WATER SUPPLY

and
URBAN DRAINAGE

(Ceng 4172)

By
Alemayehu Ali
( Msc in water supply and sanitary engineering)
 COURSE CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

POPULATION FORCASTING

WATER DEMAND

SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT

INTRODUCTION TO NON-WATER CARRIAGE SANITATION SYSTEM

WASTEWATER AND STROM WATER COLLECTION SYSTEM

WATER SUPPLY PROJECT PREPARATION

 Introduction
Body composition
 Body, 65% water
 blood, 83% water
 bones, 25% water
Water loss:
 1% thirst;
 5% hallucinations;
 15% death
Basic requirements for safe water
 Drinking: 2–3 liters/day
Minimum acceptable standard for living (WHO)
 20–50 liters/capita/day for cooking and basic hygiene
Cont…
Cont…
The estimated water supply coverage for Ethiopia

 Rural _ 34%

 Urban _ 97 %

 Country coverage _ 44%.

Access to water-supply services is defined as the availability of at least 20

liters per person per day from an "improved" source within 1 kilometer
from the user's dwelling.

―improved‖ source is one that is likely to provide "safe" water, such as a

 Household connection Public standpipe

 Borehole Protected dug well

 Protected spring Rainwater collection etc.

Cont…
Water Supply Engineering
Planning
Design
Construction
Operation and maintenance of water supply systems.
Water supply system planning involves
identification of service needs
evaluation of options
determination of optimal strategy to meet services
development of implementation strategies
 The planning exercise involves
collection of pertinent data
consideration of relevant factors, and
preparation of project documents and cost estimates
Water supply system planning

Planning should be
Economical
Socially acceptable
Environmentally friendly that meet the present as well as future
requirement.
Factors to be considered
 Population
Factors affecting the future increase in the population
 Per capita Requirement
the various factors and living standard and the number and type of
industries, number and type of the commercial establishments in the town etc.
 Public places, parks, institutions etc.
 Industries
(existing industries as well as future)
 Sources of water
 Conveyance of water
from source to water treatment units depend on the relative levels
Cont…
 Quality of water
 The analysis of the raw water quality should be made to know the
various impurities present in it, and to decide on the required treatment
processes.
 Treatment works (sizes and number of treatment units)
 Pumping units for treated water
 Storage
 The entire city or town should be divided into several pressure zones
and storage facility should be provided in each zone.
 Distribution system
 The distribution system should be designed according to the master
plan of the town, keeping in mind the future development.
 Economy and reliability
Cont…
Water Supply System Objectives

Safe and wholesome water

Adequate quantity

Readily available to encourage personal and household hygiene

Water Supply Components

(1). Source (2). Treatment plant

(3). Storage Tanks/Reservoirs (4). Water Transmission/distribution
Design of Water supply System
 A municipal water supply system is used to deliver water to the consumer.

 Water is withdrawn from the source along the pipes in a pipe network
system (for computational purposes all demands on the system are
assumed to occur at the junction nodes)

 Pressure is the main concern in a water supply system

At no time should the water pressure in the system be so low that

contamination (e.g. contaminated groundwater) could enter the system at
points of leakage.

 The total water demand at each node/Junction is estimated from

residential, industrial and commercial water demands at that node. The fire
flow is added to account for emergency water demand
Water Demand Forecasting/Estimation
 In the planning of municipal water-supply projects, the water demand at the
end of the design life of the project is usually the basis for design.

 The estimation of the design flow rates for components of the water supply
system typically requires forecast of the population of the service area at the
end of the design life, which is then multiplied by the per capita water
demand to yield the design flow rate.

 Whereas the per capita water demand can usually be assumed to be fairly
constant, the estimation of the future population typically involves a
nonlinear extrapolation of past population trends.
Water Demand Forecasting/Estimation
Design Period
Design Period: - is the no of years for which the designs of the water works
have been done. It should neither be too short or too long, mostly water
works are designed for design period of 22 – 30 years.

 Factor, which should be kept in view while fixing the design period:

 Fund

 The life of the material used in project (pipes, structural materials )

 Anticipated expansion of the town

 The rate of interest on the loan taken

Population Forecasting
 Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected
population of a particular city, estimated for the design period.
 Any underestimated value will make system inadequate for the purpose
intended
 similarly overestimated value will make it costly.
 Change in the population of the city over the years occurs, and the system
should be designed taking into account of the population at the end of the
design period.
 The present and past population record for the city can be obtained from
the census population records.
 After collecting these population figures, the population at the end of
design period is predicted using various methods as suitable for that city
considering the growth pattern followed by the city.
Methods of population forecasting

Population growth models

Methods of population forecasting
 Arithmetic increase method

 Geometrical increase method

 Incremental increase method

 Logistic Curve Method

 Simple graphical method.

Cont…
Arithmetic method
 This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable
development.
 In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated
from the past census reports.
 This increase is added to the present population to find out the population
of the next decade.
 Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant rate.
Mathematically the hypothesis may be expressed as
Cont…
 k is determined graphically of from successive population figures.
 Future population is given by
Pn = Po +kn
Where, Pn = population at some time in the future
Po = present population
n = period of projection
Geometric Increase Method
 In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is
assumed to remain constant.
 Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in population.
 Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades.
 The population at the end of nth decade ‗Pn‘ can be estimated as:
Cont…
 Where, AGR = annual growth rate of the population

Pn = population at time n in the future

Po = present population

n = periods of projection

Incremental Increase Method

 This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for

an average size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be
in increasing order.

 The incremental increase is determined for each decade from the past population
and the average value is added to the present population along with the average
rate of increase.

 Hence, population after nth decade is

Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y
Cont…
 Where,

Pn = Population after nth decade

X = Average increase

Y = Incremental increase

Logistic Curve Method

 This method is used when the growth rate of population due to births, deaths and
migrations takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any
extraordinary changes like epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural disaster etc.

 The population follows the growth curve characteristics of living things within
limited space and economic opportunity.

 If the population of a city is plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained
under normal condition will look like S-shaped curve and is known as logistic
curve.
Cont…

Figure: Logistic curve for population growth

Cont…
 McLean further suggested that if only three pairs of characteristic values P0, P1, P2
at times t0 = 0, t1 and t2 = 2t1 extending over the past record are chosen, the saturation
population Ps and constant m and n can be estimated by the following equation, as
follows
Cont…
Simple graphical method
In this method the popn curve (the popn vs. year) are correctly plotted to a
suitable scale on the graph. Then the curve is smoothly extended to forecast
the future popn.
Cont…
 Example:

1. The popn in the past decays is given as follows

Year: 1930 1940 1950 1960

Popn: 9,000 13,000 17,000 23,000

Forecast the probable population number by using simple graphical method?

Solution: From the above the graph the population in the future decade

Year: 1970 1980 1990

Popn: 28,900 34,000 38,000

2. Predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041 from the following

 population data using Incremental Increase method

 Arithmetic increase method Graphical method

 Geometrical increase method

Cont…
Cont…
Cont…
Cont…
Cont…
Cont…
Cont…
Based on the 2nd growth and transformation plan

 100 l/p/c/d for category 1 towns,

 80 l/p/c/d for category 2 towns,

 60 l/p/c/d for category 3 towns,

 50 l/p/c/d for category 4 towns and

 40 l/p/c/d for category 5 towns within a 250m radius of on spot scheme [On
Spot Water Supply Scheme number]?

 Category 1 = over 1,000,000 people,

 Category 2 = 100,000-1,000,000 people,

 Category 3 = 50,000-100,000 people,

 Category 4 = 20,000-50,000 people,

 Category 5 = less than 20,000 people)

Water Demand
• Water demand is defined as the volume of water required by users
to satisfy their needs.

 Demand is the theoretical while consumption is actual

 Design of a water supply scheme requires knowledge of water

demand and its timely variations.

 Various components of a water demand are

 Residential,

 Commercial,

 Industrial,

 Public water uses,

 Fire demand and Unaccounted for system losses.

Cont…
Residential Water Demand
 This includes the water required in residential buildings for drinking,
cooking, bathing, lawn sprinkling, gardening, sanitary purposes, etc.
 The amount of domestic water consumption per person varies according to
the living standards of the consumers.
In most countries the residential demand constitutes 50 to 60% of the total
demand.
Typical Average Domestic Water Demand
Commercial and industrial water demand
 Commercial water demand:

 as hotels, shopping centres, service stations, movie houses, airports, etc.

 The commercial water demand may vary greatly depending on the type
and number of establishments.

 Industrial water demand:

 tanning, brewery, dairy, etc.

 The quantity of water required for commercial and industrial purposes can
be related to such factors as number of employees, floor area of the
establishment, or units produced.
Public water Demand
…
 The quantity of water required for public utility purposes

 Includes water for public institutions like schools, watering of public

parks, washing and sprinkling of roads, use of public fountains, clearing
wastewater conveyance, etc.

 Usually the demand may range from 2-5% of the total demand.
Typical public water demands
Fire demand
 Fire demand: - this is for fighting fire broke outs in the town.

 The high rate of water consumption during fire considerably affects the
design of distribution system.

 while designing public water supply schemes, the rate of fire demand is
sometimes treated as a function of population, and is worked out on the
basis of certain empirical formulas.

 The building materials used in the city affect the rate with which the fire
progresses.

 Empirical formulas for estimating fire demand:

1. Kuchling formula

Q = 3182 P where Q is rate of flow in lit/min

P=population in thousands
Cont…
2. National board of fire underwriters
a) For central congested high valued city:
Q = 4637 √P [1- 0.01√ P] for P <= 200,000
For P greater than 200,000 a provision of 54,600 lit/min may be made with
an extra additional provision of 9,100 to 36,400 lit/min for a second fire.
b) For residential city
i. Small or low buildings
=2,200 lit/min
ii. Larger buildings
=4500 lit/min
iii. High valued residences, apartments, tenement
=7650 to 13500 lit/min
iv. Three storied buildings in densely built up sections
Up to 27,000 lit/min
Cont…
.
 This quantity of water is made available by providing appurtenances
called fire hydrants at about 100 to 200 meters apart along the distribution
main.
Unaccounted-For Water ( Non-Revenue Water )
 This includes water lost
 System leakage,
 Water taken by illegal connections,
 Inaccuracies in metering,
 Overflowing of reservoirs, and
 Legitimate unmetered use such as fire fighting, flushing, etc.
 These losses can be reduced by careful maintenance and universal
metering.
 An amount equal to 15% of the total water production is estimated to
be lost due to waste and theft.
Cont…
 The indicator of the system performance regarding to water loss is the

term Unaccounted-for-water (UFW).

World Bank Cost Effective D.G.
Losses and unaccounted-for water (UFW)
 Depending on the age and complexity of the water supply system,
UFW can be taken as 20 – 40% of the total water demand
 20% for new schemes and
 40% for older one.
 As the schemes in the projects are assessed to new, but to be designed
for a 10 years period some 25-30% could be used.
 It is up to the designer to come up with a reasonable figure from the
recommended range by considering the different factors affecting it.
Factor Affecting Water Use
 Climatic conditions

 Cost of water

 Living Standards

 Industries

 Metering water lines

 Quality of water supply

 Size of city

 Water pressure

 The rate of water consumption keeps changing from season to season,

from day to day and from hour to hour.

 In hot season, more water is consumed for drinking, bathing and washing
clothes than in wet season.
Cont…
• The consumption of water is high at weekends and holidays than on

normal days, and also more water is required in morning and evening than
early in the afternoon and late at night.

 Seasonal variation
 Daily variation
 Hourly variations
Water Demands: Terminologies
 Average Annual Demand (AAD) - The total volume of water delivered
to the system in a full year expressed in litters. When demand fluctuates
up and down over several years, an average is used.

 Average Daily Demand (ADD) - The total volume of water delivered

to the system over a year divided by 365 days. The average use in a single
day expressed in Liters' per day.

 Maximum Month Demand (MMD) - The litres per day average

during the month with the highest water demand. The highest monthly
usage typically occurs during a summer month.

 Peak Weekly Demand (PWD) - The greatest 7-day average demand

that occurs in a year expressed in litres per day.
Cont…
• Maximum Day Demand (MDD) - The largest volume of water delivered to the

system in a single day expressed in liters' per day.

• The water supply, treatment plant and transmission lines should be designed to

handle the maximum day demand.

• Peak Hourly Demand (PHD) - The maximum volume of water delivered to the

system in a single hour expressed in liters' per hour .

• Distribution systems should be designed to adequately handle the peak hourly

demand or maximum day demand plus fire flows, whichever is greater. During peak

hourly flows, storage reservoirs supply the demand in excess of the maximum day

demand
Cont…
 Consumption rate for max day = 180% of the annual average daily

consumption
 Consumption rate for max week = 148% of the annual average daily
consumption
 Consumption rate for max month = 128% of the annual average daily
consumption
 Consumption rate for max hour = 270% of the annual average daily
consumption or150% of the max day
Cont…
Cont…
 CHAPTER-TWO

SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

Water Sources
 water is life.
 if water is not available in adequate quality and quantity it may
certainly mean death.
 There are different sources of water from which man draws for his day-
to-day activities.
 The quality and the quantity of the water however exhibit spatial as well
as temporal variation.
 The nature of the water source commonly determines
 the planning
 design and operation of the collection, purification, transmission,
and distribution works.
Cont…
 The different available water sources can be classified in two groups.
These are:

1. Surface water source, which includes

 Ponds and lakes

 Rivers

 Artificial reservoirs

 Oceans

2. Subsurface water source, which includes

 Springs

 Infiltration galleries

 Wells
Surface sources
Rainwater
 The Evaporated water from land and water surfaces, when condenses at
high altitude in the form of clouds, starts falling in the form of rain or snow
water.
 During its fall from high altitude to the ground, it absorbs oxygen, carbon
dioxide and other gases along with dust, smoke, fumes and bacteria etc.
 Therefore, rainwater contains large amounts of impurities, the quantity of
which is maximum in the first rains and minimum in the last season rains.
 The quality of rainwater falling on the open land (undisturbed
environment) or fields is better than that falling on cities or towns.
 The quality of rainwater of the last season is good and can be used after
little treatment.
Rainwater saturated with oxygen is soft, but flat to the taste and corrosive in
nature.
Cont…
 Rain is rarely an immediate source of municipal water supplies.

 Instead the capture of rainwater is confined to farms and rural

settlements, usually in semiarid regions devoid of satisfactory ground or
surface water.

 Roofs are mostly obvious choices as catchments for rainwater harvesting

and tanks located near or close to homes increase the convenience of this
system.

 Advantages of rainwater collection system over the other water supply

sources are:

a) The quality of rainwater is relatively high.

b) The collection system is independent.

c) Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rain water system

Cont…
d) No energy costs are needed to run the system.

e) Ease of maintenance by the owner /user.

f) Convenience and acceptability of water. Valuable time is saved in

collecting water

 Some disadvantages of rainwater as a source of water supply include:

a) The high initial capital cost may prevent a family from buying the
system.

b) The water available is limited by rainfall and roof area. For long dry
seasons, the required storage volume may be too large.

c) Mineral free water has a flat taste.

Lakes and reservoirs
 A lake or reservoir is any standing body of inland water.

 It is advantageous in that it is usually able to store water in wet periods

for use in dry periods.

 The quality of water is generally poor.

 Normally turbidity and bacteria are the major pollutants.

 No lake or reservoir water can be considered safe until it has been

disinfected.

 Generally it is also necessary to remove turbidity.

 It should be used only when ground water sources and controlled

catchments are not available or are insufficient or inadequate.

 Deep lakes and reservoirs may be subjected to thermal stratification

which greatly affects the quality of water.
River Water
• A stream or river is a body of running water on the surface of the earth,
from higher to lower ground.

• The capacity of rivers to serve as direct source of water supply is

controlled by rate of minimum flow per day.

• Streams generally exhibit marked seasonal variation in flow and they are
susceptible to contamination.

• The chemical nature is partially dependent on bedrock.

• Physical and bacteriological qualities are highly variable.

• Development of rivers requires a submerged intake structure and in the

case of small streams requires the construction of small diversion dams.
Water quality considerations
Water quality considerations of sources are required for the following
purposes.

 To evaluate and classify raw water quality: Based on levels of physical,

chemical, and bacteriological parameters, raw water can be classified as
having poor, fair, and good quality.

 To identify sources of pollution: Knowledge of the potential sources of

water pollution is the base for devising appropriate mitigation measures.

 Potential sources of surface and groundwater pollution include-

 Surface water: urban runoff, agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and

leachate from landfills;

 Groundwater: infiltration from pit-latrines and septic tanks, landfill

leachate, and infiltration on areas that accumulate polluting substances.
Cont…
 To assess the treatment required for beneficial uses:

 Treatment of the raw water is required to make it safe and wholesome

for drinking.

 The level of treatment and unit process required are dependent on the
raw water quality.

Source Selection

 Source selection for water supply purposes requires considerations of

factors such as hydrology, water quality, reliability, cost, an
environmental and social impacts.

 Particularly, the following considerations should be included in the study

of water supply sources.
Cont…
Consideration to be made in comparing water sources
Surface water sources Groundwater
 Safe water yield during the drought years to Aquifer characteristics
meet the projected demands
 Urbanization and land development in the Safe aquifer yield
watershed
 Proposed impoundments on tributaries Permissible drawdown
 Water quality Water quality
 Assessment of reliability in terms of possible Sources of contamination
disruptions due to natural and manmade hazards
 Requirements for construction of water supply Saltwater intrusion
system components
 Economics of the project Type and extent of
recharge area
 Environmental impacts of the project Rate of recharge
 Water rights Water rights
Groundwater
 Groundwater is an important source of water supply through out the
world.

 Its use in irrigation, industries, municipalities, and rural schemes

continues to increase.

 Ground water occurs in many types of geologic formations known as

aquifers.

 An aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient quantities of saturated

permeable material to yield significant quantities of water.

 Groundwater system includes

 springs

 infiltration galleries, and

 wells,
Cont…
 The advantages of ground water are:

 It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria

 Generally, it may be used without further treatment

 In many instances it can be found in the close vicinity of rural

communities

 It is often most practical and economical to obtain and distribute

 The water-bearing stratum from which it is drawn usually provides a

natural storage at the point of intake.

 The disadvantages are:

 Ground water is often high in mineral content

 It usually requires pumping

 The drilling work requires skilled labour and expensive equipment

Cont…
 The quality of groundwater is uniform and is free from turbidity and
colour.

 Generally, groundwater contains cations such as calcium, magnesium, iron

and manganese as well as anions like bicarbonate, carbonate, and chloride.

 Spring Water

 Spring water is a groundwater that outcrops from ground due to

impervious base that prevents percolation.

 Spring water is usually fed from sand or gravel water bearings ground
formation (aquifer) or fissured rocks.

 Best places to look for springs are the slopes of hilly sides and river
valley sand areas with green vegetation in dry season.
Cont…
 If properly protected and well managed, spring water proves to be good
for small community water supplies.

 Generally, springs are of the gravity or artesian types.

 Gravity springs

 Groundwater flows over an impervious stratum onto the ground surface

 The yield varies with the position of the water table

 May dry up during or immediately after a dry season

 Artesian springs

 High quality water due to confinement

 High discharge due to high pressure in the confinement

 Yield is likely uniform and nearly constant over the seasons of the year
Cont…
 Infiltration gallery

 Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells that collect water over

practically their entire lengths.

 When the stream beds or lake shores are sandy and gravely, the
possibilities of finding gravel pockets along a bank are excellent.

 The infiltration gallery is a simple means of obtaining naturally filtered

water, and, for this purpose, it should be located 15 m or more from the
bank of the river or lake.

 It is constructed by digging a trench into water-bearing sand, then

collecting the water in a perforated pipe or gallery which leads to a
central casing from which the water is pumped out.
Recharge of Aquifers
 Replenishment of aquifers is known as recharge.

 Unconfined aquifers are recharged by precipitation percolating down from

the land‘s surface.

 Confined aquifers are generally recharged where the aquifer materials are
exposed at the land‘s surface —called an outcrop.

 Surface waters also provide ground water recharge under certain conditions.

 When surface water loses water to the adjacent aquifer, the stream is called a
losing stream.

 When the opposite occurs and water flows from the ground water to the
stream, it is called a gaining stream.

 Properly identifying the recharge area of an aquifer is critical because the

introduction of contaminants within the recharge area can cause aquifer
contamination.
Cont…
 Globally groundwater takes 0.62% of the total water in the hydrosphere

 0.31% of the total water in the hydrosphere has depth less than 800m

 sand, gravel, and sandstones good aquifers

 Limestone and shale that have caverns, fissures or faults can also be
considered as good aquifers.

 Clay‘s ability to transmit water is very poor due to the very small particle
sizes (< 0.0004 mm).
Cont…

Aquifer is a water-bearing formation that is saturated and that

transmits large quantities of water.
Cont…
The water yield capacity of aquifers depends on different parameters
 particle size
 porosity
 specific yield
 storage coefficient
 hydraulic gradient
 hydraulic conductivity, and
 transmisivity.
Cont…
AQUIFER PARAMETERS
Cont…
 Storage coefficient (S): the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or
takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head
.

 Hydraulic gradient (dh/dx): the slope of the piezometric surface or water

table line in m/m.

 The magnitude of the head determines the pressure on the groundwater to

move and its velocity.
 Hydraulic conductivity(K): ratio of velocity to hydraulic gradient, indicating
permeability of porous media.

 Transmissivity: the capacity of an aquifer to transmit water

Cont…
 measure of how easily water in a confined aquifer can flow through the
porous media.

 T = Kb, b = saturated thickness

 AQUIFER TYPES

Unconfined and confined aquifers

Cont…
 GROUNDWATER FLOW

 Groundwater flows in the direction of decreasing head.

 Equipotential lines lines showing points having equal pressure.

 Flow direction is perpendicular to equipotential lines

Cont…
 VELOCITY OF GROUND WATER

 Velocity can be determined by Darcy‘s law

 Darcy law : Q through porous media is proportional to the head loss and
inversely proportional to the length of the flow path.

K = hydraulic conductivity and

∆ h = is the head loss which can be determined by using Bernoulli‘s equation.
Cont…
DETERMINATION OF K

 The coefficient of permeability is measured commonly in the laboratory using

a permeameter, which consists of a soil sample through which a fluid like
water is forced.
 Laboratory methods
 Constant head permeameter:

V = volume water flowing in time t through of area A, length L, and with constant head h.
 Variable head permeameter

r = radius of the column in which the water level drops

rc = radius of the sample
h1, h2 are heads at times t1 and t2, respectively
t = t2 – t1
Cont…
Cont…
 Field Methods

 Pumping test: constant removal of water from a single well and

observations of water level declines at several adjacent wells.
 This is the most accurate way
 For anisotropic aquifers, the combined horizontal hydraulic conductivity:

Where, Ki = K in layer i; Zi = thickness of layer I

 Slug test or piezometer test: the simplest method

 some volume of water is taken out from the piezometer and the subsequent rise of
the water back to its original position is recorded in time.
Cont…

Ri - inside radius,
L- the length of the screen section,
ro- the outside radius
to- characteristic time interval
Cont…
 HYDRAULICS OF WATER WELLS

 Well:

 hydraulic structure utilized to access water-bearing aquifers

 Allows estimation of aquifer hydraulic properties

 Provides direct access to ground water conditions

1) Sampling

2) Testing

3) Resource Extraction

4) Environmental Restoration
Cont…
 HYDRAULICS OF WATER WELLS

 Aquifer test: studies involving analyzing the change, with time, in water
levels in an aquifer caused by withdrawals through wells.

 Drawdown/cone of depression: is the difference between the water level

at any time during the test and the original position.
Ground
Cont…
 STEADY STATE CONDITION

 Cone of depression remains in equilibrium

 The water table is only slightly inclined

 Flow direction is horizontal

 Slopes of the water table and the hydraulic gradient are equal

 Aquifer: isotropic, homogeneous and infinite extent

 Well fully penetrating the aquifer

Cont…
 STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL-CONFINED

 For horizontal flow, Q at any radius r equals, from Darcy‘s law,

Cont…
 STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL-CONFINED

 An aquifer confined between two impermeable surfaces (aquacludes) is

called a confined aquifer and can be thought of as a very large
permeameter.

 The pressure loss due to the flow can be determined by measuring the
water level in two wells, the second one being directly downstream of the
other
Cont…
 Integrating after separation of variables, with h = hw at r = rw at the well,
yields Thiem Equation.

 Near the well, transmissivity, T, may be estimated by observing heads h1

and h2 at two adjacent observation wells located at r1 and r2, respectively,
from the pumping well.
Cont…
 STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL-UNCONFINED

 radial flow in an unconfined, homogeneous, isotropic, and horizontal

aquifer yields:
Cont…
 integrating, the flow rate in an unconfined aquifer from 2 to 1

 Solving for K

 RADIUS OF INFLUENCE OF STEADY STATE PUMPING WELLS

Cont…
Example
1. A 0.5 m well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer of 30 m depth. Two
observation well located 30 and 70 m from the pumped well have drawdown
of 7 m and 6.4 m, respectively. If the flow is steady and K = 74 m/d
 what would be the discharge
 Estimate the drawdown at the well
2. Design a tube well for the following data
 Yield required = 0.1 m3/sec
 Thickness of confined aquifer = 25 m
 Radius of confined aquifer = 250 m
 Permeability coefficient = 70 m/day
 Drawdown at the well = 6 m
Cont…
Example 3.
 Steady state flow
 Fully penetrated well of unconfined aquifer
 Saturated thickness H=25m
 Yield required = 2100 l/min
 Radius of observation well R1= 30m,R2=90m
 Drawdown in observation well S1= 5m ,S2=4m
Determine
1. Coefficient of permeability
2. transmissivity
Cont…
TRANSIENT OR UNSTEADY STATE CONDITION
Assumptions:
 The aquifer is homogenous, isotropic, uniformly thick, and of infinite
areal extent
 Prior to pumping the piezometric surface is horizontal
 The fully penetrating well is pumped at constant rate
 Flow is horizontal within the aquifer
 Storage within the well can be neglected
 Water removed from storage responds instantaneously with a
declining head
Cont…
 The governing equation in plane polar coordinates is:

Where

 h = head

 r = radial distance

 S = storage coefficient

 T = transmissivity

 Solution methods to solve the governing equation: Theis and Cooper-

Jacob methods
Cont…
THEIS METHOD

 Theis assumed the following :

 T is constant during the test to the limits of the cone of depression

 The water withdrawn from the aquifer is entirely from the storage and
discharged with the decline in head.

 The discharging well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer.

 the diameter of the well is small relative to the pumping rate so that the
storage in the well is negligible.

 Theis solution is written as:


Cont…
 The integral in the Theis equation is written as W(u):

 Therefore:

 s’ = drawdown
 W(u) = well function
 Q = discharge at the well
 S = storage coefficient
 T = transmissivity
 t = time
Cont…
 Procedure:
 Plot the type curve: W(u) vs. u or 1/u and on a log-log paper

 Plot the observed data: s‘ vs. r2/t or t/r2 on a transparent log-log paper

 Superimpose the observed plot on the type curve

 Adjust the observed plot in such a way that most of the points lie on the
type curve.

 Select one matching point and take the corresponding readings for
W(u), u, s’ and r2/t.

 Compute T from the Theis equation

Cont…
 Determine S from the equation for u ;

W(u) = – 0.5772 – ln(u) + u – u2/2·2! + u3/3·3! – u4/4·4! + …

Cont…
Cont…
For a known S and T, we can compute s’ directly at a given r from the well
as a function of time:

First compute u = r2S / (4Tt)

Then, calculate for W(u)

Finally
Cont…
COOPER-JACOB METHOD
 Theis equation applies to all times and places if the assumptions are
met but Jacob‘s method applies only under certain additional equations.
 Facts:
 At the start of withdrawals, the entire cone of depression has unsteady
shape
 After some time, the cone of depression begins to have a relatively
steady shape
 The Jacob method is applicable only to the zone in which steady shape
conditions prevail or to the entire cone only after steady conditions have
developed
Cont…
 Cooper and Jacob noted that for small values of r and large values of t, the
parameter u = r2S/4Tt becomes very small so that the infinite series can be
approximated by:
Cont…
Cont…
Replacing s by ∆s, where ∆ s is the drawdown difference per unit log cycle of
t:

The Cooper-Jacob method first solves for T and then for S and is only
applicable for small values of u (u < 0.01).
 CHAPTER-THREE

COLLECTION, STORAGE,
TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
Cont…
 Collection and distribution of water deals with the transport
of water from the source through the treatment plant to the
consumers.

 It requires

 intake structures

 transmission lines

 distribution pipe networks and

 other essential accessories.

Cont…

Intake structures
Surface water Intakes

 Intake is a structure used for safe withdrawal of water from

the source over a predetermined range of reservoir levels.

 Intakes should be located carefully. Factors governing

location of intakes are: -

 Should be located at the site where maximum abstraction of

water is possible even at the driest period of the year.

 Should be near the treatment plant so that cost of conveyance

is minimized

 Must be located in a relatively pure zone of the source.

Location of high turbulence should be avoided.
Cont…
 Should be located at the upstream of any waste disposal site.

 Should not be located near navigation channels.

 Should be accessible even during high flood seasons

 Should not be located at curves in meandering rivers

 Avoid wastewater discharge points and pollution hazard

 Enable withdrawal of water from a range of levels

 Magnitude and direction of stream or current velocities

should not affect the function and stability of the intake
structure
Cont…
 Reliable access roads and power sources should be available
 Major environmental impacts should be avoided

 Surface water Intakes

o Floating intakes
o Submerged intakes
o Tower intakes
o Shore intakes
o Pier intakes
Cont…
 Reservoir Intake
Cont…
Multi-level intake
Cont…
 Pumped river intake
Cont…
 River Intake components
◦ Major components Screen inlet
◦ Intake pipe
◦ Intake sump
◦ Suction pipe
◦ Pumps
◦ Gate and foot valves
◦ access
Cont…

 Design Criteria for intakes

 Design capacity = Q max-day

 Intake velocity should be ≤ 8 cm/s

 vertical positions intake ports should be such that good

quality water is withdrawn.

 Locate the top intake port at a distance not less than 2 m from
the normal water level and the bottom port at least 1 m above
the bottom.
Cont…

 Intake design
 Volume of sump detention time. A detention time of at
least 20min is recommended.

 At least two sumps - to avoid interruption of service.

 Height (with a freeboard about 0.5m)

 Location of the bottom of the sump should be > 1.5m below

the lowest stream level or > 1m below stream bed.
Cont…
 Example 1: River Intake design

◦ Given the following information proportion a suitable river

intake. Daily demand 5000 m3

◦ Pump capacity: 50 l/s (working 8 hr/day

Cont…

DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Cont…
 Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are
the storage reservoirs, which store the treated water for
supply water during emergencies (such as during fires, break-
downs, repairs, etc.) and also to help in absorbing the hourly
fluctuations in the normal water demand.

 Functions of Distribution Reservoirs includes

 They absorb the hourly variations in demand

 allow the water treatment units and pumps to

operate at a constant rate

 reduce the OMR costs and improve efficiency.

Cont…
 They help in maintaining constant pressure in the distribution
mains.
 In their absence, the pressure will fall down as the demand of
water increases, and if the pumps don‘t immediately respond
to it.
 The pumping of water in shifts is made possible by them without
affecting the supply.
 Thus, 8 to 16 hours of pumping can be carried out, so as to
pump the whole day‘s demand.

 The water stored in these reservoirs can be supplied during

emergencies, such as break-down of pumps, heavy fire demand,
etc.
Cont…
 They lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of pumps,
pipelines, and treatment units.

Distribution reservoir types

 Ground reservoirs

 Buried reservoirs

 Elevated reservoirs

 Stand pipes

 Can be made of

 Concrete or

 masonry

 Steel tank
Cont…
 They lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of pumps,
pipelines, and treatment units.

Distribution reservoir types

 Ground reservoirs

 Buried reservoirs

 Elevated reservoirs

 Stand pipes

 Can be made of Concrete or masonry

Steel tank
Cont…
Cont…

Elevated
concrete
reservoir
Cont…
 Purpose of Distribution reservoirs
 Equalizing supply and demand

 Increasing operating convenience

 Leveling out pumping requirements

 Providing water during source or pump failure

 Maintaining pressure levels within acceptable ranges

 Providing water to meet fire demands

 Increase detention times

 Blending water sources

Cont…
 Equalizing demand and supply
Cont…
 Distribution reservoirs
 design considerations and details Minimum capacity:
Equalizing storage + Emergency reserve (about 25%) +
Fire storage.
 Location: provide several smaller storage units
 Aesthetics: visual impacts
 Ventilation
 Overflow
 Security and safety
Cont…
◦ Reservoir capacity
Cont…
Example 1
 Design a service reservoir if Qdaymax is 2400 m3. Two
pumps are working at constant rate of 150 m3/hr. Determine
for how many hours pumping should be done

Example 2

 A water supply system is proposed to be designed for a small

town which has a maximum daily demand of 515 m3/d.
Estimate storage requirement if pumping is done for 12 hrs
only (from 4 to 16). Use the following demand variation data.
Cont…
Cont…
 Distribution systems

 Depending upon the level of the source of water and the

city, topography of the area, and other local considerations,

1. Gravitational system,

2. Pumping without storage, and

3. Pumping with storage

Cont…
Gravitational system:

 action of gravity without any pumping

 most economical and reliable

 for cities situated at foothills

Cont…
Pumping without storage:

 treated water is directly pumped into the distribution mains

without storing

 High lift pumps operate at variable speeds to match

variable water demand

 Disadvantageous (power failure) no reserve flow

Cont…
Pumping without storage
Cont…
Pumping with storage:
 treated water is pumped at a constant rate  stored in
elevated distribution reservoir distributed to the consumers
by the action of gravity
 excess water during low demand period gets stored in the
reservoir  supplied during high demand periods.
 pumps work at uniform rate high efficiency
 quite reliable (even during power failure)
Cont…

 Pumping with storage

Cont…
Cont…
Cont…