFor ◦
350 example,
C-WLSPed samples and untreated
the increasing loaded pressure. when the frequency wassamples
43.08 Hz,increased with the
the difference
increasing loaded pressure. For example, when the frequency was 43.08 Hz,
between 350 °C-WLSPed samples and untreated samples in the maximum displacement was about the difference between
◦ C-WLSPed samples and untreated samples in the maximum displacement was about 0.61 mm
350 mm
0.61 under the pressure of 100 MPa, and it increased to 1.81 mm when the pressure increased to
under
300 MPa. the pressure of 100 MPa, and it increased to 1.81 mm when the pressure increased to 300 MPa.

Figure 10.
Figure Vibrationdisplacement
10.Vibration displacement
asas a function
a function of of loaded
loaded pressure.
pressure. (a) Frequency
(a) Frequency = 43.08
= 43.08 Hz,
Hz, (b)
Frequency = 265= Hz.
(b) Frequency 265 Hz.

Basedon
Based onthe
theEquation
Equation(6),
(6),ititcan
canbe
beobtained
obtainedthat:
that:

k00(11+η00)X
 EEt t=πk X022
(
0 (7)
 Et = πkw (1 + ηw )Xw 2 (7)
 Et   kw 1   w  X w
2

where k0 and kw are equivalent elastic coefficients of untreated samples and WLSPed samples, X0 and
where
Xw arek0the
andmaximum
kw are equivalent elastic coefficients
of untreatedofsamples
untreated samples andsamples,
WLSPedηsamples, X0 and
displacement and WLSPed 0 and ηw are the
Xstructural
w are the maximum displacement of untreated samples and WLSPed samples, η0 and ηw are the
damping ratio of untreated samples and WLSPed samples. If it is assumed that the total
structural damping
input energy ratio of untreated
Et is unchanged and k0 issamples
equal toand WLSPed
kw , it samples. Iffrom
can be concluded it is Equation
assumed (7)
thatthat:
the total
input energy Et is unchanged and k0 is equal to kw, it can be concluded from Equation (7) that:
 |∆X| = |Xw − X0 | = (1 − α)X0

 X q X  X 0  1    X 0

(8)

1+wη0
 α = 1 + ηw



 1  0 (8)
 
where |∆X| is the difference of maximum1 

 w
displacement between WLSPed samples and untreated
samples. It can be found from Equation (8) that the difference of maximum displacement between
WLSPed
where samples
|ΔX| is theand untreated
difference samples increases
of maximum with the
displacement increasing
between X0 . Because
WLSPed samplesofand
the untreated
increasing
X0 generated
samples. It canbybethe increasing
found loaded pressure,
from Equation thedifference
(8) that the differenceof
of maximum
maximumdisplacement
displacementbetween
between
350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples and untreated samples increases with the increasing loaded pressure.
WLSPed samples and untreated samples increases with the increasing X0. Because of the increasing
X0 generated by the increasing loaded pressure, the difference of maximum displacement between
350 °C-WLSPed samples and untreated samples increases with the increasing loaded pressure.
Metals 2019, 9, 746 11 of 14
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

The maximum vibration stress as a function of loaded pressure at the frequency of 43.08 Hz and
265
265 Hz is
Hz isshown
shownin inFigure
Figure11.
11.The
Theresults
resultsindicate
indicatethat vibration
that vibration stress with
stress high
with amplitude
high amplitude appears
appears on
the surface
on the of the
surface of vibration samples.
the vibration At theAtfrequency
samples. of 43.08
the frequency of Hz andHz
43.08 265and
Hz,265
the Hz,
maximum stresses
the maximum
both appeared
stresses near the near
both appeared fixedthe
sidefixed
of the samples.
side However,However,
of the samples. the maximum vibration vibration
the maximum stress obtained
stress
at the frequency of 43.08 Hz was much higher than that obtained at the frequency
obtained at the frequency of 43.08 Hz was much higher than that obtained at the frequency of 265 Hz, of 265 Hz, which
indicates that thethat
which indicates vibration at the frequency
the vibration of mode
at the frequency 1 is much
of mode easiereasier
1 is much to result in fatigue
to result failure.
in fatigue failure.
It can also be seen in Figure 11 that that the maximum vibration stress increases with the increasing
loaded pressure. Moreover,
Moreover, the the maximum
maximum vibration
vibration stress
stress was
was greatly
greatly reduced
reduced by by RT-LSP and and
350 ◦°C-WLSP
C-WLSP compared
compared with with untreated
untreated samples.
samples. ForFor example,
example, whenwhen the the vibration tests were
conducted with aa pressure
pressure ofof300
300MPaMPaandandaafrequency
frequencyofof43.08
43.08Hz,
Hz,thethe maximum
maximum vibration
vibration stress
stress in
in untreated, RT-LSPed and ◦
350°C-WLSPed
C-WLSPedsamplessampleswere
were117.3
117.3MPa,
MPa,108.6
108.6MPa
MPa and and 97.3
97.3 MPa,
MPa,
untreated, RT-LSPed and 350
respectively. TheThe maximum
maximum vibration
vibration stress
stress inin 350 ◦°C-WLSPed
C-WLSPed samples
samples was was decreased by 17.1%
compared with untreated samples. Besides,
untreated samples. Besides, the the difference of maximum vibration stress between
◦
350 °C-WLSPed
C-WLSPed and untreated samples increased increased with
with the
the increasing
increasing loaded
loaded pressure.
pressure.

11. Vibration
Figure 11. Vibrationstress as as
stress a function of loaded
a function pressure.
of loaded (a) Frequency
pressure. = 43.08 Hz,
(a) Frequency (b) Frequency
= 43.08 = 265 Hz.
Hz, (b) Frequency
= 265 Hz.
3.4. Vibration Fatigue Properties
3.4. Vibration Fatigue
The fracture Properties of untreated, RT-LSPed and 350 ◦ C-WLSPed Ti6Al4V titanium samples
morphologies
are shown in Figuremorphologies
The fracture 12, which wereofobtained in the
untreated, crack growth
RT-LSPed and zone of fatigue fracture
350 °C-WLSPed Ti6Al4V cross-section
titanium
in the subsurface layer (about 500 microns away from the top surface).
samples are shown in Figure 12, which were obtained in the crack growth zone of fatigue It can be seen in Figure 12a
fracture
that there were
cross-section in some small dimples
the subsurface layer and many
(about 500fatigue
microns striations
away from in the
thefracture of untreated
top surface). It can besamples.
seen in
The fatigue striations were generated by periodically varying loads and the spacing
Figure 12a that there were some small dimples and many fatigue striations in the fracture of untreated between fatigue
striations
samples. Thecan fatigue
be usedstriations
to characterize the fatigueby
were generated crack growth rate
periodically [22]. loads
varying Moreover,
and the because
spacing of between
the high
vibration stress, the
fatigue striations canstress at the
be used crack tips ofthe
to characterize untreated
fatigue samples was so
crack growth ratehigh
[22].that local material
Moreover, because was
of
torn to produce dimples.
the high vibration stress, the stress at the crack tips of untreated samples was so high that local
The was
material fracture
tornmorphology of RT-LSPed samples is shown in Figure 12b. Owing to the decreasing
to produce dimples.
vibration stress and
The fracture high CRS induced
morphology by RT-LSP,
of RT-LSPed the stress
samples at the
is shown incrack
Figure tips
12b.was significantly
Owing decreased
to the decreasing
that there were few dimples in fractures. In addition, the spacing between fatigue
vibration stress and high CRS induced by RT-LSP, the stress at the crack tips was significantly striations in RT-LSPed
decreased that there were few dimples in fractures. In addition, the spacing between fatigue striations
in RT-LSPed samples was much smaller than that in untreated samples, which indicates that the
Metals 2019, 9, 746 12 of 14
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samplescrack
fatigue was growth
much smaller
rate wasthan thatdecreased
greatly in untreated samples,because
by RT-LSP which ofindicates
the highthatCRStheandfatigue crack
decreasing
growth rate was
vibration stress. greatly decreased by RT-LSP because of the high CRS and decreasing vibration stress.
The fracture
fracture morphology
morphologyof of350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples is shown in Figure 12c,d. It can be seen
350°C-WLSPed
The samples is shown in Figure 12c,d. It can be seen in
in Figure ◦ C-WLSPed samples, which was similar
Figure 12c12c that
that there
there were
were major
major fatigue
fatigue striations
striations in 350
in 350 °C-WLSPed samples, which was similar to
to RT-LSPed
RT-LSPed samples.
samples. Figure
Figure 12d shows
12d shows a locala magnification
local magnification of Figureof Figure 12c. It indicates
12c. It indicates that the
that the spacing
spacing between ◦
between fatigue fatigue striations
striations in 350in°C-WLSPed
350 C-WLSPed fractures
fractures waswas muchmuch smaller
smaller thanthan thatininRT-LSPed
that RT-LSPed
fractures, which indicates that the fatigue crack growth rate of 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples was much lower
fractures, which indicates that the fatigue crack growth rate of 350 °C-WLSPed samples was much
than RT-LSPed samples.samples.
Besides the CRS, high damping ◦ C-WLSP decreased the
lower than RT-LSPed Besides the CRS, highratio induced
damping by 350
ratio induced by 350 °C-WLSP
vibration stress
decreased during vibration
the vibration tests vibration
stress during which ledtests to a which
much lowerled to fatigue
a muchcrack
lowergrowth
fatiguerate.
crackOwing
growth to
the low fatigue crack growth rate, the vibration fatigue life of 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples was much more
rate. Owing to the low fatigue crack growth rate, the vibration fatigue life of 350 °C-WLSPed samples
thanmuch
was that ofmoreuntreated and of
than that RT-LSPed
untreated samples. After vibration
and RT-LSPed samples. fatigue
After testing,
vibration thefatigue
average vibration
testing, the
fatigue life of untreated, RT-LSPed and 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples were 793,651, 1,360,310 and 1,973,811
average vibration fatigue life of untreated, RT-LSPed and 350 °C-WLSPed samples were 793,651,
cycles, respectively. Thecycles,
average vibration fatigue life of 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples increased about
1,360,310 and 1,973,811 respectively. The average vibration fatigue life of 350 °C-WLSPed
45.1% compared to RT-LSPed samples.
samples increased about 45.1% compared to RT-LSPed samples.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Fracture
Fracturemorphology
morphology of
ofTi6Al4V
Ti6Al4V titanium
titanium samples:
samples: (a)
(a)Untreated,
Untreated,(b)
(b)RT-LSPed
RT-LSPed (c)
(c) and
and (d)
(d)
350 °C-WLSPed.
◦
350 C-WLSPed.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this
In this paper,
paper, the
the damping
damping properties
propertiesof
ofTi6Al4V
Ti6Al4Vtitanium
titaniumalloy
alloytreated
treatedbyby
laser shock
laser shockpeening
peening at
different treatment temperatures were investigated by the impact modal tests, which
at different treatment temperatures were investigated by the impact modal tests, which were were explained
by the microstructures
explained in material.
by the microstructures Moreover,Moreover,
in material. the frequency response response
the frequency process was studied
process wasby finite
studied
element
by finite simulations and vibration
element simulations fatigue properties
and vibration were investigated
fatigue properties and analyzed.
were investigated The following
and analyzed. The
conclusions can be drawn:
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Because
1. Because of ofthe
theincreasing
increasingmovement
movement of grainboundaries
of grainboundaries and and
the increasing plasticplastic
the increasing strain strain
inside
the β grains, there are more basketweave microstructures and interphase boundaries
inside the β grains, there are more basketweave microstructures and interphase boundaries appearing in
350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples than RT-LSPed and untreated samples.
appearing in 350 °C-WLSPed samples than RT-LSPed and untreated samples.
2. Due to the increasing interphase boundaries, the internal friction in 350 °C-WLSPed samples
is significantly increased and thus the material damping ratio of 350 °C-WLSPed samples is much
Metals 2019, 9, 746 13 of 14

2. Due to the increasing interphase boundaries, the internal friction in 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples is
significantly increased and thus the material damping ratio of 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples is much greater
than RT-LSPed and untreated samples. Therefore, the displacement and vibration stress during the
frequency response process are both decreased by 350 ◦ C-WLSP.
3. The spacing between fatigue striations in 350 ◦ C-WLSPed fractures is much smaller than that in
RT-LSPed fractures, which indicates a much lower fatigue crack growth rate. Therefore, the vibration
fatigue life of 350 ◦ C-WLSPed samples increases 45.1% compared to RT-LSPed samples.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.M. and J.Z.; Methodology and Software, J.L.; Validation, X.M. and
Y.Z.; Formal Analysis and Investigation, X.M. and S.H.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, X.M. and Y.Z.;
Writing—Review & Editing, J.Z. and C.S.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. BK20180881),
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Green Process Equipment (No. GPE201803), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
Funded Project (No. 2018M630526), Jiangsu Province Postdoctoral Research Grant Project (2018K014C), Open fund
for Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (No.HGAMTL-1808).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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