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Report 13
Volume 1.1
Proceedings of the International Conference on Deep Mixing – Best Practice and Recent Advances, Deep Mixing’05
Stockholm, Sweden, May 23 – 25, 2005
When using material from these Proceedings full credit shall be given to the conference and the author(s).
The views, opinions, and/or findings contained in these proceeding volumes are those of the author(s).
ISSN 1402-2036
ISRN SD-R--05/13--SE
Swedish Deep Stabilization Research Centre wish to acknowledge the Swedish National Rail Administration,
SSAB Merox AB and SMA Svenska Mineral AB for their generous support to the publishing of the Proceedings of
Deep Mixing ´05.
ii Deep Mixing´05
Preface
The International Conference on Deep Mixing – Best Prac- discussed important topics, covering field and laboratory test-
tice and Recent Advances (Deep Mixing ´05) was organised ing, design aspects and solidification of contaminated soils.
by the Swedish Deep Stabilization Centre. Particular empha- In one session, the results of case histories were presented.
sis was placed on the exchange of practical experience from During the conference, a Technical Exhibition was held, where
the application of dry and wet mixing methods. The aim of equipment manufacturers, consultants and contractors as well
the conference was to enhance the exchange of knowledge as material suppliers informed about their products and serv-
and to facilitate the interaction between researchers, consult- ices. An Internet Exhibition was also available at the confer-
ants, constructors, equipment manufactures and clients from ence Web site, presenting the worldwide deep mixing society.
all over the world. Following the conference, a Technical site visit with field dem-
onstrations was organised.
As a landmark event, Deep Mixing´05 was organised to docu-
ment major developments of deep mixing methods, including An important aspect of the conference was to facilitate com-
recent technical and equipment development, experience from munication on the Internet, using an interactive Web platform.
case histories in different parts of the world as well as stand- All abstracts were published on the conference Web Site.
ardisation efforts in Europe and elsewhere. An effort was made Registered conference participants were able read papers in
to bring together representatives of the deep mixing industry advance of the conference and to discuss interesting topics as
from different parts of the world and to facilitate information part of an Internet Poster Session and also exchange ideas on
exchange and discussions. deep mixing at a Discussion Forum.
The papers submitted to the conference were reviewed by a The successful planning and implementation of the confer-
scientific committee, which helped to assure a high technical ence would not have been possible without the hard work and
and scientific level. The conference organisers wish to thank competence of many individuals, as well as the support of
the authors for their excellent contributions. many organisations and companies. Their support and contri-
bution is gratefully acknowledged.
The Technical Programme comprised Regional Reports, State-
of-Practice Reports and Keynote Lectures by eminent inter-
national experts in the area of deep mixing. Invited panellists
The proceedings contain the written contributions to the In- Keynote Lectures by invited experts focus on specific topic,
ternational Conference on Deep Mixing. Best Practice and chosen by the lecturer within the scope of the technical ses-
Recent Advances (Deep Mixing’05). The proceedings were sions.
published in electronic form on two CDs as well as in printed
format. Technical Papers were accepted based on submitted abstracts.
The draft papers were reviewed by a scientific committee.
An important aspect of Deep Mixing ´05 was to establish ad- Based on the main topic addressed in the respective papers,
vance contact and interaction between authors of papers and these were assigned to the most appropriate session.
conference participants, thereby facilitating the exchange of
ideas during the conference. For that reason, a communica- Contents of Proceedings
tion tool within the Internet has been established. The conference is documented in proceedings consisting of
two volumes:
Technical and Scientific Documents
The Proceedings of Deep Mixing ´05 include Regional Re- Volume 1: Recent Advances
ports, State of Practice Reports, Keynote Lectures and Tech- Regional Reports
nical Papers. Technical Papers
Keynote Lectures
Regional Reports have been prepared by leading experts from
three regions where deep mixing methods are used extensively: Volume 2: Best Practice
Europe, Far East and North America. These reports are in- State of Practice Reports
tended to give an overview of the use of dry and wet deep Welcome and Closing Addresses
mixing methods and their applications within a specific re- List of Participants
gion. The Reports address the main topics of the conference List of Partners and Exhibitors
and a summary of methods and applications, organisations
within the region, the state of the industry, present and future Volume 2 will also include Technical Papers received after
markets, and the development of standards/manuals/best prac- the deadline of submission.
tice guidance documents. Development trends and future needs
of improvement with regard to design, equipment, materials, The two volumes include a Table of Contents and an Author
quality control and standardisation are also outlined. Index. The Technical Papers in Volume 1 are grouped in the
session topics. The papers are listed in alphabetical order, based
State of Practice Reports give an overview of current best on the name of the first author.
practice and recent advances of dry and wet mixing methods,
covering the themes of the technical sessions. The Reports Publisher
summarise best practice, based on the author’s experience, The proceedings are published by the Swedish Deep
including relevant papers submitted to Deep Mixing‘05, but Stabilization Research Centre (SD) in the SD Report series.
also on recent developments, which were presented at other
conferences and the geotechnical literature. The advantages References to proceedings
and the limitations (technical, economic, traditions etc.) of When using material from these Proceedings full credit shall
deep mixing methods are described. Future needs of improve- be given to the conference and the author(s).
ment with regard to the session themes are presented.
iv Deep Mixing´05
Contents
Volume 1.1
Preface
Regional reports
R.2 Regional Report: European Practice of Soil Mixing Technology ............................................................................. R19
Massarsch, K.R. & Topolnicki, M.
R.3 Regional Report: North American Practice of Deep Mixing Technology ................................................................ R47
Porbaha, A., Weatherby, D., Macnab, A., Lambrechts, J., Burke, G., Yang, D. & Puppala, A.J.
Keynote lectures
K.1 Keynote Lecture: Challenges of Employing Deep Mixing Methods in the US .......................................................... K3
Druss, D.L. & Yang, D.S.
K.2 Keynote Lecture: Towards a sustainable society – recent advances in deep mixing ................................................ K13
Holm, G.
K.3 Keynote Lecture: Design of deep mixing in infrastructure applications ................................................................... K25
Terashi, M.
1.2 Twenty-seven Years of Soil Mixing in Germany: The Bauer Mixed-in-Place-Technique ........................................... 11
Stocker, M. & Seidel, A.
Session 2. Field and laboratory investigations, properties of binders and stabilised soil
2.1 Stabilisation of Sulphide Soil – Laboratory and planned Full-scale Tests of Soil from Umeå in Northern Sweden ... 25
Andersson, M., Rogbeck, Y., Holm, G., Westerberg, B. & Mácsik, J.
2.2 Deformation properties of lime/cement columns. Evaluation from in-situ full scale tests of stabilised clay ..............29
Baker, S., Sällfors, G. & Alén, C.
Deep Mixing´05 v
2.3 Strength degradation and critical state seeking behaviour of lime treated soft clay .................................................... 35
Balasubramaniam, A.S., Buessucesco, B., Oh, E.Y.N., Bolton, M., Bergado, D.T. & Lorenzo, G.A.
2.5 The durability of deep wet mixed columns in an organic soil .....................................................................................47
Butcher, A.P.
2.6 Strength Characteristic of Stabilized Peat using Different Types of Binders ............................................................... 55
Hayashi, H. & Nishimoto, S.
2.9 Correlation of shear wave velocity with unconfined compressive strength of cement-stabilised clay ........................79
Hird, C.C. & Chan, C.M.
2.10 Factors Affecting Strength of Lime-Cement Columns Based on a Laboratory Study of Three Organic Soils ............87
Jacobson, J.R., Filz, G.M. & Mitchell, J.K.
2.11 Comparison of tensile strength of cement treated sand by various test methods ......................................................... 95
Koseki, J., Sato, T., Mihira, S., Takeya, N. & Yoshizawa, M.
2.12 Behaviour of Cement Treated Melbourne and Southeast Queensland Soft Clays in Deep Stabilization Works ....... 101
Kwan, P.S., Bouazza, A., Fletcher, P., Ranjith , P.G., Oh, E.Y.N., Shuttlewood, K., Balasubramaniam, A.S.,
& Bolton, M.
2.13 A laboratory study on the transition zone surrounding lime-cement columns ........................................................... 111
Larsson, S. & Kosche, M.
2.16 Statistical Analysis of Strength Data from Ground Improved with DMM Columns ................................................. 145
Navin, M.P. & Filz, G.M.
2.18 Considerations on laboratory test results of cement stabilised sludge ....................................................................... 163
Van Impe, W.F., Verástegui Flores, R.D., Mengé, P. & Van den Broeck, M.
2.19 Laboratory Tests of Stabilised Sulphide Soil from Northern Sweden ....................................................................... 169
Westerberg, B., Pousette, K., Rogbeck, Y., Andersson, M. & Norrman, T.
2.20 The Lekkerkerk Trial: Mixed-in-Place Dike Improvement in the Netherlands ......................................................... 179
Wiggers, A.G. & Perzon, J.
2.21 Developments of The CDM-Land4 Method and Case Histories ............................................................................... 185
Yoshida, T. & Kawashima, M.
vi Deep Mixing´05
2.22 Increase in strength with time in soils stabilised with different types of binder in relation to the
type and amount of reaction products ........................................................................................................................195
Åhnberg, H. & Johansson, S-E.
Author index
Volume 1.2
Session 3. Design of deep mixing applications
3.1 Lime/Cement Column Stabilised Soil – A New Model for Settlement Calculation ..................................................205
Alén, C., Baker, S., Bengtsson, P-E. & Sällfors, G.
3.4 Factors of Safety against Deep-Seated Failure of Embankments over Deep Mixed Columns .................................. 231
Han, J., Parsons, R.L., Huang, J. & Sheth, A.R.
3.5 Field Tests for Soil Improvement under Railway Lines on Soft Soil .........................................................................237
Katzenbach, R. & Ittershagen, M.
3.6 Collapse Failure of Group Column Type Deep Mixing Improved Ground under Embankment ...............................245
Kitazume, M. & Maruyama, K.
3.9 Effect of Dry Mixing (DJM) wall on reducing nearby settlements due to relatively low embankment loading .......273
Nozu, M., Ohya, T. & Yasui, S.
3.11 Stabilization of soft organic soils with cement columns using the Mixed-in-Place technique (MIP)
for a railway embankment ..........................................................................................................................................289
Schwarz, W. & Raithel, M.
3.12 Pore Pressure Response of Treated Sites due to Strong Excitations ..........................................................................297
Siddharthan, R.V., Gopalan, V. & Porbaha, A.
3.13 Factors affecting load transfer to deep mixing columns from embankments without geosynthetic reinforcement ... 305
Stewart, M.E. & Filz, G.M.
4.1 Case Study: In-situ Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Acid Waste Oil Sludge and Lessons Learned ........... 317
Bates, E.R. & Malott, V.
4.3 In situ Soil Treatment Using Deep Mixing for a Waterfront Site Contaminated with VOC and PAH ...................... 331
Fleri, M., Naguib, A., Brannigan, J. & Porbaha, A.
4.4 Remediation of ground contaminated by VOCs based on dry mixing technique (DJM) in Japan ............................ 335
Higaki, K. & Takeda, K.
4.5 Stabilisation and solidification of contaminated ground – A preliminary study ........................................................ 341
Holm, G., Rogbeck, Y. & Berglund, C.
4.7 Remediation of contaminated land of Sörnäinen, Helsinki, by using the mass stabilization ..................................... 353
Jelisic, N. & Leppänen, M.
4.8 Loss of bearing capacity caused by ettringite-induced damage in cement-stabilized soil ......................................... 357
Katzenbach, R. & Weidle, A.
4.10 The Use of ’Polymineral Clays-Based Hydro-Insulating Solution’ for Making Hydro-Insulating Screens
in the DSM Technology ............................................................................................................................................. 369
Kus´, R. & Kus´, M.
4.11 Stabilisation of contaminated sediments in Trondheim harbour – Special challenges ............................................... 375
Laugesen, J., Grini, R.S., Emaus, K., Linders, H. & Angelsen. J.
4.13 Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of soil stabilization .............................................................................. 383
Rydberg, T.V. & Andersson, R.
4.15 Laboratory tests on effect of cement content on permeability of cement treated soils .............................................. 397
Tokunaga, S., Miura, H. & Otake, T.
5.1 Levee Stability Application for Deep Mixing (1) – Design for Full Scale Test Section Using
Dry Mixed Soil Cement Columns .............................................................................................................................. 405
Cali, P., Woodward, M., Bruce, D.A. & Forte, E.
5.2 Levee Stability Application for Deep Mixing (2) – Conclusions from Test Section Using
Dry Mixed Soil Cement Columns .............................................................................................................................. 415
Cali, P., Woodward, M. & Bruce, D. A.
5.3 Mass Stabilisation in Smista Allé (2002) and Moraberg (2003) by the Cell and Block Stabilisation Methods ........ 425
Dahlström, M. & Eriksson, H.
5.4 Soil Displacements Due to Installation of Lime Cement Columns ............................................................................ 431
Hallingberg, A.
5.6 Towards Sustainable Development Process with Mass and Deep Stabilisation
– The Case of Vuosaari Seaport, Finland ...................................................................................................................449
Lahtinen, P., Niutanen, V. & Kontiala, P.
5.8 Application of Stiffened Deep Cement mixed Column in Ground Improvement ......................................................463
Mai Wu, Xin Zhao & Yuan-Ming Dou
5.9 Ground Treatment using Dry Deep Soil Mixing for a Railway Embankment in Malaysia ....................................... 469
Raju,V.R. & Abdullah, A.
5.10 DJM-PVD combined method innovation and practice in soft ground improvement .................................................477
Songyu, Liu., Yankai Wu., Zhenshun Hong & Guangyin Du
6.1 Wet Soil Mixing to Construct Soilcrete Columns for the Transfer of Large Oil Tank Loads through
Highly Compressible Deltaic Deposits ...................................................................................................................... 499
Boehm, D.W., Templeton, E. & Filz, G.M.
6.2 MDM combines the advantages of Dry and Wet Mixing ...........................................................................................509
Eriksson, H., Gunther, J. & Ruin, M.
6.3 Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM). An innovation in Soil Mixing for creating cut-off and retaining walls ..........................521
Fiorotto, R., Stötzer, E., Schöpf, M. & Brunner W.
6.4 Testing of the shear strength of cement columns by using the total sounding method .............................................. 527
Jelisic, N. & Nilsson, G.
6.5 Development of Large Diameter Deep Mixing Method with Reduced Displacement
due to Mixing (CDM-LODIC) ................................................................................................................................... 533
Kamimura, K., Kami, C., Takahashi, T. & Hara, T.
6.6 The most significant improved land areas in Helsinki using deep mixing method .................................................... 539
Kangas, H. & Korhonen, O.
6.8 On the use of CPT for quality assessment of lime-cement columns ..........................................................................555
Larsson, S.
6.9 Findings of the work on influencing factors on the installation process for lime-cement columns ........................... 561
Larsson, S. & Nilsson, L.
6.11 Down-Hole Technique improves Quality Control on Dry Mix Columns ..................................................................581
Mattsson, H., Larsson, R., Holm, G., Dannewitz, N. & Eriksson, H.
Deep Mixing´05 ix
6.12 The Project of Off-shore CDM Soil Improvement at ”Dejima District in Hiroshima, Japan” .................................. 593
Nakanishi, M. & Kurushima, M.
6.13 Reinforced Deep Mixed Columns for a Bridge Ramp Foundation in the San Francisco Bay Area .......................... 599
Parmantier, D.M., Fassett, R.A. & Porbaha, A.
6.14 Soil Cement Properties from Borehole Geophysics Correlated with Laboratory Tests ............................................. 605
Porbaha, A., Ghaheri, F. & Puppala, A.J.
6.15 Quality Assurance Practices and Protocols for In-Situ Testing of Deep Mixed Columns ......................................... 613
Puppala, A.J., Bhadriraju, V. & Porbaha, A.
6.16 3-D Quality Control System for Deep Mixing Method ............................................................................................. 621
Sato, H., Kouda, M., Osakabe, T., Mizutani, Y. & Kawamura, M.
6.17 Reduction in ground displacement by improvement of mixing tool of Dry Mixing in Japan ................................... 627
Takeda, K. & Hioki, Y.
6.18 Quality Control of Cement Deep Mixing Method (Wet Mixing Method) in Japan ................................................... 635
Usui, H.
x Deep Mixing´05
Regional reports
Regional Report: Asia
Nozu, M.
Fudo Construction Co., Ltd., 6-1 Nihonbashi Koami-Chuo, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
nozu@fudo.co.jp
ABSTRACT: In Asian region, the deep mixing method has been developed in Japan since 1960’s, and it has been widely
used in Thailand since 1998. In this report, current condition of deep mixing method and its perspective in Asian region are
described. At first, the present condition of deep mixing method is mentioned and afterward, reference manual and standards
documents, efforts for standardization, development trend, and the needs in future are shown.
1 General description of the geotechnical and drainage basin area, although the sampling procedure is not
geological conditions and regional variations. same as Japanese style. Therefore, the deep mixing method
is considered to be more suitable than vertical drain method,
The magnitude of the strength increase of treated soil by since the drain method requires quite a long time to proceed
lime or cement is influenced by characteristics and consolidation in the clay layer of south-east Asian big river
conditions of soil, since the basic strength increase delta.
mechanism is closely related to the chemical reaction (3) In Mekong delta clay, Vietnam, the low pH value (5.4
between the soil and the stabilizing agent. Japanese to 5.8) was measured (Nozu, et al, 2004, see Table 1.1).
research groups have studied the influence of the soil Figure 1.1 shows the results of laboratory mix test with
properties and concluded that the major influential factors Ordinary Portland cement and Mekong delta clay.
were acidity (pH) and organic carbon content of the original Comparing with the case of typical Japanese clay (In case
soil (Okumura et al., 1974, Terashi et al., 1979). Main of the amount of stabilizing agent: 100kg/m3, qu=1-3MPa,
factors of the original ground are as follows. 200kg/m3: qu=1.5-6MPa are expected.), the rise of strength
(1) Physical chemical and mineralogical properties of soil after mixing tends to be low. The reason is estimated that
(2) Organic content pH value is relatively low and the cement particle could not
(3) pH of pore water spread into the clay since the clay particle is extremely
(4) Water content small. Therefore, sufficient mix design and the proper
mixing procedure during Deep Mixing work is required in
Soil properties in Asian countries have been well South-East Asian region work.
investigated so far (Shiwakott, et al, 2002, Tanaka, et al.
2000). Table 1.1 shows the soil properties in Asian
countries (Tanaka, 2001 and additional data from author). Table 1.1 Soil Propeties in Asia (after Tanaka, 2001)
According to the table 1.1, it is clarified that there is some Densi Su Su/p cv pH
Ip Wn ty (kPa (cm2/da
difference between Japanese soil properties and other (%) (g/m3) ) y)
countries as follows. Japan- 28- 42- 2.62 8-40
Ariake 116 200 6.5
(1) In Japanese clay, the density of solid particle is slightly Japan- 54-77 74- 2.68 130- 0.25- 50- 200 -
small and strength increase rate (su/p) is larger than the Yokohama 100 160 0.45 7.5
Japan- 75- 78- - 20-
other country soil. The reason is caused by the difference of Hachirogata 150 207 60
clay minerals, that is, Japanese soils contain a large number Korea-
of smectite while the Singapore clay has a large kaolinite Pusan New 30-47 46-65 2.73 22- 0.2 -
port marine 38 0.3
from the results of X-lay diffraction test. In addition, it was clay
revealed from the observation of Scanning Electron Hong
Microscope (SEM) that Japanese soils contain a large Kong- Cv=80
Lantau 48-64 8-30 Ch=35
proportion of microfossils, especially diatoms. It is island
anticipated that peculiarities of Japanese clay (such as large marine clay
Vietnam- 5.4
activity, large strength parameters and low density of solid Mekong 35-64 65-95 2.67- 25 10- 60 -
particles) might have been caused by the diatom and other Delta 2.78 5.8
microfossils present in them. Thailand-
(2) In south-east Asian big river delta, such as Mekong Bangkok 41-73 41- 2.74 10-
120 40
Delta, Hong river delta, and Chao-Phraya Lowland, the
Singapore 17- 0.2-
coefficient of consolidation cv of clay layer is relatively 42-57 50-60 2.76 90 0.32
lower than the cv value in Japanese clay, and the clay
particle size is also smaller than Japanese clay. It is
considered due to the difference of river length and
Deep Mixing´05 R3
2.5
500 25
Unconfined Compression
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Cement dosage(kg/ m3) 200 10
Figure 1.1 Laboratory mix test results with
Vietnam Mekong Delta clay
100 5
2 Organisations working with deep mixing
(research, standardization, QA, marketing,
regional and international co-operation etc.)
0 0
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
Figure 2.1 shows the clarification of Japanese Deep Mixing Year
methods. In Japan, wet method has been established and put Figure 2.2 Work records of Wet and Dry methods in
into practice by PHRI (Port and Harbour Research Institute) Japan
since 1968, and dry method has been researched by PWRI
(Public Works Research Institute) since 1980. At the
present moment, wet method and dry method have been -CDM Association :
recognized as reliable gtound improvement method. Wet 8-21-1, Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Tel.+81-3-3542-8820,
method has been methods with large amount of work URL:www.cdm-gr.com
records over 60 Million m3 (see Figure 2.2). -DJM Association :
1-2-8, Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Tel.+81-3-3553-3028,
URL:www.djm.gr.jp
R4 Deep Mixing´05
Table 3.1 Main activities of conference, symposium, and research project in Asia
A.D. In Japan International Activity
1996 JGS Technical committee IS-TOKYO’96 conference,
and symposium: Research of This conference was held under the auspices of ISSMFE, TC17 and Japanese
Cement treated soil Geotechnical Society.
In the conference, keynote lectures, oral presentations, poster-sessions, and
technical exhibition were performed and those activities made great impact on
participants from Asian countries (Thailand 14, Korea 13, China 13, Taiwan 9,
Singapore 4, Saudi Arabia 3, Indonesia 1, Bangladesh 1) (Yonekura and Terashi,
1997).
The engineers from Thailand visited the technical exhibition and revised their
mixing blades similar to the Japanese mixing blade.
In addition, the western countries were influenced by the IS-Tokyo’96, and they
determined to have continuous conferences in Stockholm and Helsinki, and the
workshop in America under the auspices of ISSMGE.
The reasons of success for IS-Tokyo’96 are as follows.
-Large number of experiences have been stocked in Japan before the conference,
regarding both Dry and Wet method.
-Standard for ‘The Practice for Making and Curing Stabilized Soil Specimens without
Compaction (JGS0821)’ has been already existed.
-JGS Technical committee was very active and supported the conference
effectively. They made the core of the proceeding vol.2.
1999 Publication of ‘Design and 1996-1999, JAPAN (JICA+MOC-PWRI)-THAILAND Joint Study on Soft
Construction Manual of on- Clay Foundation
land Deep Mixing method International cooperation and technology transfer in the field of soft ground
(1999)’ edited by Public were executed. The author took part in the Joint seminars, technical manual
Works Research Center writing, and many meetings concerning deep mixing and prefabricated board
drain.
(see Miki, et al. 2000, 2004)
2002 Publication of ‘THE DEEP Deep Mixing Tokyo Workshop
MIXING METHOD’ by Around 50 engineers from all over the world took part in the workshop and
Kitazume and Terashi. visited the construction site for DJM and CDM.
2003 JGS Technical committee on International Symposium 2003 on Soil/Ground Improvement and
Research of properties and Geosynthetics in Waste Containment and Erosion Control Applications,
test procedure for Cement AIT Conference Center, Bangkok, Thailand
treated soil was set up. The examples of Deep Mixing, Pile loading test for confirming deep mixing pile
strength, and behavior of self-retaining wall in Thailand, were discussed.
2004 The Fifteenth Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Bangkok,
Thailand was held under the auspices of ICSMGE, Southeast Asian
Geotechnical Society.
There were some presentations regarding Deep Mixing methods.
4 Standardisation work and relevant It was written by Dr. Kitazume, Dr. Terashi, and Japanese
documents engineers at the forefront of deep mixing field. The table of
contents is as follows.
In Asian countries, standardization work and information Chapter 1 Outline of the Deep Mixing Method
exchange have been implemented in this decade. Four Chapter 2 Factors Affecting Strength Increase
activities worthy of special mention are described as Chapter 3 Engineering Properties of Treated Soils
follows. Chapter 4 Applications
Chapter 5 Design of Improved Ground by DMM
(1) Publication of THE DEEP MIXING METHOD Chapter 6 Construction Procedures and Control
(Kitazume and Terashi, 2002) Moreover, in appendix, the Japanese standard ‘Summary of
This book have been edited by COASTAL the Practice for Making and Curing Stabilized Soil
DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Specimens without Compaction (JGS0821)’ is described in
(CDIT), JAPAN and published by A.A. Balkema detail and looks valuable for all engineers who concern the
Publishers, a member of Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers. deep mixing method.
Deep Mixing´05 R5
(2) MANUAL FOR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION (4) AIT report for ground improvement (1994)
OF CEMENT COLUMN METHOD (1998) This is the technical report written by Prof. A.S.
International cooperation and technology transfer in the Balasubramaniam and Prof. D.T. Bergado in Asian
field of soft ground were executed in the framework of Institute of Technology (AIT), in which the design and
JAPAN (JICA+MOC-PWRI)-THAILAND (Department of construction procedure for Vertical Drains, Granular Piles,
Highway) Joint Study on Soft Clay Foundation (Leader: Dr. Lime/Cement Deep Mixing Method, and Mechanically
H. Miki in PWRI, 1996-1999). stabilized earth (MSE) embankment/walls are described.
The Manual was written by author and other And the results of test construction in the site of AIT are
members in this international cooperation (see Miki, H, included.
et al. 2000, 2004). *D.T. Bergado, J.C.Chai, M.C.Alfaro and A.S.
The table of contents is as follows. Balasubramaniam (1994), Improvement Techniques of
Chapter 1 Introduction Soft Ground in Subsiding and Lowland Environment,
Chapter 2 Design A.A.BALKEMA
Chapter 3 Construction
In addition, Specification example of Deep Mixing work in
Thailand is attached in the manual for the reference. 5 General application of deep mixing methods
(wet and dry) within various parts of the
(3) TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND region (which are most common, reasons,
COMMENTARIES FOR PORT AND HARBOUR limitations etc.)
FACILITIES IN JAPAN
This Technical Standards were translated in English and Soft clay deposits of Southeast Asia are shown in figure
have been sold by THE OVERSEAS COASTAL AREA 5.1. According to this figure, soft clay is widely spread
DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE OF JAPAN (OCDI). especially in Large River Delta, and the potential demand
The Deep Mixing method is the part of the standards. It of ground improvement will be increased due to supplying
is able to be purchased on the following web-site (660
the infrastructure.
pages, USD300).
Table 5.1 shows the application of Deep Mixing
http://www.ocdi.or.jp/en/info/public.html methods for each Asian country
Table 5.1 General application of Deep Mixing for each Asian countries
Nations Type of Diameter Maximum Main purpose and Construction records
Mixing (m) depth
Japan Wet 1.0-1.6 50m Many kinds of purposes, such as port structure (quay-wall, breakwater)
(-70m, from foundation, Self standing retaining wall, building foundation, anti-liquefaction
sea level, with lattice type pile arrangement, and so on
off-shore)
Dry 1.0-1.3 33m Road embankment and river dike foundation for increasing stability and reducing
settlement.
It is difficult for Dry method to be applied in the sandy layer with low natural
water content, less than 30%.
Thailand Wet,Dry 0.6 20m Road embankment foundation for increasing stability and reducing settlement.
Application for self standing retaining wall is now considering for some projects.
Korea Wet 1.0 Not so many cases
Singapore Wet 1.0-1.3 20m or less self standing retaining wall for excavation work for building foundation, Not so
many cases
Vietnam Wet 0.6-1.3 30m or less Road embankment and river dike foundation for increasing stability and reducing
settlement
6 Typical applications of wet mixing wet-type DMM from 1977 to 1998 reached 38 million
respectively (foundation engineering cubic meters. Figure 6.2 shows a comparison of the treated
applications on land, marine and offshore, soil volumes between on land application and marine
earthquake and soil dynamics, and application. For on land applications, the method has
environmental applications). mainly been applied to improve slope stability, to prevent
building subsidence and to improve the bearing capacity of
Figure 6.1 shows the main applications for deep mixing
method. foundations. In approximately 50% of marine applications,
In Japan, the accumulative volume of treated soil using it has been applied to improve the foundations of
revetments.
R6 Deep Mixing´05
;
Fukishima Port
Yodo river
Haneda airport
Figure 6.2. Volume of treated soil for on land and marine applications.
Deep Mixing´05 R7
Among a lot of previous applications of DMM in Japan controlled to be within 60 minutes after mixing. The
and Thailand, five examples are selected and briefly Global Positioning System (GPS) was applied for
introduced in this section:, Breakwater Construction positioning the DM barge because optical survey
Project at Fukushima Port, Yodo River Dike Project equipment could not be used during heavy snowy weather.
(Countermeasure against liquefaction), Self standing Although the improvement work was sometimes
retaining wall in Haneda airport, building foundation, and interrupted by heavy storms, the construction work was
Road embankment in Route 34, Thailand, (Kitazume, completed successfully with relatively slow progress.
Terashi,, 2002).
R8 Deep Mixing´05
Figure 6.9 Long rod type deep mixing machines
So far, the grid type deep mixing method (TOFT) has been -2.5m
in great success against liquefaction. For example, in
Hyogoken-Nanbe earthquake 1995, Kobe oriental hotel Excavation DMM
had no damage due to application of TOFT, while outside -11.7m
of hotel has sand liquefaction. In addition, reduction effect
for generating excess pore water pressure was observed in
Niigata during the earthquake.
Recently, long rod type deep mixing machines have
been developed and widely used for river-dike stability -23.3m
increase in Kanto-area, Japan (see Figure 6.9).
Figure 6.10 Typical cross section of Haneda DMM
wall
Deep Mixing´05 R9
(4) Building foundation
In recent Japan, DMM has also been employed for building
foundation shown as figure 6.14. In this application, the
quality of unconfined compression strength and its
uniformity are highly requested comparing the case of
other structures. Japanese Architectural Society has
published the standards of deep mixing application for
building foundation.
Figure 6.16 Time Settlement relationship on ground between and above columns
1:1.8 H=8m
(a)Conventional type
(b)LiDM
7 Typical applications of dry mixing Table 7.1 Settlement estimation for LiDM
respectively (foundation engineering Total settlement Differential settlement
applications on land, marine and offshore,
earthquake and soil dynamics, and Surface No surface
environmental applications). Improvement* Improvem
1)
ent
Dry type deep mixing method has been applied for the Floating (a) Estimate (b) FEM*2) (b)FEM*2)
foundation of road embankments or river dikes. Recently, type Young modulus of (d) New (d) New
as a measure to reduce lateral deformation and settlement composite ground Modeling of Modeling
due to road embankment loading on the soft clay ground, and stress loading (Miki of loading
the column type Deep Mixing method used at a low distribution in the 2004 b) (Miki
improvement ratio of around 10-20% (LiDM by Miki, unimproved area 2004 b)
2004) has been found to have sufficient performance and to End (c) Modeling of (b) FEM*2) (c)Modeli
save total costs in Japan. bearing loading between (d) New ng of
(1) Design procedure of LiDM type each columns Modeling of loading
The main features of this method can be summarized as (improved (Miki. 1997) loading (Miki (Miki.
follows: up to the 2004 b) 1997)
Since the whole bottom surface of embankment is bottom of
improved all over, shear deformation toward outside of layer)
embankment due to settlement at the center part can be *1) The case that the ground surface is improved by such
reduced compared with the conventional type (Figure 7.1). as shallow stabilization.
Since the volume of embankment can be saved due to *2) Soil-water coupled two-dimensional FEM analysis
sufficient reduction of settlement, LiDM is considered to using such as Cam-Clay model is considered to be
be environment-friendly. available for these cases.
{ }
Total embankment
Cc σ '+ q volume(m3) = (λ + d ) ⋅ H , λ :Distance between
2
∆h2 = H 2 log10 v 0 2 ………….(7.2)
1 + e0 σ v0 ' columns(m), ∆P :Total embankment load(kN/m2),
∆Pc :Embankment load acting on unimproved
Where, q2: total load at the center depth of unimproved part(kN/m2),d: Diameter of column(m), θ :Shearing
layer=(DL+LL)/(B+H2/2), H2:thickness of unimproved angle (θ = 90 − φ ), φ :Friction angle of embankment
layer (m). Therefore, total settlement can be calculated material(degree), Vc: Embankment volume acting on
from, ∆h = ∆h1 + ∆h2 . unimproved part(m3), H: Embankment height (m).
According to the newest information such as monitoring
(b) Differential settlement in Floating type data, it was clarified that similar calculation procedure with
improvement: “FEM” high θ is available for estimating the load distribution in
Soil-water coupled FEM analysis using such as Cam-Clay case of floating type deep mixing (Miki, 2004 b).
model is considered to be available for these cases.
Settlement of improved part should be obtained as follows:
∆Pp
Sp = ⋅L
E
E = 100 ⋅ qu
Vp ⋅γ
∆Pp =
π (d / 2) 2
Figure 7.3 Dry type machine for two rods type Figure 7.5 Dry type machine under construction
Inner
tube
Vinyl
tube
Figure 7.7 Mixed column with Dry mixing Outer
tube
8 Quality Control
Topolnicki, M.
Keller Polska Sp. z o.o., Gdynia, Poland
mtopolnicki@keller.com.pl
ABSTRACT: Europe has a diverse topographic, social and economic structure. The geological and geotechnical setting is
complex, with difficult geotechnical conditions in many urbanized areas. The geological and geotechnical conditions in
European countries are described. The evolution and recent developments of deep and shallow soil mixing methods are
presented, covering dry and wet mixing methods. The practical application of deep and shallow mixing is discussed. Based
on the European standard on deep mixing, prEN 14679, design and execution aspects are addressed and illustrated by
examples. The activities of European organizations and regulatory agencies, which are of relevance for the execution of
deep mixing, are listed. An overview of the geo-hazards in the European region, for the mitigation of which deep mixing
could be applied, is given. Recent conferences and the RTD activities of organizations, institutions and authorities are
summarized. An overview is given of typical deep mixing applications in Europe. Finally, market shares of soil mixing
methods and future RTD needs are addressed.
Porbaha, A.
California State University, Sacramento, California, USA
porbaha@ecs.csus.edu
Weatherby, D.
Schnabel Foundation Company, Sterling, Virginia, USA
dave@schnabel.com
Macnab, A.
Condon-Johnson & Associates Inc., Tukwila, Washington, USA
amacnab@condon-johnson.com
Lambrechts, J.
Wenworth Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
lambrechtsj@wit.edu
Burke, G.
Hayward Baker Inc, Odenton, Maryland, USA
gkburke@haywardbaker.com
Yang, D.
Raito, Inc, San Leandro, California, USA
dsyang@raitoinc.com
Puppala, A. J.
University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, USA
anand@uta.edu
ABSTRACT: This document, requested by Deep Mixing 05 conference officials, presents the state of the practice of deep
mixing technology in North America. The contents include a brief historical perspective, typical soil deposits, mixing
process and machinery, organizations involved with deep mixing, major related events in the last five years, guide
documents developed by various organizations, general application categories, typical wet and dry mixing projects, research
and future development needs, market share, and future expectations.
Years
Society of Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering;
and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Figure 2: Deep mixing papers published in Geo- Journal of Infrastructure systems, covering basic concepts,
Institute annual conferences (Courtesy of A. Puppala) applications, material characterization, design, construction
and quality control. Here is the list:
Flood control for levee Extending the crest level of an existing dam
Geotechnical investigations recommended installation of a A deep mixed cutoff wall was constructed to extend the
cutoff wall system for Sacramento river in California to crest level of an existing dam site in Dayton, Ohio to reach
control seepage and prevent sudden levee failure due to the maximum probable flood levels anticipated by the Ohio
piping during flood conditions. The improved section of the State Department of Natural Resources. The 21 m (69 ft)
flood control levee was mainly composed of loose to high, 1950 m long Lockington Dam is founded on
limestone bedrock. The top 1.5 to 4 m (4.92 to 13.12 ft)
TCE Remediation
A pilot-scale permeable reactive barrier (PRB) system was
installed in 1999 to remediate the heavily contaminated
subsurface at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch
Complex 34. This site was used for Saturn rocket launches
between 1959 and 1968. Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
Figure 28: Deep Mixing for dam reinforcement is located on an island on the eastern coast of central
(Provided by D. Weatherby) Florida, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the
Banana River on the west. The soil immediately below the
Liquefaction mitigation of river bank surface consisted of medium to fine sands with some shell
The investigation for Napa Yacht Club Project in California and silt. The soil was primarily sandy with shell fragments
revealed that a sandy soil layer underlying the levee fill and traces of silts to depths up to 9.14 m (30 ft). Below 9.14
along approximately 222 m (730 ft) of waterfront property m (30 ft), the soil was stratified with layers of clay and fine
was susceptible to liquefaction during an earthquake. DM sands. Beyond a depth of 30.4 m (100 ft), limestone
was proposed and designed in order to stabilize the soil fragments ranging from 20-50% were found within the clay
along this portion of the lagoon. and sandy soils. Ground-water level was 0.91- 2.13 m (3 to
7 ft) below the surface. Major ground-water contaminants
of concern were trichloroethylene (TCE) (0.005-29 mg/L)
and daughter products of biological degradation of TCE:
trans-dichloroethylene (0.25 to 0.8 mg/L) and cis-
dichloroethylene (14-44 mg/L). The PRB system consisted
of a series of 11 overlapping columns (each about 1.22 m (4
ft)) in diameter that contained a mixture of Fe0 (16% by
weight), native soil (79% by weight), and gravel (5% by
weight). The total barrier length was about 12.19 m (40 ft).
The PRB was installed to a depth of about 12.19 m (40 ft)
below ground, ending just above an impermeable clay
stratum, and was keyed into a clay layer that was about
12.19 m (40 ft) below ground. Use of the DM presented
Figure 29: DM for levee reinforcement (Courtesy of A. some construction challenges related to iron placement,
Macnab) since this was the first application of the technique. These
were solved in field. Monitoring data suggest that removal
The intent of the DM was to create a 10.7 m (35 ft) deep, of the chlorinated solvents challenging the wall has been
1.8 m (6 ft) wide strip of stabilized soil with the dual successfully occurring. TCE and its daughter products are
purpose of resisting a slip failure of the weaker material at non-detectable levels within the wall and are declining in
into the lagoon, and creating a foundation for a flexible downstream wells, with the exception of vinyl chloride.
retaining wall system along the top of the bank. The Sufficient mixing during PRB construction is recommended
Engineer specified minimum 483 kPa (70 psi) unconfined to provide sufficient iron throughout the treatment barrier
compressive strength based on 28 day curing of soil-cement capable of complete destruction of TCE and all daughter
columns to achieve these goals. Soil-cement was sampled products.
wet from the spoils. The DM columns installed were 0.6 m
(2 ft) diameter by 10.7 m (35 ft) long. They were installed
Familiarity/ Comfort
Insufficient User
from standard limit pressure analysis and inverse model
Users
analysis indicated significant confidence in the strength Providers
gain in the columns. Researchers
SUM
Foundation of MSE wall
Lime-cement columns were used to support a mechanically
Engineering
stabilized earth (MSE) wall located along the west bound I-
Needs
80 (Esrig et al 2001). The wall height ranges from 10 to
12.5 m. The top 12 m depth of subsurface strata included
relatively uniform Bonneville clay (OCR below 3) with
intermittent sand layers. This layer is followed by a 2 m
Factors
Market
thick medium to dense sand stratum overlying a 10 m thick
sand and clay layers with silty zones. Ground water table at
this location is observed at an elevation of about 3 m below
grade. Based on the results of preliminary laboratory
investigations, a mixture of 85% cement and 15% lime at 0 40 80 120 160 200
125 kg/m3 was chosen. The MSE wall was supported on Percentage of Respondents (%)
panels of overlapping 800 mm columns approximately 22m
Figure 31: Barriers for implementation
long for the full width of the wall. The performance was
monitored and inclinometer readings with time show a
Insufficient User Familiarity/Comfort
maximum settlement of 100 mm after a period of 5 months
a) Lack of Familiarity by CE (Civil Engineering) Practice
while the estimated settlement was 200 to 300 mm.
b) Lack of Reported Case Histories
c) Resistance to New Technologies
Stabilization of organic deposit for tunnels & open cuts
d) Lack of Formal Education
This project involved constructions in portions of tunnels
and open cuts for the BART extension to San Francisco 60
Airport, constructed over and within the soft organic clay
deposit locally known as Young bay mud. Stabilization of
Percentage of Total Respondents (%)
50
this weak material was required to ensure the stability of
retaining structures and avoid settlements. Laboratory
40
investigations revealed subsurface conditions comprising of
a highly variable stratum with water contents about 150%
and liquid limit varying from 60 to 105%. Organic contents 30
(QA/QC)
Users
30 Providers
Percentage of Total Respondents (%)
Researchers
25 SUM
Stabilized Soil
20
15
Analysis &
Design
Issues
10
Specifications
0
Lack of Lack of Lack of Lack of
Tools: Tools: Guidelines/ Tools: Mix Env.
Design & QA/QC & Mix Standards Concerns
Design
Analysis Uniformity
Properties
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Figure 33: Engineering needs Percentage of Respondents (%)
40 60
35
Percentage of Total Respondents (%)
50
Percentage of Total Respondents (%)
30
25 40
20
30
15
10 20
5
10
0
Cost Immature Non- Mobilization
Relative to Market Standard Cost &
Other 0
Performance Equip. Improved Early
Methods Improved
of Methods Availability standards/ Indicators
QA/QC
Testing Tools Guidelines of Quality
Figure 34: Market factors
Figure 36: Quality assessment (QA/QC)
Research needs
• Quality Assessment (QA/QC)
• Properties of Stabilized Soil
• Analysis & Design Issues
• Specifications
35
20
15 15
10
5
10
0
Better Incorporating Seismic Large Improved Interact
Simple Heterogeneity Perform Scale Analysis ion
Design & Uncertainty ance Validati & Issues
Guidelines into on Modeling
5
Design Testing Tools
0 Specifications
Basic General Long Dura-
Problem Effect Reduced Misc. a) Mixing Mechanics & Specification
Stress- Design Term bility &
Soils of b) Construction Specification / Inspection
Env.
Strain- Guide- Stre- Freeze/ Admix-
Impacts
Stiffness lines ngth Thaw tures
Behavior
54
Percentage of Total Respondents (%)
Jasperse, B.H and Ryan, C.R. (2003). “In situ stabilization Porbaha, A. (1998) State-of-the-art in Deep Mixing
of contaminated soils by soil mixing.” Geotechnical Special Technology, Part I: Basic concepts and overview of
Publication No. 120, ASCE, New Orleans, Louisiana. technology, Ground Improvement, Journal of International
Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Lambrechts, J.R., Roy, P.A. and Wishart, E.J. (1998). Vol. 2, No. 2, 81-92.
“Design conditions and analysis methods for soil-cement
buttresses in fort point channel.” Geotechnical Special Porbaha, A., Tanaka, H., and Kobayashi, M. (1998) State-
Publication No. 83, ASCE, Boston, Massachusetts, October of-the-art in Deep Mixing Technology, Part II:
18-21, 1998, pp 153-174 Applications, Ground Improvement, Journal of
International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Lambrechts, J.R., Ganse, M.A and Layhee, C.A (2003).
Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 3, 125-139.
“Soil mixing for organic clay stabilization for I-95
widening, VA.” Geotechnical Special Publication No. 120,
ASCE, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 10-12, 2003, pp Porbaha, A., Zen, K., and Kobayashi, M.(1999) Deep
575-585. mixing technology for liquefaction mitigation, Journal of
Lambrechts, J.R and Nagel, S. (2003). “Coring soil cement Infrastructure Systems, ASCE, March issue, Vol.5, No.1,
installed by deep mixing at Boston’s CA/T project.” 21-34.
Geotechnical Special Publication No. 120, ASCE, New
Orleans, Louisiana, February 10-12, 2003, pp 670-680. Porbaha, A. Shibuya, S., and Kishida, T. (2000) State-of-
the-art in Deep Mixing Technology, Part III: Geomaterial
Martin, G.R., Arulmoli, K., Yan, L., Esrig, M.I and Capelli, characterization of deep mixing, Ground Improvement,
R.P. (1999). “Dry mix soil cement walls: An application for Journal of International Society of Soil Mechanics and
mitigation of earth quake induced ground deformations in Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 3, 91-110.
soft and liquefiable soils.” Proc of Dry Mix Methods for
Deep Soil Stabilization, Rotterdam. Balkema pp. 37-44 Porhaba, A., and Roblee, C. (2001). Challenges for
implementation of deep mixing technology in the US,
Martin, J.R., Olgun, C.G., Mitchell, J.K. and Durgunoglu, International Workshop on Deep Mixing Technology for
H.T. (2004) High modulus columns for liquefaction Infrastructure Development – Current Practice & Research
mitigation. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Needs, published by the NDM program, 2 Volumes,
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 130, No. 6, June 2004, pp. 561- Oakland, California.
571
HI
Yang, David S.
Raito Inc., 1660 Factor Avenue, San Leandro, CA 94577
dsyang@raitoinc.com
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the technical challenges of employing wet mixing methods in the US. The DMM
industries in Japan and Scandinavia are substantially more evolved than in the US. Common difficulties which face DMM
contractors in the US are described. There exist significant commercial and market factors in the US which inhibit the
proliferation of DMM. Insufficient understanding of the DMM installation process, applicable design approaches, and
evaluation of the product tend to contribute to difficulties encountered.
Deep Mixing´05 K3
2.2 Management Induced Difficulty In a broader perspective, there does not exist a
DMM for ground treatment is usually is selected as an consensus in the US engineering community regarding the
alternative to resolve some geotechnical challenges that best suited test methods to be employed for confirmation of
conventional ground improvement methods might not be compliance with specified strength parameters. Specifically,
suitable to resolve. The process of selection might be the relative merit of coring the cured elements versus testing
complicated and controversial in projects involving multiple of wet grab samples is frequently debated. As addressed
designers and consultants from multiple organizations. later in the paper, there has yet to exist accepted industry
Sometimes disagreements remain through the design phase standards for deep mixing methods. The absence of
and perpetuate during construction. Under this standards remains a formidable barrier to the proliferation of
circumstance, any items related to DMM could be subject to DMM in the US. There is very limited incentive for owners
elevated scrutiny and the contractor frequently needs to face to initiate or accept proposals for the use new technology.
unnecessary challenges toward DMM work. Some minor Absent any industry standards, a construction method will
professional disagreements could be naturally transformed or remain classified as a new technology in the eyes of selected
driven to become major project difficulties, which in turn owners and will not be considered a viable alternative.
would impose unexpected and frequently wasteful financial The DMM contractor should be fully responsible for
burdens to the DMM contractor. For large scale projects, unacceptable soil-cement product if the defects are the
this situation could generate tension due to the potential for results of inadequate construction quality control.
major claims, or even law suits, since it is expected that the Nevertheless, difficulty may still occur in the acceptance
contractor considers he is receiving inadequate treatment. process. Engineering judgment is an essential part of
This kind of tension creates a hostile relationship among the specification interpretation and construction evaluation. An
organizations involved in the project and make the project inspector with insufficient experience in soil-cement might
execution more difficult. apply his knowledge in concrete as a basis to evaluate soil-
cement. The lack of understanding in the inherent difference
2.3 Specification Induced Difficulty of engineering properties of soil-cement and concrete tends
DMM produces in-situ soil-cement material that has to generate misunderstanding and uncertainty toward the
engineering characteristics which are between soil and soil-cement product, which the inspector must evaluate.
concrete and behaves differently from either soils or Consequently, the specification requirements are interpreted
concrete. It is also a material unfamiliar to designers and in a very stringent fashion and cause difficulty to the
inspectors. Engineers may use and specify some engineering contractor in the execution of DMM work. Please note that
properties which are very difficult to achieve. Inappropriate the DMM specification is always written and issued by the
engineering properties might be used in design. Properties owner, which usually is protective and provides more
could also be selected from the literature without considering authority to the owner in controlling the DMM work. The
specific project conditions, such as subsurface soil intent is understandable, however, the misuse could be very
conditions, or based on simplified laboratory testing data harmful to both the contractor and owner.
without a keen understanding of the difference between the
data obtained from the bench scale study and from full-scale
production in the field. The communication between the 3 MARKET AND COMMERCIAL FACTORS
designers with experienced and reputable DMM contractors
would minimize this difficulty. When the difficult or 3.1 Regional Demand for DMM Technology
inadequate requirements remain in the specification, it is A comparison of the size of the wet and dry mixing
very difficult to revise or amend after the project award since industries in various regions of the world is indicative of the
the specification becomes the project contract document and state of practice and acceptance of the technology. The
the project difficulty could be expected to rise. following statistics are an indication of the size of the DMM
markets in Scandinavia, US, and Japan. Given the multiple
2.4 QA/QC Induced Difficulty entities that have compiled statistics on ground treatment, it
In several US projects the variability of test results, coupled is not possible to provide consistent comparisons.
with the occurrence of data points which fell below the
minimum strength requirement gave the owners an Dry Mixing:
unrealistically negative assessment of the quality of the in- Japan, cumulative quantity 1980 - 2004: 26,243,000 m3
situ product. In all cases, the DMM contractor disputed the (Japan DJM data )
evaluation of the owner. In order to reach concurrence on Sweden, 2003 annual volume: 587,000 m3 (SGI)
the evaluation of the final product substantial amounts of United States, cumulative from 1996 to present: No data.
supplemental testing was performed. In one case the <500,000 m3 (estimated by authors)
confirmatory testing option was restricted to coring, which is Wet Mixing:
time consuming and costly. The work was ultimately Japan, cumulative through 2004: 55,000,000 m3 (from CDM,
accepted, however the owner was left with a negative Japan)
perspective of DMM technology because of the difficulties United States, cumulative through 2004: < 3,500,000 m3
experienced in testing and verification. In another case (DFI, 2004)
where the quality of the ground treatment was the subject of The necessity for infrastructure and commercial
dispute, the owner ultimately abandoned deep mixing for an development in zones of very poor soils in Scandinavia and
alternate means of completing the work. Japan, for example, far exceeds that of the United States.
K4 Deep Mixing´05
Thus, the deep mixing industry originated and flourished in solutions as the contract design. Additionally, crucial
these regions long before reaching the US. aspects of construction staging do not become evident or
Scandinavia: In the Scandinavian countries, population known until construction begins. As the site, budget and
centers lie within lowlands which consist of soft clay, peat, schedule constraints develop and evolve, the need can and
and gytta (lacustrine) deposits. Additionally, railroads and does arise to change the design. Occasionally, the actual
highways must traverse great expanses of poor soils to construction method reverts to one which was previously
connect cities and towns. Since the soils have very low evaluated by the owner. Another, and unfortunate, reason
strength and are highly compressible, ground treatment for diverting from a DMM design is that the product was not
generally represents the best suited means of construction of meeting the expectations, either realistic or unrealistic, of the
highway and rail facilities in the prevailing surficial geology. owner and a mutually satisfactory means of procedural and
Japan: Japan is densely populated and has large contractual adjustments could not be reached. Finally, in
population centers in low lying coastal areas where the poor temporary ground support applications, the owner commonly
soil conditions prevail. Moreover, most of the interior of allows the contractor to propose the means and methods of
Japan cannot be practically developed because it is meeting specified performance criteria. Deep mixing
mountainous. The huge amount of international trade methods are rarely the sole applicable and least costly
dictates the development of extensive port facilities. In alternative and could be replaced by alternative methods.
addition to the necessity for construction in deep deposits of However, changes in design during in the construction phase
weak and compressible soils, all structures must be designed are frequently associated with increased uncertainty and risk.
to maintain functionality and/or prevent loss of life in severe
seismic events. The soil-cement ground treatment must be 3.3 Commercial Factors
designed to resist static and dynamic loading, thus The differences between the design and construction
necessitating large volumes of required treatment and greater industries of Japan and the US are as broad as the respective
design strength. DMM projects in Japan include government and cultures themselves. The following
considerably more frequent installations of large and rigid summarizes selected factors.
structural soil-cement elements, relative to the properties of Both government sponsored and industry supported
the native soil, as opposed to those of the Scandinavian research over the past several decades has resulted in the
countries where the applications are most frequently ground growth of DMM technology in Japan. The former Port and
improvement. Harbor Research Institute of Japan, now called the Port and
United States: It could be theorized that there is a lesser Airport Research Institute, was and remains the focal point
necessity to develop in regions of poor soils than exists in for DMM research and development in Japan. Government
Scandinavia or Japan. The land mass of the US is almost organizations were involved in the research and development
seven times greater than Japan, Finland, Norway, and of two main soil mixing technologies CDM (Cement Deep
Sweden combined. In addition, population settlement and Mixing) and DJM (Dry Jet Mixing). Most of the Japanese
industrialization in the US is far more recent than the balance wet DMM methods are based on the results of initial
of the world. Thus, for most of the history of the nation, research and development performed on CDM in late 1960’s
development in zones of poor soils was simply avoided. to early 1970’s by the Port and Airport Research Institute
Presently however, urban centers are rapidly expanding and (PARI) of the Japanese Ministry of Transportation in
the necessity is growing for construction in locales of poor conjunction with several general contractors.
soils. Boston, Massachusetts is a classic example of this The DJM, or Dry Method of DMM, was developed
phenomenon. South Boston, a region of the city which based on the research and development work of Public
consists of reclaimed land from Boston Harbor, was used Works Research Institute of Japanese Ministry of
predominantly for freight rail yards in early 1900’s. Construction in late 1970’s to early 1980’s. The DJM
Deposits of soft marine clay extended to depths exceeding 30 equipment in use in Japan has little variations and the
meters. In the latter part of the 20th century, most of the rail operation parameters are nearly standardized. Although
facilities had been abandoned and the area transformed into a there are greater variations in the wet DMM equipment used
sparsely utilized commercial neighborhood. However in the in Japan, the basic installation parameters established for
mid 1980’s Boston began a rapid growth and expansion into CDM have been followed and the expectations of the soil
South Boston became necessary. To expand a major mixing products are well understood and accepted by both
highway through the area, the largest single application to the engineers and the contractors. Therefore, the risk
date of DMM in the US was employed. assumed by the soil mixing contractors for the quality of
product is significantly lower than those in the United States,
3.2 Alternate Designs where the contractors operate a greater variation of soil
In the US there have been few projects where DMM has mixing equipment and installation parameters. A specific set
been the sole means of accomplishing the work. The of installation parameters will be needed for each type of soil
planning and design phases of a geotechnical project mixing equipment with different design in order to meet the
virtually always includes and evaluation of the feasible same acceptance criteria. Both the US contractor and the
alternatives. In projects where DMM is ultimately selected owner face the higher risk than their counterparts in Japan
for the final design, changes in the ground support method where both equipment and installation parameters have little
frequently occur. One of the mechanisms for change is the variation.
value engineering process. Given the highly competitive Bruce (1999) itemizes several crucial factors in the
nature of the construction industry, the construction impediments of employing deep mixing methods in the US.
contractors often propose less costly yet equally effective The factors described therein generally remain relevant
Deep Mixing´05 K5
today, albeit in lesser degrees of impact, as demonstrated by The percentage of total resistance contributed by the
the number of DMM projects which have been completed surrounding soil also influences the mode of failure.
since then. The proprietary nature of DMM equipment and Distribution of loads to untreated soil tends to moderate the
methods is identified as key commercial barrier. Each influence of the brittle behavior associated with cement and
practitioner of DMM technology must obtain its own US lime treated soil. Surrounding untreated soil also provides
patent for the process or acquire a license to existing confining pressures which increase the post-peak shear
technology from an overseas contractor. Both of these strength of the treated ground. The extent of load sharing
avenues for entering the US market can be quite costly. among treated and untreated soils can be a crucial factor in
determining if the failure is brittle and catastrophic or more
of a ductile mode. The mode of failure, coupled with
4 DESIGN ASPECTS WHICH CAN COMPLICATE consequences thereof, also has a major influence on the
A PROJECT scope and intensity of QA/QC testing.
K6 Deep Mixing´05
Figure 1. Influence of statistically controlled lower bound strength. (Yang, et al, 2004)
Deep Mixing´05 K7
maximum of 5% of the samples tested with values below installed. The majority of the sections were 9 m in width,
60% of the average unconfined compressive strength. with transverse elements spaced at 4.5 m.
The Baby Creek project is an example of a case where
the conventional choices of earth support systems were either
unfeasible or very costly. After evaluating several methods,
the owner’s engineer selected the DMM design. Many
precedents for such a design existed and DMM capabilities
were well established in the in the US, therefore the cellular
DMM system could be considered the preferred and low risk
design. The Baby Creek project is also an example where the
construction contractor did not propose an alternate method to
replace in part or entirety the DMM support system.
K8 Deep Mixing´05
and management of the inherent variation of the DMM 5.5 South 180th Grade Separation Project, Tukwila,
product. Washington
The requirements on the uniformity of soil mixing This underpass construction project provided grade separation
remains unchanged since it can be practically accomplished between a railroad line and street traffic to improve the east-
while providing rational level of soil-mixing quality needed west mobility of South 180th Street. The underpass structure
for the permanent soil-cement structures. The evaluation mainly consisted of a soil-cement seal slab under the
on uniformity of mixing was based on the full-depth core pavement and concrete secant pile retaining walls. The
samples recovered from the soil-cement walls. Lumps of underpass was about 232 m long, 21.3 m wide, and 7.9 m
unimproved soils should not amount to more than 20 below surface grade at the railroad crossing. A shoofly over
percent of the total volume of any 4-foot section of the soil-cement foundation was constructed for railroad traffic
continuous full-depth core sample. Any individual or during the construction of the underpass and permanent
aggregation of lumps of unimproved soil should not be railroad bridge.
larger than 12 inches in greatest dimension. In addition, The subsurface soils at site consisted of 3.4 to 5.2 m of
continuous core recovery should be at least 85 percent over heterogeneous fills overlying interbedded layers of fine-
any 4-foot core run. For evaluating the volume of grained and medium-grained alluvial deposits and a 1.5 to 5.2
unimproved lumps of soil, all of the non-recovered core m layer of recent flood plain organic deposits. The final
length shall be assumed to be unimproved. underpass grade was located in soils varying from soft organic
silt, clay, and peat to high permeability sand and gravel
5.4 Interstate 15, Salt Lake City, Utah deposits. The underpass was constructed in two distinct
A segment of Interstate Highway 15 was reconstructed in water-bearing zones separated by the recent flood plain
preparation for the Winter Olympics of 2002. One of the organic deposits. The upper groundwater zone in the
highway ramps, the lateral support for which was provided medium-grained alluvium and organic deposits generally was
by an MSE wall, was to be constructed on soft and highly encountered at depths varying from 3.4 to 5.2 m below ground
compressible foundation soils. The soils in the area are surface. The lower groundwater zone in the fine-grained and
comprised of lacustrine sediments from Lake Bonneville medium-grained alluvium generally was encountered at
which are believed to have been deposited over the past depths varying from 5.5 to 7.0 m below ground surface. After
30,000 years. The soft deposits extend to a depth of the evaluation of various foundation design options, the and a
approximately 20 m and consist of clay interbedded with soil-cement seal slab as the underpass foundation as shown in
sand and silt layers. The height of the new fill was 12 m Figure 4.
and a consolidation settlement of 0.8 m was predicted. The soil-cement seal slab worked as a low permeability
In order to maintain stability and control settlement of horizontal barrier to minimize the vertical seepage flow to the
the embankment resting on the deposit of soft soils ground underpass, which was 4.6 m below the groundwater surface at
treatment was deemed the appropriate alternative. The only the lowest grade below the railroad bridge. The coefficient of
viable alternative to ground treatment would have been a permeability of the soil-cement was specified to be 1 x 10-5
bridge structure. Ground treatment was less costly than a cm/sec or lower. The soil-cement seal slab also provided the
bridge. Given the consistency and high moisture content, uplift resistance to vertical hydraulic pressure acting at the
which ranged from 20-60 percent, lime cement mixing bottom of the seal slab. The specified total unit weights were
deemed an appropriate method of forming embankment 15 kN/m3 (95 pounds per cubic foot, pcf) and 16.5 kN/m3
support elements. In addition to supporting the (105 pcf) for soil-cement produced in the organic deposits and
embankment, the lime column elements needed to control alluvium deposits, respectively. The specified average
lateral soil deformations. An occupied building was located unconfined compressive strengths of soil-cement produced in
within 8-12 m of the new MSE wall. the organic deposits were 240 KPa (35 psi) and 345 KPa (50
The MSE wall was located on the north side of the psi) at 28-day and 90-day curing ages, respectively. The
ramp in order not to encroach on the adjacent property. specified average unconfined compressive strengths of soil-
The south side of the embankment had a natural soil slope. cement produced in the alluvium deposits were 1,035 KPa
Two patterns of lime cement columns were used to support (150 psi) and 1,380 KPa (200 psi)) at 28-day and 90-day
the embankment. The central portion to the south limit of curing ages, respectively. The seal slab extended 1.5 m
the cross-section consisted of individual lime cement beyond the width of the pavement section for the concrete
columns. The primary function of the central columns was secant pile wall to key-in and provided lateral support to the
to transfer vertical load to a less compressible stratum to secant pile wall below the underpass grade level. The layout
reduce settlement. The individual columns also had design for DMM construction is presented in Figure 4. This
sufficient shear capacity to maintain stability of the grade separation project is another example of a case where
roadway and natural side slope. At the north end, the shear the conventional systems were either unfeasible or very
forces were greater due to the concentrated load imposed by costly. This project is also an example where the construction
the MSE wall. Additionally, sufficient shear resistance was entirety the DMM foundation system.
also needed to control deformations of the adjacent
buildings. Thus, continuous transversely-oriented shear 5.6 Woodrow Wilson Bridge, Virginia
elements were required. See Saye, et al, 2001 for more I-95/Route 1 Interchange project, as part of the Woodrow
detail. Wilson Bridge Replacement Project, required the widening
of existing embankment into the adjacent swampy grounds
Deep Mixing´05 K9
Figure 4. Schematic seal slab design
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
8 REFERENCES
Saye, S., Esrig, M., Williams, J., Pilz, J., Bartlett, S., 2001.
Lime Cement Columns for the Reconstruction of Interstate
15 in Salt Lake City, Utah, Foundations and Ground
Improvement, Special Publication 113. American Society
of Civil Engineers.
Holm, G
Swedish Geotechnical Institute, SE-581 93 Linkoping, Sweden
goran.holm@swedgeo.se
ABSTRACT: Sustainable development declared at the UN Johannesburg summit in 2002 and the EU Gothenburg summit
2001 gives an important framework for the society. Deep mixing methods are suitable for the sustainable development from
a number of viewpoints. Over the last years many significant advances have been made in deep mixing. These advances
strengthen the deep mixing method also with respect to a sustainable development. This keynote lecture is intended to put
the deep mixing methods into the context of sustainable development and to comment on some of the recent advances in
deep mixing.
1 A SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY In cases where the railway lines are located on soft soil
deposits comprehensive measure can be required.
1.1 Sustainable development The railway owners normally require no or a
In Europe but also globally there are strong and important minimum influence on the train operations and the
declarations that the society shall have a sustainable acceptable deformations in the track during execution of the
development. It has been stated at the EU Gothenburg measures are normally very small. This is a challenge for
summit in 2001 but also at the UN Johannesburg summit in deep mixing, especially if the installation is made from the
2002. Large research resources are needed for geotechnical track with regard to the very limited time available with no
and geoenvironmental research to achieve the goals and train traffic.
international, and national directives, set up for a The need of an improved transportation system
sustainable development and economical growth as includes also widening of roads and additional tracks along
confirmed by UN summit in Johannesburg. the existing railway lines. The deep mixing method is
Over the last decades a substantial development of the applicable to both these cases.
deep mixing method has taken place. This development
comprises technical development of the different
components of the technique, e. g. mixing equipment and
binders, but also applications, e. g reduction of vibration at
high-speed trains and stabilisation/solidification of
contaminated soil.
2 RECENT ADVANCES
Comprehensive research and development activities have
been performed during the last years and many activities
are in progress in many countries. Many organisations are
involved including universities, research institutes,
manufacturers, contractors and consulting companies. A
large number of conferences, seminars and workshops have
been held in Europe, Japan and United States the last 10
Figure 5. Columns configuration at Sir John Rogerson´s years. The most recent research results and advances of the
Quay, Dublin (Evans, 2005) deep mixing method will be presented and discussed at this
conference. The detailed discussions will be held at the
In-situ stabilisation/solidification by soil mixing was used different technical sessions covering field and laboratory
at an industrial area in Dublin, Ireland (Sir John Rogerson´s investigations, properties of binders and stabilised soil,
Quay), see figure 5 (Evans, 2005). Cut-off walls with deep design of deep mixing applications,
mixing columns having a low permeability were installed stabilisation/solidification of contaminated soil,
around the entire site. In part of the area the bearing applications and case histories and finally execution,
capacity was improved by deep mixing. The maximum monitoring and quality control.
depth treated was 7 m. In this keynote lecture some examples of the recent
advances are presented, in some cases from a sustainable
In many cities around the world there is a need of new land. development perspective. The examples are related to a
The natural soil at such areas for land reclamation often number of topics within deep mixing.
includes soft soil layers. Deep mixing is used to improve It is important to remember that deep mixing is a way
the soft soil layers. Huge equipment’s make it possible to to treat the soil to obtain the required engineering and
stabilise the soil at great depths even at great water depth environmental properties. The great flexibility of the
conditions. A Japanese example is shown in Figure 6. method to match the site conditions and the actual
specifications for a project is a great advantage of the
method compared to competing methods.
Traditionally the treatment/improvement is made by
the wet or the dry method with equipment’s having single
or multiple shafts creating column-shaped stabilised soil.
Some recent advances related to the geometrical
2.1 Applications
Deep mixing is used in a wide spectrum of applications, i.e.
foundation support including road and railway Figure 8. Installation of deep mixed columns below an
embankments, excavation support, remediation of existing railway embankment (Katzenbach & Weidle,
contaminated land and mitigation of vibrations. 2005).
With respect to the climate change giving higher water
levels in river and the sea, there is a s mentioned earlier a As mentioned earlier deep mixing according to the dry
need the extend the crest of dykes. In Figure 7 this is shown method was used to mitigate the vibrations observed at high
(Porbaha et al., 2005). speed trains at Ledsgård, Sweden (Holm et al., 2005). There
Up-grading of existing transport infrastructure to fulfil was an extremely soft soil layer at about 2 to 6 m depth
future demands. For railway lines improvement methods over a length of about 200 m. The shear modulus was only
normally have to be performed with no or a minimum 35 to 60 kPa in the soft layer. Dry deep mixing was used to
influence in the train traffic. This means to perform the strengthening the soft soil. Rows with overlapping lime-
strengthening of the subsoil from the side of the cement columns were installed under each track. Panels
embankment or from the track as shown in Figure 8 with overlapping columns were installed to connect the two
(Katzenbach & Weidle, 2005) within the limited time rows as shown in Figure 9. Measurements of the vibrations
between the trains most likely during the night. were performed before and after the soil improvement. The
result presented in Figure 10, shows that the amplitude
(peak to peak) of the vibrations was reduced from 13 to 1
mm. In other words the deep mixing resulted in a very large
reduction of the vibrations and an acceptable behaviour at
high speeds was achieved.
2.2 Soils/Binders
A wide range of soils is nowadays stabilised by deep
mixing. Over the last years comprehensive research and
14 development activities have been performed regarding the
12 treatment of different soils and the use of different binders
Before/May
including the use of industrial by-products as a component
displ ampl ptp, mm
10
8 After/Dec in the binder. Organic soils have been studied for example
6 in the EU-funded EuroSoilStab project. A number of
4 binders, one and two component binders were used to
2 stabilise organic soils in Finland, the Netherlands, Ireland,
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Italy, Sweden and UK. In Figure 12 the obtained relative
strength increase after 28 days in soft soils is presented
train speed, km/h (EuroSoilStab, 2001). The table is based on unconfined
compression tests of laboratory mixed samples.
Figure 10. Measured displacements (peak to peak) By selecting an appropriate binder and binder quantity
before and after deep mixing. Ledsgård, Sweden the specifications regarding e. g. strength in the stabilised
(Holm et al., 2005) soil can be achieved. However, it is important to select a
binder that in the required way can treat all the soil layers in
Deep mixing has also been used to mitigate the the actual soil profile. A binder consisting of cement and
vibrations from train traffic to the surroundings by granulated blast furnace slag has shown good stabilisation
installation an appropriate configuration of the deep mixing effect in many soils.
at the side of the embankment of below the embankment.
At soil conditions with a very soft peat top layer on a
soft clay layer a combination of mass stabilisation and
column stabilisation has been used (Dahlström & Eriksson,
2005), see Figure 11. Preloading was used to obtain most of
the settlements during the construction phase. After 30 days
of preloading (0,8 m) 70 to 90% of the total settlements had
occurred.
2.3 Execution
A Modified Dry Mixing (MDM) method has been
developed by LCTechnology (Gunther et al., 2004). By a
modification to the existing dry mixing process and
equipment, water can be injected into the soil during the
installation process, see Figure 13. By adjusting the water
content of the soil, columns of significant strength can be
produced even in various soils of very low water content,
where the regular dry method normally could not be used. Figure 14. Top of columns produced by Modified Dry
The MDM process also yields improvements in mixing Mixing (MDM)
efficiency resulting in more homogenous columns of high
quality. A new Cutter Soil Mixing equipment has been
The MDM method spans a large spectrum ranging developed by Bauer (Fiorotto et al., 2005). The cutter soil
from typical dry mixing applications to truly wet mix mixing differ from the traditional deep mixing technique as
installations, using modified dry mixing equipment. The it use two sets of cutting wheels that rotate around a
conversion from dry to wet system takes place seamlessly horizontal axis to produce panels of treated soil.
from station to station (one depth to another) throughout the Rectangular panels with a length of 2200 to 2800 mm and a
installation of the column. Some further advantages are no width of 500 to 1200 mm can be made to a maximum depth
surface spoil created, no mixing plant required, small and of 35 m (70 m). The panels can be arranged as single
mobile equipment and finally the MDM can be installed in elements, rows of overlapping elements, grids and blocks.
wet as well as dry soils with no downtime to reconfigure A reduced number of joints compared to equivalent secant
equipment. By this method columns can be created to the columns are favourable when the wall is to act as a cut-off
surface through the dry crust. Figure 14 shows the top of wall.). The developed mixing head, see Figure 13, has two
MDM columns. cutting wheels that revolve round a horizontal axis to
produce panels of treated soil. In Figure 16 a shaft by cutter
soil mixing panels is shown.
1600
Netherlands wN=697%
Sweden, wN=1500%
Cement-slag influence on the obtained strength and the on the
1400
Sweden, wN=1600%
Nl development of strength with time. It is also obvious that a
91d Fi
specific binder has different effect in the two clays. A
1200
substantial increase in strength after 28 days has been
quc, kPa
28d
1000
obtained for some of the binder in the Löftabro clay and the
800
Holma gyttja.
7d
600 7d
In many applications of Deep Mixing the permeability
400 Sw
91d Fi
of the treated soil is of importance, e.g. estimating the
200
28d
consolidation rate in transport infrastructure applications,
evaluating the risk of changing the ground water conditions
Ir
0 7d
2000 2000
cl
1500 1500
l
cs cs
c
c
1000 1000
cl
cf cf
500 500
sl
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, days Time, days
3000
Holma gyttja C Cement
2500
100 kg/m 3
Cs Cement-slag
Unconfined compressive strength q uc , kPa
Cl Cement-lime
2000
Cf Cement-fly ash
cl
L Lime
sl
sl Slag-lime
1500
1000 c
cs
500
cf
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, days
cu =0.0424Vs 1.462
100,00 100,00
Present proj Present project
Dömle Peat, 18kPa Fiskvik clay, 90-180d (Bengtsson & Åhnberg, 1995)
Mellösa clay, 14-200d (Åhnberg et al., 1995)
Dömle Peat, 0kPa
Compacted clay, lime 1-7.5 % (Brandl (1999)
Dömle gyttja Compacted clay, cem. 2.5-7.5 % (Brandl (1999)
Lövstad gyttja Lövstad gyttja, 14-200d (Åhnberg et al., 1995)
10,00 Mellösa clay 10,00
Dömle gyttja, 200kg/m3
Fiskvik clay Dömle peat, 100-200kg/m3, load = 0 kPa
Compacted clay Dömle peat, 100-200kg/m3, load = 18 kPa
kstab, initial / ksoil
1,00 1,00
kstab./ksoil
-0,0039x
y = 27,65e
0,10 0,10
6,0048x
y = 0,043e
0,01 0,01
-0,0045x
y = 0,0502e
0,001 0,001
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 0 500 1000 1500 2000
w/w0 quc, kPa
Terashi, M.
NIKKEN SEKKEI Nakase Geotechnical Institute, 2-18-3 Iidabashi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
terashi@nikken.co.jp
ABSTRACT: The design of deep mixing is an iterative process involving two aspects, process design and geotechnical
design. In order to guarantee the better or the best performance, the collaboration between geotechnical consultant and
contractor specialized in deep mixing is absolutely necessary. Such good collaboration was made possible in Japan under
the strong support of the owner of the project in a couple of landmark projects, which gave strong impacts on the subsequent
development of the deep mixing. The current keynote lecture is intended to highlight the key issues in the design of deep
mixing from various points of view.
Figure 2 A variety of deep mixing applications after CDM Association (Terashi, 1997)
Figure 5 Relation between average field strength quf and laboratory strength qul for on-land works (Public
Works Research Center, 1999)
The reason why the quf/qul differs between sand and clay data sufficient for statistical evaluation.
is not clearly understood. This is often attributed to the
current laboratory mix test procedure, which was originally 4.2 Uniformity of In-situ treated soil
developed for evaluating the clay and organic soils. The Regarding the in-situ treated soil the uniformity is another
tapping of sand and cement slurry mixture during the important factor for determining design strength from the
specimen preparation may invite bleeding of the binder and average field strength. Noto et al (1983) reported that the
reduce the laboratory strength. Another reason often coefficient of variance V (standard deviation/mean value)
mentioned is the influence of confining pressure acting on varies from 0.2 to 0.4 for the wet method employed to
the soil in-situ (for example, Matsuo, 2002). marine construction based on the four case records. Now
The difference between on-land applications and marine the number of well documented case records increased to
applications may be attributed to two reasons. One is the 17 case records and CDIT (1999) reported that the V is
difference in the mixing condition. The ordinary on-land around 0.3 in most cases and varies from 0.2 to 0.5 for the
machines both for dry and wet methods are dual shaft wet method in marine construction.
machine. When compared with the mixing tool as already There is a limited data for the uniformity of the treated
shown in Figure 4, degree of mixing in on-land works may soils in on-land works. This is because the project size is
be inferior to the marine work. Another reason is the curing smaller in general in the on-land works and the number of
temperature, which is generated by hydration of cement. data is insufficient for statistical examination. Matsuo
Often the group of isolated columns are manufactured (2002) recently collected data from 10 sites and analyzed
on-land with lower strength (lower binder content) than nearly 7,000 data. Figure 7 is the relation between the
marine applications. Whereas huge treated soil mass is standard deviation and the mean value of in-situ treated soil.
created in marine application and the binder content is The coefficient of variance is larger for on-land work and it
ordinarily much higher. These result in the higher ranges from from 0.4 to 0.6 with the average of 0.5.
temperature for marine works. High curing temperature Influence of inhomogeneity on the design strength needs
accelerates the strength gain in short period of time. further investigation. One of the interesting research works
Regarding the database, it is necessary to consider the on this line was done by the Building Center of Japan. BCJ
following issues: conducted loading tests on full-scale treated soil columns
1) The currently available design manuals or standards having 100 cm diameter. Also the field strength of the
often specify that the design strength be based on 28-day treated soil columns were determined by the unconfined
strength both in the laboratory and field. compression tests on a number of cored samples with 5 cm
2) As the quf/qul relation is influenced by the difference in diameter. Figure 8 shows the test results. Twenty-six
the soil type and mixing process and various other factors full-scale columns were retrieved from the different sites
as summarized in Table 1, the empirical relation such as and they covered a variety of soil types. The full-scale
shown in Figures 5 & 6 obtained in Japan is not always columns failed at around 70 % of the average field
applicable to the other parts of the world. strengths. BCJ further examined the relation of full-scale
3) When a new mixing tool is developed or when a new load, average field strength and the coefficient of variance
binder is introduced, or when the deep mixing is applied and established the guideline to determine the design
to different soil type, the empirical relationship must be strength, which is now included in the guide line (BCJ,
established for the new conditions using a number of test 1997) applicable for building foundation.
Figure 8 Comparison of failure load of full-scale columns and unconfined compressive strengths on core
samples (BCJ, 1997)
Elavation (m)
pointed out by Terashi et al (1983). In order to determine
the design strength and performance life of treated soils -30
rigorously, it is necessary to investigate the treated soil in
the long term. It will become most important especially for
-40 Check bor. (1981)
the environmental applications such as the containment of
Bor. No.1 & 2 (2001)
contaminated soils.
In 2001, after 20 years of construction, four borings were -50
conducted to obtain undisturbed core samples of the in-situ
treated soil at Daikoku Pier in Yokohama which was Figure 10 Profile of unconfined compressive
referred to, earlier in the present paper, as the landmark strengths at 3 months and 20 years after the
project for the wet method (Ikegami et al, 2005). The site construction (Ikegami et al 2005)
was selected for investigation because the tremendous test
data during construction phase was recorded. The layout of limited case records were available. The average field
the borings in cross section is shown in Figure 9. Two strength today is 13.2 MPa with coefficient of variance 0.39.
borings (Bor. No.1 & 2) were inclined at angle of 20 From the comparison at this project, nearly two times
degrees from vertical, by which continuous core samples strength increase is observed.
with 80 mm in diameter were retrieved from the top to The long-term strength has been one of the major
bottom of the treated soil. Other two borings (Bor. No.3 concerns of practicing engineers involved in the admixture
& .4) inclined 45 degrees from vertical were conducted to stabilization by lime, cement, or similar binders. In the
retrieve the core samples with 200 mm in diameter at the development and initial application stages, several research
side boundary between treated soil block and original groups tackled the topic either by laboratory or field
ground. investigations. Among others, Saitoh (1988) has conducted
(strength gain in the long term) extensive laboratory study up to five years. Terashi and
Figure 10 shows the profile of unconfined compressive Kitazume (1992), Yoshida et al. (1992), Ikegami et al.
strength of three months after the construction and those 20 (2002a), Inagaki, et al. (2002), Japan Cement Association
years after the construction. Required design strength at 28 (2002) and Hayashi et al. (2003) have investigated in-situ
days was 2.26 MPa. The average field strength at 3 months treated soils aged more than 10 years. These field studies
was 6.3 MPa with the coefficient of variance around 0.4. covered deep mixing and similar technologies with
The relation between the design and average field strength different soil and different binders. The common conclusion
was considered quite acceptable at that time when only a is the steady increase of strength with time at least in the
central portion of treated soil columns. Then the question is
whether 28-day strength is appropriate or not if we could
predict the strength increase beforehand.
(deterioration of treated soil in long term)
The upper and lower half of Figure 11 shows the
distribution of strength and Ca content along horizontal
direction at the periphery of the treated soil block.
Horizontal distance is shown in the logarithmic scale in
order to show the precise distribution. Strength here was
examined by penetrating the needle into the soil and the
measured resistance was converted to the unconfined
compressive strength. The deterioration is clearly found in
the upper half of Figure 11. Open and solid circles are the
strength after 20 years of construction measured by needle
penetration. The line shown as “Average of inside (2001)”
indicates the average value of unconfined compressive
strength measured on the core samples inside the treated
soil mass. At the area from the boundary to 30 – 50 mm, the
Figure 9 Layout of borings and treated soil block strength of treated soil is confirmed to be much lower than
(Ikegami et al, 2005) the sound portion of the treated soil. The circles in the
Field observation
10 at Daikoku Pier
(log D − log D0 ) 1
=
(log t − log t 0 ) 2
1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Elapsed t ime t (year)
The strength increases inside the treated soil mass. But at Figure 13 Column installation patterns (Terashi
the same time there is a possibility of strength reduction at
and Tanaka, 1981)
the periphery of treated soil exposed to the outer
6 GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
Geotechnical design of the improved ground is performed Incremental load
to assess the stability and settlement of the structures to be Rigid structure
(Velocity applied to the grid)
built. The geotechnical design procedure differs with the
different application. Common to all the applications is the
large difference of the stiffness and strength between Treated soil Gravel mound
treated and untreated soils. The mode of deformation and/or (Interface elements)
mode of failure of the improved ground are dependent on
the installation pattern, position of the improved ground
relative to the superstructure (e.g., passive, transient or
active zone), relative strength between treated and untreated Figure 14 Geometry and loading condition
soils included in the system, and external load conditions.
The improved ground should not be considered as a (Material properties)
uniform material with the averaged characteristics but a The strength of treated soil was specified by the
geo-composite system. For each application, design should unconfined compressive strength of treated soil, qut, which
be based on the rigorous understanding of the interaction of was one of the parameters changed according to the
stiff treated and soft untreated soils which leads to the purpose of calculation. The other properties of treated soil
understanding of the mode of deformation and mode of were derived from qut by the following relationships;
failure. It may be worthwhile to overview the behavior of undrained shear strength, su = 0.5 qut; Young’s modulus E =
deep mixed foundation here by changing some of the 400su.( E = 200qut); tensile strength σt = 0.30su .( σt = 0.15
influential factors. qut). Poisson’s ratio and the density were given by the
constant value of 0.25 and 14.0 (103kg/m3) respectively.
6.1 Simulation of deep mixed foundation The strength of lower layer, by which treated soil
(Tool for simulation and geometry of the model) columns were supported, was specified by the unconfined
The elasto-plastic analysis with Finite Difference Method compressive strength, qub. The value of qub was another
proposed by Cundall and Board (1988) was used in the important parameter, which was changed. The strength of
present simulation to understand the overall picture of the the soft upper layer was a constant value of 30 kPa in the
behavior of the improved ground. For the constitutive present simulation. The other properties of the upper and
equation, the Mohr Coulomb model was used as the lower layers are derived from unconfined compressive
elasto-plastic model. This model involved a Mohr Coulomb strength, qu by the following relationship; .undrained shear
criterion with tension cut-off and a similar criterion to the strength, su = 0.5 qu; Young’s modulus E=210su.( E=105qu),
Mohr Coulomb criterion as a yield function and a potential tensile strength σt=0.70 su,=0.35qu)..Poisson’s ratio and the
function respectively. The total stress analysis was used. density were given as the constant value of 0.45.and 14.0
In a series of numerical simulation, a superstructure, soil (103kg/m3), respectively.
profile and improved area were modelled as shown in the The gravel mound between the concrete caisson and the
upper portion of Figure 14. In order to avoid unrealistic improved ground was represented by the interface element.
situation, geometry and material properties were selected Normal and shear stiffness were adjusted as 10 times larger
similarly to the landmark project at Daikoku Pier. The super than the value of Young’s modulus of improved ground.
structure in the model was relatively a rigid structure such Friction angle was taken as 40 degree, and dilation angle
as a concrete caisson underlain by a layer of granular was 15 degree. Cohesion and tensile strength were zero.
material. The original ground was a two-layer system. (Application of load component)
The upper surface layer was the soft soil to be improved by As shown in the lower portion of Figure 14, vertical and
deep mixing; whose thickness was 15 m. Treated soil horizontal load components were given to the rigid
columns installed by block type were born on the lower foundation by applying displacement in terms of velocity.
layer whose thickness was 15 m. The strength of the lower Vertical load was given by downward vertical displacement
layer was changed with calculation case but always at the upper surface of the foundation. The horizontal load
stronger than the surface soft layer. The bottom boundary of was also given by providing horizontal displacement to the
the grid may be considered as the rigid stratum. side surface of foundation. The horizontal load was applied
after the application of predetermined vertical load.
a) displacement vector (Case 2-1, qub = 100 kPa) b) shear strain (Case 2-1, qub = 100 kPa)
c) displacement vector (Case 2-3, qub = 500 kPa) d) shear strain (Case 2-3, qub = 500 kPa)
e) displacement vector (Case 2-5, qub = 10,000 kPa) f) shear strain (Case 2-5, qub = 10,000 kPa)
Figure 20 Displacement vector and distribution of shear strain at 25 cm vertical displ of loading plate
(Vertical loading qut = 1000 kPa with varying qub )
2.0
Figure 22 Vertical load component level used for
calculating horizontal load bearing capacity
(Normalized by q ut )
1.5
Bearing capacity
0.5
Lateral displacement (m)
0.05
c) displacement vector (Case 3-3, V = 576 kPa) d) shear strain (Case 3-3, V = 576 kPa)
e) displacement vector (Case 3-5, V = 1008 kPa) f) shear strain (Case 3-5, V= 1008 kPa)
Figure 25 Displacement vector and shear strain at 20 cm horizontal diplacement of loading plate
(Inclined loading qut = 1000 kPa, qub = 200 kPa)
earth pressure
from liquefied soil
inertial force
liquefiable soil
Start
I: sliding failure of treated soil block
II: shear stress at the toe of treated soil block Assumption of width and depth
of improved zone
III: shear stress in the vertical plaene
Other modes are irrelevant in this example
Examination of stability
for external force
Figure 29 Determination of optimum design by the ①Sliding failure
current design procedure (Terashi, et al, 1985) ②Overturning moment
③Bearing capacity
Deep Mixing´05 1
2 Deep Mixing´05
Standardisation of Deep Mixing Methods
Hansbo, S.
Lyckov. 2, SE 18273 Stocksund, Sweden
sven.hansbo@swipnet.se
Massarsch, K. R.
Geo Engineering AB, Ferievägen 25, SE 16841 Bromma, Sweden
rainer.massarsch@geo.se
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the objectives and main aspects of the code on “Execution of special geotechnical works —
Deep mixing” (prEN 14679). The standard establishes general principles for the execution, testing, supervision and monitoring
of deep mixing works. Both dry and wet methods by rotary mixing are included in the standard. In two annexes, Practical as-
pects of deep mixing (A) and Aspects of design (B), additional information is provided.
1 INTRODUCTION
In 1975, the Commission of the European Community initi- 2 GEOTECHNICAL EUROCODES
ated a programme to produce a set of technical codes, In many European countries, the introduction of the Euro-
which in the future could serve as an alternative to existing code on Geotechnical Design, EN 1997 will represent a
national codes and eventually replace them. In 1989, the marked change in practice. EN 1997 – Geotechnical design,
Commission decided to transfer the preparation and publi- consists of two parts (international publication dates indi-
cation of the Eurocodes to the European Committee for cated in brackets):
Standardization (CEN). CEN, whose members are National - EN 1997-1: Geotechnical Design Part 1 – General
Standard Bodies (NSBs), was founded in 1961 by the na- Rules (End 2005)
tional standards bodies in the European Economic Commu- - EN 1997-2: Ground investigation and testing (2006?).
nity and EFTA countries. The European Federation of Foundation Contractors,
Ten Eurocodes are presently in different phases of (EFFC) has, on behalf of CEN, prepared codes on “Execu-
preparation. All Eurocodes were initially published as trial tion of Special Geotechnical Works”. CEN Working Group
codes, known as ENVs. A minimum of two years after pub- TC 288 covers execution aspects, which are not addressed
lication of each ENV, NSBs submitted comments on its in EN 1997. They are being developed independently of EN
contents and use. In many cases, the final EN will be sig- 1997 and focus on the practical application of a selected
nificantly different from corresponding ENVs. Following number of geotechnical construction methods. Since Euro-
the publication of the Eurocodes together with its National code EN 1997 covers geotechnical design, these aspects are
Annexes, there will be a period (known as the coexistence addressed in the Application Codes only where execution
period), during which they can be used alongside the exist- affects the design. At the time of preparation of this paper,
ing national codes. At the end of the coexistence period, the following seven codes have been approved (interna-
which may last a maximum of three years, NSBs are re- tional publication dates indicated in brackets):
quired to withdraw their national standards. - EN 1536: Bored Piles (Feb 1999)
NSBs are not permitted to change any part of the text in - EN 1538: Diaphragm Walls (Jan 2000)
the Code Document. However, it is recognised that the - EN 1537: Anchors ( Dec 1999)
level of safety in a country remains its prerogative. Conse- - EN 12063: Sheet Piles (Feb 1999)
quently, some safety factors and a number of other parame- - EN 12699: Displacement Piles (Dec 2000)
ters, such as those reflecting differences in climatic and - EN 12715: Grouting (July 2000)
geological conditions, are left open in the Eurocodes for - EN 12716: Jet Grouting (May 2001).
selection at a national level. These are termed Nationally In addition, the following six codes are presently under
Determined Parameters (NTPs). The National Annex of preparation, subjected to national inquiries or submitted for
each Eurocode lists the NTPs and other points on which an formal voting (anticipated date of international publication
element of national choice exists. The National Annex may indicated in brackets):
also include reference to non-conflicting complimentary - prEN 14199: Micro-Piles (2004)
information (NCCI) such as national standards or guidance - prEN 14475: Reinforced Soil (2004)
documents. - prEN 14490: Soil Nailing (2004)
- prEN 14679: Deep Soil Mixing (2005)
Deep Mixing´05 3
- prEN xxxxx: Vertical Drainage (2005) 11. Special Requirements.
- prEN 14731: Deep Vibration (2006). The standard contains also two informative Annexes:
- Annex A: Practical aspects of deep mixing
- Annex B: Aspects of design.
3 CODE ON DEEP MIXING
This paper describes the objectives and main aspects of the
code on “Execution of special geotechnical works — Deep 4 CONTENTS OF THE CODE
mixing” (prEN 14679), which was prepared by Working
Group 10 of CEN/TC288. The implementation of this stan- 4.1 Scope
dard was sponsored by the Development Fund of the Swed- As an introduction to the document, chapter one, Scope,
ish Construction Industry (SBUF), who nominated the addresses the relevance and limitations of deep mixing. The
Technical Editor (Sven Hansbo) and Convenor (K. Rainer code covers dry mixing and wet mixing methods executed
Massarsch). Work was started in 2000 and experts from 9 by means of rotating mechanical mixing tools. Other meth-
European countries participated. Also members of a Japa- ods, such as shallow mixing or hybrid methods (e.g. com-
nese Mirror Group have taken part in the preparation of the bination of mixing and jet grouting or mixing by other than
draft document and contributed with their extensive experi- rotary tools), are not covered. Stabilized elements can have
ence. The work was also followed by several European different shapes and configurations, but must have a mini-
mirror groups. The draft was prepared within less than three mum depth of 3 m.
years and submitted to national inquiry in 2003. After revi-
sion of the document, taking into consideration the com- 4.2 Normative References
ments by the NSBs, the standard is now being submitted to In the second chapter, Normative References, other applica-
CEN member countries for formal approval. ble codes and standards are given.
The objective of the code is to establish general princi-
ples for the execution, testing, supervision and monitoring 4.3 Terms and Definitions
of deep mixing works. Both dry and wet mixing methods The third chapter lists in alphabetic order (English) deep
are included in the standard, Figure 1. mixing terms in English, French and German. The terms are
defined, in order to clarify their relevance and to facilitate
the understanding of the provisions pf the code. The degree
of obligations of the provisions can have the following lev-
els: “Requirements” (the verb shall is used), “Recommen-
dations” (the verb should is used), “Permissions” and “Pos-
sibilities” (the verb can is used), and “Statements” (infor-
mative text).
4 Deep Mixing´05
boulders, cemented layers, etc.) and information about the The execution control of deep mixing includes penetra-
variations in piezometric level. tion and retrieval speed of the mixing tool, rotation speed of
It is also recommended that the environmental chemical the mixing units, air pressure in dry mixing and feed rate of
and biological characteristics should be stated, e.g. ground- binder/slurry.
water quality (contamination, aggressiveness, chemistry, The equipment and the mixing tool shall be correctly
etc.). positioned at each column location in accordance with the
geometrical execution tolerances specified in the design.
4.6 Materials and products The quantity of binder along the column shall be measured
Chapter 6 deals with admixtures, water, filler and structural during installation of each column. In dry mixing the air
reinforcement. It is required that all material and products pressure shall be kept as low as possible to avoid problems
used comply with relevant European or national standards. of air entrainment and ground movement. In wet mixing the
They must conform also to national environmental regula- slurry shall be delivered by pumping in a continuous flow
tions and design specifications. Water must be suitable for to the soil to be treated. In both cases the speed of the rotat-
the intended use. ing unit(s) and the rate of penetration and retrieval of the
mixing tool shall be adjusted to produce sufficiently homo-
4.7 Considerations related to design geneous treated soil.
The goal of the provisions in chapter 7 is to create deep- In some cases, structural reinforcement may have to be
mixed columns and structures having the maximum installed into the fresh mixed-in-place columns or elements.
strength and minimum load-deformation characteristics
possible under prevailing soil conditions at the site. In the 4.9 Supervision, testing and monitoring
design, loading conditions, climatic effects, hydraulic con- Quality control aspects are addressed in chapter 9. The deep
ditions, acceptable limits of settlement have to be taken into mixing work shall be supervised by experienced and quali-
account. Possible consequences of chemical and physical fied personnel. Unforeseen conditions encountered during
exposure of the columns have to be considered. the work have to be reported in order that the problems can
The properties of the binder selected for the project be taken care of.
must be investigated by laboratory and in-situ tests of the Testing of the strength characteristics, the deformation
treated soil. If deep mixing is used to immobilise contami- properties and the homogeneity of the columns is essential
nants or to stabilise waste deposits, site-specific test pro- and shall be performed continuously during the work to
grammes are required. check that the agreement with the design assumptions is
Important details should be stated in the design, such as acceptable. If overlap of adjacent columns is essential, the
performance objectives, geometry of the treatment and width of overlapping must be checked. In connection with
specification of the deep mixing materials or products se- immobilisation and containment, relevant chemical tests
lected. Moreover, a schedule of testing and monitoring pro- should be carried out.
cedures during execution as well as acceptance procedures The execution shall be monitored, preferably automati-
for the materials used should be provided. cally, with regard to air tank pressure or, in wet mixing,
Limiting values of geotechnical design parameters shall slurry pressure, penetration and retrieval rate, rotation speed
be stated and steps to be taken if these values are exceeded. and quantity of binder (slurry) per meter of installation.
General design aspects, however, are not addressed by the
code, as they are covered by EN 1997. 4.10 Records
Relevant information as to the construction execution of the
4.8 Execution columns, test results and observations during the work shall
Aspects of Execution are discussed in chapter 8. Before the be available at the site. After completion of the work, de-
execution of deep mixing, a method statement shall be de- tails regarding the as-built columns, material and products
livered, which among other matters includes the objective used and relevant geotechnical soil conditions shall be left
and scope of the work, the deep mixing method and the on record.
binder to be used, the working procedure and the installa-
tion accuracy. 4.11 Special requirements
The site of deep mixing has to be prepared in order to The special requirements deal with the safety of personnel
create suitable access for plant and equipment. A working operating close to heavy equipment and heavy tools. Envi-
platform has to be created with adequate bearing capacity ronmental restrictions and consequential environmental
for equipment, receipt, quality control and storage of mate- protection are other objects to be taken into account, includ-
rial. ing noise, vibrations, pollution of air and water and impact
When experience of previous, comparable deep mixing on adjacent structures.
project is not available, representative field trials must be
performed in order to confirm that the design requirements 4.12 Annex A - Practical aspects of Deep Mixing
can be fulfilled. Annex A, which supplements the code, deals with practical
aspects of deep mixing projects. It contains a historical re-
Deep Mixing´05 5
view of the development of the deep mixing methods and a The deep mixing process may involve a short-term dec-
presentation of the fields of application. The generic classi- reasing resistance to failure in consequence of induced ex-
fication of the equipment is shown in Figure 2. cess pore water pressure and soil displacements. The mix-
A variety of applications for deep mixing exists for ed-in-place columns should be arranged in a way to avoid
temporary or permanent works either on land or marine, that possible planes of weakness in some columns installed
Figure 3. A detailed description is given of the various exe- could have a negative influence on the stability. In the sta-
cution methods and equipments utilised as well as the pur- bility analysis it is important to take into account the diffe-
pose behind the application of deep mixing and the princi- rences in stress vs. strain relationship between treated and
ples of execution. Nordic and Japanese dry mixing tech- untreated soil. For excavation support, the most important
niques are compared in detail as well as European and parameters are the compressive strength of the treated soil
Japanese wet mixing techniques. Various possible execu- and arching. Figure 5 indicates the iterative process combi-
tion patterns of installation applied are shown. ning functional design and process design.
Dry mixing is normally carried out in accordance with A presentation is made of the execution process and of
general principles, which are summarised in Figure 4. As the choice of binder in dry and wet mixing of various kinds
can be seen in the flow chart, the binder is fed into the soil of soil. Testing on a laboratory scale of laboratory mixed
in dry form with the aid of compressed air. Two major tech- samples is carried out before the execution of deep mixing
niques for dry mixing exist at present: the Nordic and the in order to find out which binder to be used to achieve the
Japanese techniques. strength and deformation characteristics required for the
Finally, construction problems, such as possible stability intended structure.
and settlement problems, chemical reactions and personnel During execution, both laboratory and field testing
safety are taken into consideration. methods are used to investigate if the homogeneity and
Annex A contains also examples of so-called hybrid strength characteristics of the columns are satisfactory. The
methods, not covered by the code, for example mass stabili- deformation properties of the columns are investigated on a
sation (a method of surface mixing, used in Sweden and laboratory scale.
Finland), Jet grouting combined with mechanical mixing Finally, an overall presentation of the problems in-
and the CDM-LOD IC method (both these methods used in volved in the design with regard to how the settlement
Japan) and, finally the Cut-Mix-Injection (used in Ger- process is affected by deep mixing on one hand and how
many). stability problems can be treated on the other. Problems like
column separation; structural wall and block type applica-
4.13 Annex B - Aspects of Design tions are discussed.
Annex B deals with overall aspects related to functional and
process design, choice of binder, laboratory and field test-
ing and influence on the design of column layout and per- 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
formance. The standard on deep mixing was prepared by WG 10 of
The object of design is to make sure that the ground the CEN Technical Committee TC288. The following nine
treated fulfils the requirements for the intended purpose of experts have contributed to the successful and efficient
deep mixing. Supported structures shall be fit for use during preparation of this document: Dr. E. Falk (Austria), Mr. I.
their intended life with appropriate degree of reliability and Vähäaho (Finland), Mr. S. Lebon (France), Mr. P. Scheller
sustain all actions and influences that are likely to occur (Germany), Mrs. R. Granata (Italy), Mrs. A. Eggen (Nor-
during execution and use. Iterative design, based on a fol- way), Mr. D. M. Moore (Switzerland), Dr. H. L. Eriksson
low-up of the results obtained by testing during the execu- (Sweden) and Mr. V. Troughton (United Kingdom).
tion period, is an important part of the design. The members of a Japanese Mirror Group, Dr. Masaki
The requirements for the serviceability and ultimate li- Kitazume and Dr. Masaaki Terashi, have taken part in the
mit states are to be specified by the client. The design shall preparation of the draft document and contributed with their
be in accordance with the requirements put forward in ENV extensive experience. The work has also been followed by
1997-1, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design — Part 1: Gene- several European mirror groups. Gratitude is also extended
ral rules. to the national mirror groups, which attended meetings and
So-called iterative design, based on a follow-up of the reviewed the draft documents.
results obtained by various testing methods, is an important The work of preparing the standard was sponsored by
part of the design. Here, the main focus is placed upon tho- the European Federation of Foundation Contractors
se factors that are important for the execution and the pur- (EFFC), the Swedish Federation of Foundation Contractors
pose of deep mixing. The design is made for the most unfa- and the Swedish Construction Industry (SBUF). Their sup-
vourable combinations of loads, which could occur during port is acknowledged with appreciation.
construction and service.
6 Deep Mixing´05
Soil mixing
methods
Deep mixing
Uniaxial
rotation
WET DRY
Hybrid mixing
methods
WET DRY
Figure 2. General classification of equipment used by the deep mixing methods included
in the Code and by hybrid mixing methods not included.
Deep Mixing´05 7
Underground strut
Increase of lateral resistance
Temporary of piles
Prevention of bottom heave
Slope stabilisation
Retaining walls
Stabilisation of excavation
River embankments
Road and rail embankments
Bridge piers
On-land operations Retaining walls
Building foundation
Immobilisation of contaminants
Slope stabilisation
Vibration mitigation
Permanent
Mane-made islands
Marine operations Sea walls
Breakwaters
8 Deep Mixing´05
Functional Requirements Geotechnical Design
(Stability, settlements, Soil conditions (strength,
imperviousness, etc.) stress/strain characteristics,
permeability)
Deep Mixing´05 9
Establishment of design
conditions
10 Deep Mixing´05
Twenty-seven Years of Soil Mixing in Germany:
The Bauer Mixed-in-Place-Technique
Stocker, M.
Bauer Spezialtiefbau GmbH, Wittelsbacherstraße 5, D-86529 Schrobenhausen, Germany
Manfred.Stocker@bauer.de
Seidel, A.
Bauer Spezialtiefbau GmbH, Wittelsbacherstraße 5, D-86529 Schrobenhausen, Germany
Andre.Seidel@bauer.de
ABSTRACT: The mixed-in-place method (MIP), developed and improved in Germany over the past 30 years, today mostly
consists of three augers in a row with diameters of up to 550 mm and depths down to 25 m. The system is used for cut-off-
walls for flood protection and contaminated ground and even for replacing pile walls under certain conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT the whole arrangement was too weak. There was no
The Bauer mixed-in-place-technique has been developed, guarantee that the individual panels would overlap and stay
improved and used in Germany since 1977. The original in line.
idea was to install concrete walls with small diameters for
the soil nailing technique in order to avoid the shotcrete
works for the vertical wall panels. The first construction
consisted of four parallel augers with diameters of
approximately 0,2 m. Every second auger element was
reinforced with a steel bar. The whole equipment was
driven by two gears and two motors (Fig. 1). The wall
depths were limited to 4 m.
Deep Mixing´05 11
walls, reinforced excavation walls and sometimes to
reinforced foundation elements. The drilling depth is
limited to approximately 25 m.
The technical data of the most important machines are The slurry may be pumped over a distance of up to
shown in Fig. 5. The rigs look very heavy but the great 1000 m. The plant consists of cement- and bentonite silos, a
drilling depths and the weight of the augers require such mixer, a storage tank and a heavy pump.
dimensions. The crew on a small site mainly consists of three
The usual production sequence for a mixed-in-place persons: a foreman, a machinist and a helper (Fig. 8).
wall, shown in Fig. 6, assures the required quality.
12 Deep Mixing´05
Fig. 10 Instrument Panel
3 QUALITY CONTROL
The water tightness of a mixed-in-place wall mostly
depends on the quality of the site crew. In addition an
extensive supervising programme has been developed. Each
step is automatically controlled: the cutting- and
withdrawing speed, the amount of slurry use per running
meter during drilling up and down, the mixing process and
the installation time for each element.
According to our experience this control is absolutely Fig. 11: Quality Assurance
necessary (Fig. 9), because it is very difficult and costly to
find a fault after the wall has been finished. The machine
driver can watch all the data on his screen (Fig. 10). 4 CONCLUSION
The mixed-in-place method has reached a fairly high
technical standard. Therefore this technique is used more
and more not only for water tightness but also for
foundation elements. A careful quality control is absolutely
essential.
Deep Mixing´05 13
14 Deep Mixing´05
Recent technical trends in Dry Mixing (DJM) in Japan
Yasuoka, N.
Dry Jet Mixing Method Association, 1-2-8 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
jimkyok@djm.gr.jp
Kondo, H.
KOBELCO Construction Machinery Co., Ltd., 2-17-1 Higashi-gotanda, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
kondohi@kobelco-kenki.co.jp
ABSTRACT: Dry Jet Mixing (hereafter DJM) method was developed in Japan in early 1980s and is the type of deep
mixing method that uses dry binders such as cement and quicklime. This paper describes the characteristics of DJM, recent
construction machine, construction system, and quality control. Moreover, while introducing typical construction examples,
recent technical efforts, such as enlarged-diameter rotating blade and high strength - low improvement ratio deep mixing,
are presented.
Deep Mixing´05 15
Fig. 1 (a) Construction principle; (b) Structure of
mixing blade
cavity is formed in the soil and the binder and air fill this
cavity. With the rotation of the blade, the binder is injected
all over the entire area traced by the mixing blades and,
simultaneously, it mixes with the original soil. This results
in the formation of hardened column within the ground.
Because flow velocity falls simultaneously with the
injection to the cavity at the back of the rotating blade, the
compressed air used for transporting the binder separates
from the binder. It is then transmitted and goes up the
surroundings of the mixing shaft and is released at the
ground surface.
16 Deep Mixing´05
Fig. 3 Equipment for construction machine
ground, including humic soils. Because it is possible to shaft or double shaft machine is available. A single shaft
optionally increase the amount of binders, wide range of machine is skid-type with simple crawling equipment,
design strengths can be obtained, from low-strength to while the double shaft machine is carried in a crawler-type
high-strength. Furthermore, the method has been applied base machine. Although there are differences in the
extensively to cases with low improvement ratios, such as mechanism of mixing machine depending on the model, all
under 10% and even to very high improvement ratios, such machines can work on soft ground. Mixing machine must
as in overlapping mixing. have sufficient body stability and trafficability, especially
Because the design involving DJM method is highly when raising the mixing shaft and moving on unimproved
flexible, the scope of its application is diversified. Thus, it ground. For this reason, a special-purpose equipment that
can be applied not only to stabilize embankments against includes the base machine has been developed. Typical
settlements, but also for wide-ranging purposes, such as models of the single shaft machine and double shaft
slide prevention during cut slope operation, foundation of machine are shown in Fig. 4. It is worthy to note that
structure and liquefaction mitigation. mixing tool diameter of 1000 mm and double shaft
simultaneous operation (distance between shafts: 800,
2.3 Construction machine 1,000, 1,200, 1,500 mm) are adopted as standards of DJM
As shown in Fig. 3, construction equipment used in method. Maximum penetration depth up to 33 m is
implementing DJM method can roughly be divided into possible.
two parts, i.e., mixing machine and batching plant for Batching plant is the facility which provides safe and
binders. continuous supply of powder-like binders and consists of
Mixing machine supplies and mixes the binders into various components, such as binder feeder, control house,
the ground. Depending on the number of shafts, a single binder silo, etc. Binder feeder is an important part of DJM
method since it is the equipment which places the binder
into the flow of compressed air. The mechanism of the
feeder is shown in Fig. 5. Binders fall on pockets located
along the circumference of the feed wheel, and as the feed
wheel rotates, the binders are positioned along the nozzle
where compressed air is flowing.
Deep Mixing´05 17
2.4 Construction system rotation number in DJM method is set at either 274 per
meter or 284 per meter, and the rotation speed of mixing
2.4.1 Construction procedure blades and penetration/retrieval speed are adjusted.
The fundamental construction procedure of DJM method is When the stabilized column is end-bearing type,
shown in Fig. 6. After positioning the mixing machine at “management of end-bearing stratum” is performed in
pre-determined location and confirming that the mixing order for the column formed to be supported by bearing
shaft is set vertically, the shaft is rotated. While allowing stratum. Generally, although end-bearing stratum is
only compressed air to be released from the nozzle located determined based on previous data and preliminary
at the edge of the shaft, penetration is carried out up to the investigation and is confirmed from test results, it is
target treatment depth. When mixing blades reach the important to verify the presence of this layer in undulated
target depth, binders are injected into the ground while locations during construction.
retrieving the shaft. Note that when penetrating grounds Thus, in construction management during
with high sensitivity ratio such that considerable decrease implementation of DJM method, the relation between the
in strength may occur as a result of the rotation, it may be penetration speed and electric current in mixing machine
necessary to inject all or some parts of the binders into the and the SPT N-value of the end-bearing stratum which will
ground during penetration stage since the ground may serve as support is arranged and analyzed and an index for
become liquefiable otherwise. end-bearing control is defined. However, when stones are
mixed in the end-bearing stratum or when there is hard
2.4.2 Construction management clay layer, there is a tendency for the electric current to be
Similar to other deep mixing methods, checking the higher than normal. In this case, sufficient examination is
completion of operation directly by naked eye is generally performed at every site based on results of preliminary
not possible in DJM method. Therefore, construction investigations and test construction results, and judgment
management is performed using many control devices. As criteria for special end-bearing stratum are established.
shown in Fig. 7, a variety of monitoring instruments
installed in the mixing machine and binder feeder monitor 2.4.3 Quality control
various data, such as air pressure, flow quantity, number of For the purpose of ensuring that the quality of materials for
rotations of mixing blade, electric current, soil improvement satisfies the design, confirmation or
penetration/retrieval speed, and injected quantity of binders. check borings are performed as post-improvement
These data are transmitted to control house, and using operation in DJM method.
these data, various operations such as “management of With check boring, continuous core samples of
column position”, “management of mixing proportion”, column are obtained, column continuity is verified and
“management of end-bearing stratum”, “management of strength is confirmed by performing unconfined
injected binder quantity”, and “management of binder compression tests. Since coring in columns with wide
supply" are carried out, together with automatic recording. range of strength is difficult, careful coring using double
“Management of injected binder quantity” is core pack tube sampler is usually performed. In many
performed by controlling the injected quantity of binders cases, good quality core samples with relatively large
transported from the feeder, as well as the retrieval speed diameters, such as 85 mm and 116 mm, can be obtained.
of mixing blades. The number of check borings varies depending on
Moreover, in order to guarantee the quality of column, type of structure and scale of construction. In present
“blade cutting frequency”, which indicates the number of practice, more than two borings per project is generally
rotations of mixing blade per meter as it moves into the adopted. However, when the number of columns is
treated ground, is employed as index of “management of numerous, one check boring per 500 columns or one
mixing proportion”. Depending on machine type, blade boring every 2,500 m3 of treated ground is employed.
18 Deep Mixing´05
3 EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS
Deep Mixing´05 19
Fig. 12 Construction site in winter cold region
20 Deep Mixing´05
development, two projects were completed; one involving
ground improvement of a river bank based on high
standards and another related to ground improvement in a
housing land development. In these projects, further
modifications of the machine were added.
Deep Mixing´05 21
Fig. 16 Top section of column by HL-DJM
Fig. 17 A compact DJM machine (2070H)
machine to be used. Thus, miniaturization of construction
machine was considered from 1999 while design and
becomes a method that can expand to other territories and
manufacture were carried out in 2001.
possess high reliability based on theoretical background.
To face the prospects of miniaturization, analysis was
made on construction projects that have been performed up
to the present. A machine that could satisfy the following
REFERENCES
concepts must be reflected in the design.
DJM Method Association (2004). DJM Method Technical
・ A set of equipment including the mixing machine and
Manual (in Japanese).
the binder batching plant can be transported,
Higaki, K. and Takeda, K. (2005). Remediation of ground
assembled and disassembled more easily as compared
contaminated by VOCs based on dry mixing technique
to the current machine.
(DJM) in Japan, Deep Mixing ’05 (this proceedings).
・ Rotating torque is guaranteed with the current
Miura et al. (1996). Implementation of DJM method to
large-sized construction machine.
Torishima Embankment shore protection restoration
・ Penetration capability up to a treatment depth of 16 m,
project, Construction Mechanization, No. 4, 25-29 (in
covering about 70% of all construction projects.
Japanese).
・ Compatible with the enlargement of rotating blades.
Nozu, M., Ohya, T. and Yasui, S. (2005): Effect of Dry
Considering the above-mentioned concepts, the
Mixing (DJM) wall on reducing nearby settlements due
construction machine developed is shown in Fig. 17.
to relatively low embankment loading, Deep Mixing ’05
Although two years have passed since its production and
(this proceedings).
implementation to six projects, the machine’s operability is
still being examined.
5 CONCLUSION
With the collaboration between government and private
sector as basis, technical development of DJM method was
implemented. Afterwards, together with examination on
the utilization as conducted by the DJM Method
Association, the method has become one of the deep
mixing methods representing Japan.
Moreover, although the method has been established
and actual construction projects have expanded, new
technical developments have come up and efforts are
continuing even now to improve the technology. In
addition, although technical developments about the
construction machine have been introduced in this paper,
other aspects such as development of new construction
domain related to its application to soil pollution
purification, and experimental and analytical attempts for
the purpose of establishing design techniques, are also
being tackled.
In the future, DJM method must not become obsolete;
rather, developments must be continued such that it
22 Deep Mixing´05
Session 2.
Field and laboratory investigations,
properties of binders and stabilised soil
Deep Mixing´05 23
24 Deep Mixing´05
Stabilisation of Sulphide Soil – Laboratory and planned Full-scale Tests
of Soil from Umeå in Northern Sweden
Westerberg, B.
Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden
bo.westerberg@ltu.se
Mácsik, J.
Ecoloop SE-118 22 Stockholm, Sweden
josef.macsik@ecoloop.se
ABSTRACT: In this research project the possibility to stabilise sulphide soil is investigated. The project constitutes of three
parts; inventory-, laboratory- and a field part. Sulphide soils from a site in Stöcke (close to Umeå in Sweden) a place along
the future railroad Botniabanan has been used. Results from the laboratory part shows that it is possible to stabilise sulphide
soil. The aim with future field tests is to prove if it is possible also to stabilise sulphide soil in the field, with proper binders,
amount of binder and mixing energy.
Deep Mixing´05 25
2 INVENTORY STUDY The difference between laboratory and field tests is
Results from previously performed projects regarding sta- likely to depend on the mixture energy used. A comparison
bilisation of sulphide soils has been summarised and evalu- of the results is further complicated by the fact that differ-
ated. This inventory study has been the basis of the labora- ent test methods mostly have been used in field (column
tory study carried out. The purpose was to investigate dif- sounding) and laboratory (unconfined compression tests).
ferent aspects that could bee of significance to stabilisation More details about the inventory study can be found in
results. About ten different projects had been investigated Andersson & Norrman (2004).
in the inventory study. The locations of these projects are
presented in Figure 1. In the studied projects there are not 3 LABORATORY TESTS
any large differences between the geotechnical properties Soil samples have been taken from a field site south of the
depending on the localisation in Sweden. The chemical city of Umeå, see Figure 1. Four different types of sulphide
properties has only been investigated in a few projects, soils have been found in the soil profile. The natural soil
therefor it’s not possible to evaluate if there for this matter was investigated concerning geotechnical and chemical
are any differences depending on the localisation. properties. For the stabilised soil the compression strength
was investigated. Only selected results are presented in this
paper. More information about the laboratory part is
reported in the paper “Laboratory Tests of Stabilised Sul-
phide Soil from Northern Sweden” in these proceedings.
26 Deep Mixing´05
Table 2. Chemical properties of the soil in the profile Table 5. Classification of the sulphide soil in the
investigated. investigated profile.
1
Depth pH Eh Cond. Fe S Depth Type
3.3 Stabilisation Figure 2 shows four properties, loss on ignition, pH, spe-
Eleven mixtures, of lime (K), cement (C), Merit (M), cific conductivity and redox potential (Eh). It is one way to
gypsum (G) and fly ash (A), have been used in this project. illustrate different parameters effect on the stabilisation of
The addition of binders varied from 100 to 250 kg binder the sulphide soil. The diagram is based on results from
per cubic meter of soil (kg/m3) for the laboratory study, and laboratory test performed in this project. Soil samples were
is planned to be 150 to 250 kg/m3 for the field tests. The stabilised with different binders. The dashed line shows soil
different mixtures used in this project are presented in samples from depth 3,5 m, which is the depth with low
Table 3. Merit is a residual product (slag) from the steel strength. Samples from depth 3 and 4m, the unbroken lines
industry, the product name is Merit 5000. The ash is also a in the figure, give in the laboratory tests a better strength
residual product, it is fly ash from the paper industry. compared with depth 3,5 m. Depth 5 m, the dotted lines
caused no problem, samples from this depth had suffi-
Table 3. Mixtures of binders used in the research ciently high strength.
project.
Number Mixtures of binders Notation Laboratory Field
4 CLASSIFICATION
A proposal to a method for classification of sulphide soil
has earlier been made for the railroad project
“Botniabanan” in the north part of sweden, Mácsik (2000).
In the project presented in this paper the classification
method has been tested on soil samples from the actual site,
Stöcke. This sulphide soil is representing four of the five Figure 2. The influence of four parameters on the
different categories in the system, see Table 5. Sulphide stabilisation effect. Summarised result from uncon-
soils from the soil profile has been classified by Mácsik fined compression tests, with different binders and
(2003). Geotechnical and chemical properties of the natural from varying depth, Larsson (2004).
sulphide soil have been determined before this classifica-
tion. This method is developed to determine the sulphide Stabilised soil samples, which belongs to the dashed line in
soils acidification potential, but in this case it is used to Figure 2 are of type 1(according to table 5) and samples
relate the difficulty to stabilise a special “type” of sulphide along the other lines are of type 2-5. Therefore indicates
soil. The results indicate that “Type 1” sulphide soil is the wide lines in Figure 2 samples of sulphide soil that is diffi-
most difficult to stabilise, see Table 4. cult to stabilise. Of the parameters in Figure 2 have three of
them (loss on ignition, specific conductivity and Eh) a
Table 4. Classification of different types of sulphide higher influence on the compression strength of stabilised
soil according to acidification potential, Mácsik (2000). sulphide soils compared with the parameter, pH. Maybe
Type Water Dry Sulphur Fe/S Eh pH Acidification
should this figure in some way be increased with more
Content Density -potential / - speed parameters like watercontent, content of sulphur and iron
[%] [t/m3] [mg/kg DS] [mV]
etc.
1 65-120 1,4 >9000 3-3,5 <0 >6 High/slowly
2 48-70 1,6-1,72 6000-9000 3,8(3,5-4) 0-500 3-6 High/slowly
3 40-55 1,8 3800-6000 4-4,5 100-400 3-6 High/mean
4 50 1,75 1200 16,5 100->500 4-6 Mean/fast
5 58 1,7 900 46 0-200 >6 Low/-
Deep Mixing´05 27
5 FIELD TESTS classification method are relative easy to perform. Some of
Full-scale tests with stabilisation of sulphide soil will be these parameters are a part of the diagram in figure 2. The
done in May 2005, at the same place as samples for the diagram shows that parameters like loss on ignition, redox
laboratory tests were taken from, south of Umeå see Figure potential [mV] and specific conductivity [µS/m] have a
1. During the field tests some of the different types and high influence on the compression strength of stabilised
amounts of binders from the laboratory tests will be tested sulphide soils. Perhaps the classification method in the
as well as different mixing energy. future can give recommendations of what kind of binder
and amount that should be used for the best function in a
5.1 Binders specific “type” of sulphide soil. To establish this hypothesis
Five binders, KC50/50, KCG33, CM 30/70, C100 and more sulphide soils are needed to be investigated with both
C100+H2O will be used in the field tests. The choice of laboratory and field tests.
binders has been done with taking the laboratory study into
consideration. Results from mixture KC 50/50 are actually 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
not fully satisfying, but in this case it will be used as a ref- A reference group consisting of persons from following
erence binder in order to compare results with earlier expe- companies has given considerable technical support to this
rience. The mixing energy is planned to be 100 and 300 research project. The Swedish Road Administration
BRN (blade rotation number), the amount of binders are (Vägverket), The Swedish Railway Administration
decided to 150 and 250 kg/m3. Three columns per binder (Banverket), Botniabanan AB, Hercules Grundläggning
will be installed, with a diameter of 600 mm. AB, Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Luleå University of
Technology, Cementa AB, Nordkalk AB, and Holmen
5.2 Test methods Paper AB. These organisations have financed the project
The columns will be tested after 28 and 90 days, with col- together with, The Development Fund of the Swedish
umn sounding method. Some of the columns also will be Construction Industry (Svenska Byggbranschens Utveck-
excavated. From these, samples will be taken and tested lingsfond), The Swedish Deep Stabilization Research
with penetrometer. The homogeneity of the columns will be Centre (Svensk Djupstabilisering). We thank them all for a
evaluated from these. A test of the columns with seismic valuable support.
methods and temperature measurements are planned to be
carried out. 8 REFERENCES
Andersson, M. and Norrman, T. (2004). Stabilisering av
6 CONCLUSIONS sulfidjord – En litteratur- och laboratoriestudie.
An important conclusion from the inventory study is that Master Thesis, 2004:126 CIV, Division of Soil
more binder additive is needed in sulphide soils compared Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Luleå
with “ordinary” clays. New combinations with Merit (M), University of Technology, Luleå. (in Swedish)
gypsum (G) and fly ash (A) among others, mixed with Hansson, T. (2000). Undersökning i fält av
cement (C) or lime/cement (K/C), often will give a higher stabiliseringseffekt i organisk jord och lera. Master
strength to a stabilised sulphide soil. Some of the binders, Thesis, 2000:1 CIV, Division of Soil Mechanics and
like Merit, needs more mixing energy, as it is a big differ- Foundation Engineering, Chalmers University of
ence between laboratory- and field-tests, Hansson (2000). Technology, Göteborg. (in Swedish)
From the laboratory results it is proved that satisfying Larsson, L. (2004). Stabilisering i organisk sulfidjord –
stabilisation effect can be reached with the proper choice of Hypotes till uppkomna effekter. Internal report, Swe-
binder, amount of binder added, curing time and mixing dish Geotechnical Institute, Göteborg. (in Swedish)
energy. The compression strength varies between different Mácsik, J. (1994). Risken för utfällning av ferriföreningar
sulphide soil types. Most difficult to reach satisfactory ur dräneringsvatten från anaeroba och aeroba
stabilisation effect was with soil from 3,5m followed by sulfidjordar. Licentiate thesis, 1994:10, Division of
soil from 4m. In order to stabilise sulphide soil samples Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Luleå
from 3,5 m the amount of binder needed was 250 kg/m3. University of Technology, Luleå. (in Swedish)
Binders CM and C100 gave the highest compression Mácsik, J. (1999). Soil Improvement Based on
strength compared to the other binders. This is the case for Environmental Geotechnics, Environmental and
the whole soil profile investigated except at 3,5m. Binder geotechnical aspects of drainage of redox-sensitive
KCG33 gives the smallest variation in compression strength soils and stabilisation of soils with by-products. Ph.D.
through the whole soil profile. Thesis, 1999:09, Division of Soil Mechanics and
Stabilisation with binder C100 will be conducted with Foundation Engineering, Luleå University of
water as an extra additive although the compression Technology, Luleå.
strength decreased when water was added to the mixture. In Mácsik, J. (2000). Försurningspotential i sulfidjord.
field it might be the opposite. The coming field test will, Method development/feasibility study, Luleå
indicate if these assumptions are true or not. University of Technology, Luleå. (in Swedish)
The classification method could be one way to deter- Mácsik, J. (2003). Bedömning av sulfidjord -
mine how difficult it is to stabilise a special “type” of sul- Stabiliseringseffekt vs typ av sulfidjord. Internal report,
phide soil. Laboratory methods that are included in this Ramböll (Scandiaconsult), Sundsvall. (in Swedish)
28 Deep Mixing´05
Deformation properties of lime/cement columns. Evaluation from in-situ
full scale tests of stabilised clay
Baker, S.
Skanska Teknik,Geotechnical Engineering Department, SE-169 83 Solna, Sweden
Sadek.baker@teknik.skanska.se
Sällfors, G.
Chalmers University of Technology, Department of GeoEngineering, SE- 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
Goran.Sallfors@geo.chalmers.se
Alén, C.
Chalmers University of Technology, Department of GeoEngineering, SE- 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
Claes.Alen@geo.chalmers.se
ABSTRACT: A realistic evaluation of the deformation properties of lime cement column stabilised soil is of great
importance for the accuracy of the calculation of the total and time dependent settlement. It is difficult to determine the in
situ compression modulus and the hydraulic conductivity of a lime cement column, and very few methods exist. In this
study two different load test methods were used to evaluate the column modulus in situ. They are described in detailed as
well as the analytical evaluation of the modulus. The hydraulic conductivity of the lime cement column was measured by
using a method called packer test, which is similar to a method used for measurement of hydraulic conductivity in a rock
mass. The evaluation of the hydraulic conductivity of the column was obtained using results from the field tests and
numerical analysis. A comparison is also made with empirical rules for modulus and hydraulic conductivity recommended
for engineering design in Sweden.
1 Introduction The natural water content varies between 80% and 100 %
within the first 10 m depth, and then decreases to reach a
Stabilization of soft soil by means of lime/cement value of about 50 % at a depth close to the bedrock.
columns has become a technically as well as economically The undrained shear strength is around 10 kPa right under
very competitive method. It has the benefit of reducing the dry crust and then increases with depth, about 1.2
settlement and at the same time increasing the stability of kPa/m.
the soil. This makes the method extremely suitable for road
0
and railroad construction. For settlement calculations, the 2
compression modulus and the hydraulic conductivity of the 4
This paper deals with full scale testing in the field for 8
10
determining the modulus and the hydraulic conductivity. 12
Some indications of the strength properties are also 14
obtained, but no deeper analysis of that is included in the 16
Depth [m]
22
Lime/Cement column stabilized clay. The results from 24
these embankment tests are reported in two other papers, 26 Vane test
also to this conference. 28 Vane test
Vane test
All tests reported here were performed at the test site 30
cone test
32
Stora Viken North, which is located about 20 km North of 34
cone test
cone test
the city of Göteborg. 36 cone test
38
2 Geotechnical properties 0 10 20 30 40
Shear strength [kPa]
50 60
The soil profile consists of about 10 m marine post- Figure 1 Undrained shear strength at Stora Viken
glacial clay, overlying glacial clay. The depth to bedrock is North
about 35 m and at about 16 to 18 m there is a 2 m thick
sand layer. The undrained shear strength variation with The hydraulic conductivity of the clay varies a little
depth is given in Figure 1. The bulk density varies between and for the upper 10 m it can be assumed to be 10
-9
Deep Mixing´05 29
The pore water pressure observations indicated a By applying a tension force in the wire using a hydraulic
hydrostatic condition. The ground water table was located jack, and gradually increasing the force, the column was
about 0.5 m below the ground level. loaded at both ends, Figure 3 a. This procedure is much
easier, compared to a dead weight supported loading of the
3 Installation of lime/cement columns top, se Figure 3 b.
To be able to measure the deformation of each column at
For the purpose of testing full-scale columns, 8 columns different depths during the load test, four holes were drilled
were manufactured with a diameter of 0.6¨m and a length of shortly before the load test, and during testing, tell tales
5 m. About 28 kg stabilizer (50 % lime and 50 % cement) were installed and readings of deformations could be made
was used per meter column. Two of the columns were at the surface with an accuracy of 1/100 of a mm.
planned for hydraulic conductivity tests, while the other six Loading was done by increasing the vertical load in
were used for load tests. The columns were manufactured increments of 10 kN up to the column failure, or until the
in 2001 and tested 1½ years later. rate of deformation became so large that the loading
equipment could not keep pace with it. Each load step was
4 Field tests kept constant for 16 minutes, and readings were taken after
1,2,4,8 and 16 minutes.
4.1 Load test and test procedure
4.2 Test results
Due to the mixing procedure and equipment, the
uppermost part of the lime/cement column is usually weak Three types of diagrams are useful for analyzing the test
compared to the rest of the column, and it happens that it results. In Fig. 4, 5 and 6 the results from load tests on
consists of only remoulded soil. About 0.9 m of the column 1, 2 and 3 equipped with MOPS are given. In
columns top was in this case excavated to identify the real Figure 4 and 5 the total deformation and creep respectively
column quality, se Figure 2, and a dummy column of are given versus applied load. The tests were terminated as
concrete was cast in place on top to facilitate the future load the applied load reached a value of 120 kN, although no
tests. clear sudden failure was observed.
10
Vertical deformation [mm]
15
20
50
30 Deep Mixing´05
40
bottom of column 2 and 3 were shown to be clearly smaller
Column 1, with bottom plate than those measured at the top of the columns.
35 Column 2, with bottom plate
Column 3, with bottom plate For the two columns, which were not equipped with
MOPS, the results are given in Figure 7 and Figure 8,
load step, between 1 and 16 min [mm]
Creep deformation increment at each
30
together with the results from column 1. These results show
25 a similar behaviour as that for the columns with bottom
plate, especially column 1.
20 The only difference is that the tests were terminated as the
total bearing capacity of the column, that is the sum of the
15
shaft resistance and the point bearing capacity, was
10
exceeded.
0
5
5
0
50
0
Column 1, with bottom plate 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Vertical load [kN]
30
6 25
different loads
10
Deep Mixing´05 31
4.3 Analysis of Test Results lime/cement column, yet it must be large enough to create
an effective sealing. The flow of water from the cylinder
By replotting and analyzing the test results given in and through the column is monitored as a function of time
previous section, the moduli for the columns can be and pressure.
evaluated. These moduli represent boundary conditions The hydraulic conductivity can be evaluated, using a
which are somewhere in between the odometer and the correlation factor, usually called shape factor, Brand
triaxial case, as an expansion in horizontal direction will (1980), see the equation below.
result in an increase in horizontal stresses. But the ν-value
for the intact column is probably fairly low, and therefore 1 Q
the difference between the triaxial and oedometer modulus K col = ⋅ (5.1)
is probably fairly small. F ∆Η
For the centre 3 m of the column the evaluated modulus is
very high for the first load steps, in the order of 200 MPa, Where
while it decreases somewhat for stresses up around 300 Kcol hydraulic conductivity of the column (m/s).
kPa. Then, when the column starts to crack, close to the Q flow rate (m3/s).
creep load a significant drop in the modulus is obtained. ∆H difference in head (m)
In all the analysis the mobilized skin friction at the F shape factor (m)
periphery of the column has been accounted for. It might be
a reasonable, although somewhat conservative assumption, The shape factor depends on the geometry of the columns
to assume that the column behaves as a linear elastic – and the test equipment and is typically in the order of 0.6 to
perfectly plastic material. 0.9. A finite element model was utilized for the
determination of the shape factor. Two columns were
5 Test for Determination of in situ Hydraulic tested, at 2 and 3 different depths respectively. The results
Conductivity are given in Figure 10and Figure 11.
3E-007
The test equipment is basically the same as used for flow 2.8E-007
tests in boreholes in bedrock. This requires that a hole is 2.6E-007
Depth under ground level
3.25 m
drilled in the centre of the column and the equipment 2.4E-007 4m
2.2E-007
consists of a probe, a cylinder and a digital pressure gauge 2E-007
Discharge [m3/s]
see Figure 9. Stiff plastic tubes are used to connect the 1.8E-007
1
In the beginning of the tests somewhat higher discharges
are obtained, but as the tests progress the discharges
decrease.
The reason for this might be the presence of air or as water
becomes available the column material swells and certain
existing fissures close.
However after a couple of hours fairly stable values are
obtained. By using the above equation, the hydraulic
Figure 9 Hydraulic conductivity test instrument. conductivity value for column 7 was about 0.5 to 1 · 10 -8
m/s while, for the other column it is closer to 5 · 10 -8 m/s.
The probe consists of a single-ended metal standpipe This indicates that the hydraulic conductivity of the
open at the top. Two inflatable seals 0.5 m long at each end columns is 5 to 50 times larger compared to the intact clay.
are used to isolate that part of the standpipe perforated with
small holes. The system is flushed making sure no air is
entrapped, and is then gradually pressurized. Care must be
taken so that the pressure does not cause cracking of the
32 Deep Mixing´05
3E-007
2.8E-007
For all the columns tested it was obvious that the upper
2.6E-007
Depth under ground level meter or meter and a half of the columns were of much
2m
2.4E-007 3m poorer quality than the rest of the column. Whether this
2.2E-007
2E-007
4m
phenomenon could be avoided by modifications in the
Discharge [m3/s]
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 11 In-situ hydraulic conductivity test results for
column 8 The Financial support by Banverket, the Swedish Road
Administration, The Swedish Deep Stabilization
6 Strength of Columns Determined by Foundation, The Swedish Geotechnical Institute and
Penetration Testing Chalmers University of Technology is greatly
acknowledged.
Visual inspections of some column samples performed to
control the distribution of binder material throughout the 9 REFERENCES
column sections showed that the binder was to a certain
extent concentrated to the center of the column in the case Baker, S. (2000). Deformation Behaviour of Lime/Cement
of columns installed with a probe at the base of the column Lolumn Stabilized Clay. PhD thesis. Chalmers University
used for reverse penetration tests (FOPS). The wire of Technology. Göteborg.
connected to the probe might to some extend affect the
binder distribution as it passes the outlet hole. Column Baker, S., Liedberg, N.S.D., Sällfors, G. (1997).
prepared for conventional penetration tests (KPS) showed Deformation properties of lime cement stabilised soil in
more homogenous distribution of binder material but in working state. Proc. Of 14th Europen Conference on SMFE,
some cases with limited concentration of binder material at Hamburg, pp. 1667-1672.
the column peripheries. In general the column strength
evaluated based on (FOPS) tests was higher than those Brand, E. W., and Premchitt, J. (1980). Shape factors of
evaluated from conventional penetration tests (KPS). cylindrical piezometers. Géotechnique Vol. 30, No 4, pp.
369-384.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Carlsten, Peter (2000). Kalk- och kalkcementpelare.
Most of the in-situ load tests were performed on columns Vägleding för projektering, utförande och kontroll. SGI
equipped with a MOPS. In contrast to the FOPS and KPS Rapport 2:2000. Linköping 2000.
tests for column strength, there was no significant
difference between the load test results from columns
equipped with MOPS and those without. Although the load
tests performed on columns without MOPS were terminated
before reaching failure within the column materials the
column started to yield and a comparison for both elastic
and elastic-plastic column load-deformation behaviour was
possible to make.
Deep Mixing´05 33
34 Deep Mixing´05
Strength degradation and critical state seeking behaviour of lime treated
soft clay
Balasubramaniam, A. S.
School of Engineering, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
a.bala@griffith.edu.au
Buessucesco, B.
National Engineering Centre, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Metro Manila, Philippines
benjamin@engg.upd.edu.ph
ABSTRACT: Traditionally, unconfined compression tests are carried out in lime and cement treated soft clays with
parametric variation of the additive content and curing time. These studies were most valuable in having a good
understanding on the pseudo modulus and strength of the treated clays. In this paper, some pioneering works carried out
under triaxial undrained, drained and isotropic and anisotropic consolidation conditions are presented and discussed within
the frame work of using deviator stress, mean normal stress and voids ratio (or water content); the so-called state boundary
surface and the associated stress-strain behaviour. The results clearly illustrate the effect of additive content and the curing
time in the development of pore pressure and shear strain under undrained condition and the volumetric strain and shear
strain during the drained case. The dilatancy ratio seems to be similar to the untreated behaviour while the development of
pore pressure is suppressed and also the volumetric strain under the drained condition. The treated strength lies between
those of the critical state and the tensile fracture envelope. Strength degradation beyond the peak is also illustrated with
continuous shear.
Deep Mixing´05 35
plot. No attempt is made to estimate the plastic version of The corresponding strain increment ratio inside and outside
the dilatancy as defined by dε vp / dε sp , since this later the yield loci are shown in Figure 3. These relationships are
quantity is of the same order as the dilatancy defined with similar to those derived in the Cam Clay and Modified Cam
respect to total strains, since the elastic volumetric strains Clay models.
2.2
are small and the elastic shear strains are neglected. For the
purpose of the intended communication here, it was thought λ
Void Ratio
additive content and curing period as well as the strength 1.8
peak value and the treated strength values can reduce to as 10 100 1000
p (kN/m2)
low as the original untreated value corresponding to the
critical state condition. Figure 1(b) (e-log p ) relationship during anisotropic
consolidation tests (5% lime content, 1 month curing)
2 TRIAXIAL CONSOLIDATION BEHAVIOUR 800
Volumetric yield locus, 5% lime content, 1 month
Soft Bangkok clay when tested under triaxial consolidation Volumetric yield locus, 10% lime content, 1 month
Volumetric yield locus, 5% lime content, 2 months
at increasing stress ratio from 0 to 0.8 (close to the critical
state), illustrate a zone with voids ratio-log mean normal η=1.25
600
stress as shown in Figure 1. At any value of mean normal η=1.00
that the lime treated samples undergo very little voids ratio
change as they are sheared from the isotropic state to 200
failure. Also, the η max value at peak condition is much η=0.25
1.9
3 TRIAXIAL SHEAR UNDER UNDRAINED AND
DRAINED CONDITIONS
1.8 5% Lime, 1 month
η=0
κ The lime and cement treatment induces cementation bonds
η = 0.25 in the soft clay and makes the structure more rigid than the
η = 0.5
1.7 untreated soft clay. These cementation bonds can be broken
10 100
p (kN/m2)
1000 both by consolidation as well as by shear. These aspects can
be visualised in the (q, ε s ) and (u, ε s ) relations during
Figure 1(a) (e-log p ) relationship during anisotropic
undrained shear and the stress paths with strength
consolidation tests (5% lime content, 1 month curing) envelopes in the (q, p) plot. The increasing lime and cement
contents make more and more bonds to develop and
Another important point to note is now the (e, log p) strengthen the effects of the bonds causing less resistance to
relations are very similar to heavily overconsolidated clay consolidation and shear. The same phenomenon takes place
and the slope changes from a value very small and similar during drained shear, now instead of the excess pore
to the swell index (Cs) to the maximum compression index pressures, the volumetric strains are suppressed. Increasing
(Cc) in the normally consolidated stress state. As such the the additive content and increasing the curing time have the
lime treated clays show very little pore pressure same effect of increasing the strength of the cementation
development under undrained shear and consequently very bonds.
low volumetric strain in the drained shear. The yield loci In Figure 4, the (q, ε s ) relationship is shown under
determined from the voids ratio pressure relations with undrained condition at the lowest pre-shear consolidation
additive contents are as shown in Figure 2 and are convex pressure of 50 kN/m2 with 5, 7.5, and 10 percent lime
in shape, similar to the volumetric yield loci for soils with content and curing period prior to shear of 2 months. The
an associated flow rule obeying the normality condition. lowest lime content gives mild peak and at the highest lime
36 Deep Mixing´05
content the peak is well defined in the (q, ε s ) plot. At large shear during the post peak conditions. It is important that
strains, strain softening behaviour is noted and this strength reduction be carefully modelled to understand
destructurisation of the bonds with shear takes place and the better the jet grouted slab and lime and cement treated
deviator stress at large strains seek the lower critical state ground under large strain beyond the peak conditions. The
values than the peak stress ratio reached before. Figure 5 stress paths and the strength envelopes showing the seeking
illustrates the drained test results in (q, ε s ) plot. The of critical state in the destructured phase during large shear
is shown in Figures 13 to 16. A mechanistic picture for
behaviour is similar with higher deviator stresses for the
modelling purposes of the behaviour is also shown in
drained case. The (u, ε s ) relationship for the undrained test Figures 17 to 20.
is shown in Figure 6. In Figure 6, at high lime content, the 800
sample tends to dilate at higher shear strains similar to 5% Lime
7.5 % Lime
heavily overconsolidated samples. The (q, ε v ) relation for 10% Lime
600
the sample shown in Figure 5 is presented in Figure 7 at the
low pre-shear consolidation pressure of 50 kN/m2.
q (kN/m2)
400
7
Inside yield locus
Outside yield locus
200
6
5 0
0 4 8 12 16 20
εs (%)
3
tests ( p 0 = 50 kN / m 2 , 2 months curing)
10
5 % LIME
2 7.5 % LIME
8
10 % LIME
1 6
4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
η
u (kN/m2)
600
5% -4
7.5 %
10 %
-6
400
-8
q (kN/m2)
-10
200 0 4 8 12 16 20
εs (%)
Figure 10. The ( η , ε s ) relationships are shown in Figures Figure 7 (q- ε v ) relationship with various lime content
11 to 12 for the undrained and drained cases. It is seen that from CID tests ( p 0 = 50 kN / m 2 , 2 months curing time)
substantial strength reduction takes place with additional
Deep Mixing´05 37
1000 4
5%
7.5 %
10 %
800
600
Stress Ratio, η
q (kN/m2)
400
1
200
5 % LIME
7.5 % LIME
0 10 % LIME
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
εs (%) 0 4 8 12 16 20
εs (%)
Figure 8 (q-εs) plot with various lime content from CIU
Figure 11(a) (η−εs) plot with various lime content from
tests ( p 0 = 400 kN / m 2 , 2 months curing time)
CIU tests ( p 0 = 50 kN / m 2 , 2 months curing time)
500
3
400
2
Stress Ratio, η
300
u (kN/m2)
1
200
5 % LIME
7.5 % LIME
10 % LIME
100
0
5 % LIME 0 4 8 12 16 20
7.5 % LIME εs (%)
10 2
Stress Ratio, η
6 1
εv (%)
4 5 % LIME
7.5 % LIME
10 % LIME
2 5% Lime 0
7.5 % Lime
10% Lime 0 4 8 12 16 20
0
εs (%)
0 4 8 12 16 20
Figure 12(a) (η−εs) plot with various lime content from
εs (%)
CID tests ( p0 = 50 kN / m 2 , 2 months curing time)
Figure 10 ( ε s , ε v ) plot for lime treated clay from CID
test ( p 0 = 400 kN / m 2 , 2 month curing)
38 Deep Mixing´05
2 600
CIU Test
q max M=0.96
η max
END-OF-TEST
Stress Ratio, η
400
FAILURE
1 ENVELOPE
q (kN/m2)
5 % LIME
7.5 % LIME 200
10 % LIME
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
εs (%) 0
Figure 12(b) (η−εs) plot with various lime content from 0 200 400 600 800
p (kN/m2)
CID tests ( p 0 = 400 kN / m 2 , 2 months curing time) Figure 14(a) Effective stress paths for lime treated
600 clay (5% lime content, 2 months curing)
1000
M=0.96
800
FAILURE
ENVELOPE
400
600
q (kN/m2 )
q (kN/m2)
400
200
200
CIU Test
q max
η max
0% END-OF-TEST
0
5%
7.5 % 0 200 400 600 800 1000
p (kN/m2)
10 %
0 Figure 14(b) Effective stress paths for lime treated
0 100 200 300
clay (10% lime content, 2 months curing)
p (kN/m2)
1000
Figure 13(a) Undrained stress paths ( p 0 = 50 kN / m 2 ,
2 months curing time with different lime content) PEAK DEVIATOR STRESS
ENVELOPE FOR
1000 7.5 AND 10 % LIME CONTENT
2 MONTHS CURING
800
800
Deviator Stress, qmax (kN/m2)
600
600
q (kN/m2)
CIU Tests
200
2.5 % Lime, 1 month curing
0% 5 % Lime, 1 month curing
5% 200 7.5 % Lime, 1 month curing
7.5 % 10 % Lime, 1 month curing
10 % 12.5 % Lime, 1 month curing
0
15 % Lime, 1 month curing
200 400 600 800 5 % Lime, 2 month curing
p (kN/m2 ) 7.5 % Lime, 2 month curing
10 % Lime, 1 month curing
Figure 13(b) Undrained stress paths 0
Deep Mixing´05 39
600
3
Deviator Stress, q (kN/m2)
400 1
FAILURE ENVELOPE
FOR UNTREATED CLAY
200
CIU Tests
2.5 % Lime, 1 month curing
Figure 20 Modification of axes for the application of
5 % Lime, 1 month curing
7.5 % Lime, 1 month curing
the revised theory (CID tests)
10 % Lime, 1 month curing
12.5 % Lime, 1 month curing
15 % Lime, 1 month curing
5 % Lime, 2 month curing 4 CONCLUSIONS
7.5 % Lime, 2 month curing
10 % Lime, 1 month curing The paper summarises pioneering works carried out on lime
0
treated clays in the triaxial apparatus under undrained,
0 200 400 600
Mean Normal Stress, p (kN/m2) drained and isotropic and anisotropic consolidation
Figure 16 End of test stress points from CIU tests conditions. All data are presented in the (p, q, e) plot as
q
traditionally used in the interpretation of triaxial data. The
growth of the yield points during the undrained phase in the
Mtreated
(q, ε s ) and (u, ε s ) plots with increasing additive content
C Muntreated and curing time is clearly evident. Similarly, in the drained
case, the effects are demonstrated in the (q, ε s ) and
Treated clay
A
5 REFERENCES
v Bergado, D. T., Rruenkrirergsa, T., Taesiri, Y. and
Figure 18 Schematic diagram of (q-v) relationship Balasubramaniam, A. S. (1999): Deep Soil Mixing Used
from CID test for lime treated clay showing yield point to Reduce Embankment Settlement, Ground
Improvement, 3, 145-162.
Broms B. B. and Boman P. (1977): Stabilization of Soil
with Lime Columns. Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm.
Holm G. and Ruin, M. (1999): Column penetration tests
and extraction of lime/cement columns. Proceedings of
DMM for Deep Soil Stabilization, Balkema, Rotterdam,
311–314.
Rathmayer H. (1997): Deep mixing methods for soft
subsoil improvement in the Nordic countries.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Ground Improvement Geosystems. Balkema, Rotterdam,
2, 869-878.
Figure 19 Modification of axes for the application of
the revised theory (CIU tests)
40 Deep Mixing´05
An Analysis of Single Axis Wet Mix Performance
ABSTRACT: This paper will review the soilcrete product from more than 10 single axis wet mix projects. Issues of
mixing energy, continuity, homogeneity, strength, cement factor, and statistical average will be addressed. An evaluation of
the “Confidence of Quality” will be made based on a statistical review of data. Comparisons with lab strengths will also be
made to offer a better understanding of product expectations. Recommendations will be offered on acceptance criterion that
could be used as a guideline for this type of deep mixing.
1 INTRODUCTION This practice, together with the fact that the original
The design of soil mixed materials is evolving as engineers foundation soils and the quality of the improved soils are
and consultants better understand the product and how it naturally non-uniform, caused the specified value to be set
works. In general, the engineering community has relatively low (Matsuo, 2002).
understood that the product of wet soil mixing is a strong, U.S. practice does not abide by the above guidelines,
stiff, brittle material. Depending on many factors, the but closely follows Japanese practice for design strength
unconfined compressive strength of this material ranges development. This employs the laboratory mixing and
from 300 to 2,000 kPa for cohesive soils and much higher testing of representative field samples and representative
for cohesionless soils. Strains at failure are typically less construction practices. Unconfined compressive strength
than 2%. testing is performed after a specified cure period that is
What has been less understood in North America is the usually 7 and 28 days and occasionally 56 days. The
degree of variability that should be expected from soil inclusion of 56-day testing is becoming more common.
mixed materials. Somehow, the concept that in situ earth
materials may contribute to variability has been lost due to qud = γ quf 1
extraordinary focus on mixing equipment and methods. quf = λ qul 2
Regardless of the mixing methods, variability of the
product will be inevitable, but this can be considered in where:
design, and acceptance criterion developed to support it. qud = unconfined compressive strength used
This paper will review several soil mixing projects, the for design
means and methods of construction, and the quality control quf = average unconfined compressive
data developed during the work. From this information, strength from field test specimens
comparisons with previously suggested acceptance criteria qul = average unconfined compressive
will be made, and recommendations will be presented by strength from laboratory test specimens
the authors.
Historically, Japanese practice has used empirical
values for γ and λ equal to 0.5. λ correlates the average
2 DESIGN PRACTICE AND PRODUCT strength of the field test specimens to the average strength
VERIFICATION obtained from lab-prepared specimens, and γ takes into
By a very large margin, the Japanese have constructed the account strength variability of the soilcrete. U.S. practice
most soilcrete by wet soil mixing in the world (FHWA, followed this closely, but in recent years Japanese practice
2000). For a large part of that work, soilcrete strengths is evolving to more realistic designs after studying large
used in design were limited to 490 kPa unconfined amounts of data. One such review consisted of over 3,700
compressive strength. This criterion was developed from data points from the very large levee foundation
conservative engineering practices: improvements along the Arkansas River (Matsuo, 2002).
§ soil mixing designs used composite strength These data points result from soilcrete core samples that are
parameters so that very hard improved columns assumed to be at least 2 weeks old. Each data point is the
were desirable in soft ground, and average of test results from 3 samples. Additionally, four
§ using a high standard of quality assurance for the separate soil layers were reviewed. Several points resulted
installation, minimum strength values were adopted from this paper and studies referenced therein:
for design. § The empirical ratio λ that correlates average field
and lab strengths should be changed from 0.5 to 1.0
for sandy soil and remain at 0.5 for clay and organic
Deep Mixing´05 41
soils. This would result in decreased binder seismically active region. The soil mixed zone consisted of
requirements for sandy soils. silts and clayey silts.
§ The coefficient of variation is about 0.5, indicating a The Alameda project was ground stabilization along
wide scatter of the field strength values. the outside bend of a rail corridor. The soil mixing was
§ The empirical ratio γ that accounts for strength performed in wet silts and silty clays.
variability should remain as 0.5, regardless of soil The Blue Circle project used soil mixed columns to
type. support two, 51-meter diameter cement storage domes. The
Another study (Taki, 2003) reported results from 26 soil mixing was performed in soft, organic, silty clay
case studies of strength testing of core samples. Taki overlying a soft-to-firm inorganic silty clay.
reported that γ = 0.62 for cohesive soils, γ = 0.8, for sandy The Hamm Marine project was ground stabilization for
soils, and the average for all soils was γ = 0.69. In that bearing support and to reduce lateral earth pressures on a
study Taki proposed to use conservative values of γ = 0.5 sheetpile retaining wall system. Over the 600 meters of
for cohesive soils and γ = 0.64 for cohesionless soils. It wall length, the soils consisted of soft clays, silts, silty
should also be noted that this study had relatively low sands, and medium-stiff plastic clays.
coefficients of variation (0.38 for cohesive soil, and 0.31 The Clovelly tanks are supported on soil mixed
for cohesionless soil). columns constructed in 10 meters of soft clays and silty
As reported by Topolnicki (Topolnicki, 2004), the clays. The soil mixed columns furnished stable bearing and
“guaranteed” strength, qud, alternatively described as the reduced settlements.
unconfined compressive strength that 90% of the field The Marina del Rey Development project used soil
values will be greater than, is defined as: mixed gravity walls as an earth retention system and a
groundwater barrier. This was done using soil mixing in
qud = quf – (1.3) σf 3 soft to medium-stiff silts and clays.
The PP&L project used soil mixed columns to support
where:
a 6-story parking garage through a mixture of silty sand fill
σf = standard deviation of the compressive
over silts and silty sands.
strength of the field specimens.
The statistical parameters for the strength results
presented in Figures 1 through 12 are summarized in Table
Introducing the coefficient of variation (COV),
1 along with some additional information on soil type,
σf mixing tool size, and imposed design stress. For the 11
COV = 4 projects summarized in the table, the coefficient of
q uf
variation values range from 0.22 to 0.76. These values
correspond to γ values that range from 0.01 to 0.71. The
the guaranteed strength can then be rewritten as:
average values of COV and γ are 0.45 and 0.42
respectively. Comparing the γ values for these projects to
qud = [1 - 1.3(COV)] quf = γ quf 5
the value of 0.5 commonly used in Japan suggests that the
compressive strength data for these projects are more
variable than typically expected for soil mixing performed
3 NORTH AMERICAN DATA REVIEW FOR using the equipment and methods commonly used in Japan.
SINGLE AXIS WET MIXING For several of the projects discussed here, the values of
The project data reviewed here came from large diameter qud calculated using the procedure recommended by
wet mixing (1.2 to 2.4 meters) with no special shear blades Topolnicki (Topolnicki, 2004) fall below the imposed
on the mixing tool. In most cases these projects utilized design stress. This indicates that more than 10% of the soil
tools with multiple levels of mixing blades (usually 3) mixed material is expected to have strength values below
spaced at 0.5-meter intervals. The blade rotation number the imposed design stress. However, the mean strength of
for these projects was typically equal to or greater than 400. the field test specimens exceeds the imposed design stress
This is greater than the 360 recommended in Japan for the in all cases, and for 7 of the 11 projects, the “guaranteed
expectation of a reasonably low coefficient of variation strength” qud exceeds the imposed design stress.
(CDIT, 2002). Additionally, it should be understood that these wet soil
Compressive strength data for 11 single-axis wet soil mixing projects used tools that produced columns with
mixing projects are presented in Figures 1 through 12. In cross-sectional areas greater than 3.8 m2. When working
each figure, a histogram of the compressive strength data is such a large area, it can be expected that the soilcrete
presented along with some basic information about the data strength will vary in all dimensions, and considering the
set. The dashed line in the figures is the log-normal fact that stress follows the path of greatest stiffness, it is
distribution and the solid line is the normal distribution likely that using a value of γ = 0.5 may be too conservative.
based on the mean and standard deviation for the test data In all cases, the mean value of compressive strength from
presented in the figure. field specimens is greater than 1.5 times the imposed stress.
The California Portland Cement project was to provide This, and the fact that all of these projects are performing
a foundation to support a new cement storage dome in a satisfactorily, supports the idea that it is acceptable to have
a reasonable percentage of the compressive strength test
42 Deep Mixing´05
40 40
Wet Grab Samples Wet Grab Samples
35 35
40 samples 32 samples
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa) Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 1) California Portland Cement Project. Figure 4) Hamm Marine.
40 40
Core Samples Wet Grab Samples
35 35
17 samples 216 samples
Relative Frequency (%)
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa) Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 2) Alameda Project. Figure 5) Clovelly Tank 6401.
12 40
Wet Grab Samples Wet Grab Samples
35
10 71 samples 136 samples
Relative Frequency (%)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa) Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 3) Blue Circle Project. Figure 6) Clovelly Tank 6402.
Deep Mixing´05 43
40 40
Wet Grab Samples Wet Grab Samples
35 35
156 samples 788 samples
Relative Frequency (%)
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa) Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 7) Clovelly Tank 6405. Figure 10) Clovelly – All Tanks.
40 40
Wet Grab Samples Wet Grab Samples
35 35
132 samples 28 samples
Relative Frequency (%)
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa) Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 8) Clovelly Tank 6406. Figure 11) Marina del Rey Development Project.
40 40
Wet Grab Samples Core Samples
35 35
148 samples 26 samples
Relative Frequency (%)
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa) Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 9) Clovelly Tank 6409. Figure 12) PP&L Project.
44 Deep Mixing´05
Table 1) Summary of statistical parameters for compressive strength test results.
Imposed
Project Soil Tool CC Design Sample Mean COV γ qud
Type Diameter (kg/m3) Stress Type (MPa) (MPa)
(meters) (MPa)
CPC NC 2.4 266 0.69 wet grab 3.25 0.34 0.56 1.81
Alameda C 2.1 & 2.4 202 0.86 - 1.10 core 1.57 0.45 0.42 0.65
Blue Circle C/O 2.4 236 0.62 wet grab 5.18 0.59 0.23 1.21
Hamm Marine C 2.1 160 0.10 wet grab 1.40 0.54 0.30 0.42
Clovelly 6401 C 2.4 239 1.21 wet grab 2.08 0.76 0.01 0.02
Clovelly 6402 C 2.4 239 1.21 wet grab 1.83 0.34 0.56 1.02
Clovelly 6405 C 2.4 272 1.21 wet grab 3.03 0.42 0.45 1.38
Clovelly 6406 C 2.4 239 1.21 wet grab 1.82 0.47 0.39 0.71
Clovelly 6409 C 2.4 239 1.28 wet grab 2.77 0.36 0.53 1.47
Clovelly all C 2.4 varies varies wet grab 2.31 0.55 0.29 0.66
Marina del Rey C 2.4 180 0.41 wet grab 1.31 0.45 0.42 0.54
PP&L NC 1.8 & 2.4 305 0.69 core 8.03 0.22 0.71 5.73
C = cohesive, NC = non-cohesive, O = organic, CC = cement content, COV = coefficient of variation
results fall below the qud value without significant impact Without consideration of these aspects in wet soil
on the overall performance of the project. mixing, only a partial understanding of the factors that
Failure of these projects is generally not controlled by influence the quality of the final product is obtained.
the minimum strength value of the material because any Experience from many laboratory and field tests has proven
potential failure surface involves a relatively large volume the importance of considering these factors, and it is
of mixed soil. As a result, it is reasonable to consider the recommended that the industry report findings using
average strength of the material along with some provision cement content rather than cement factor.
that not more than a given percentage of the test results fall
below a lower specified value.
5 DISCUSSION ON SAMPLING METHODS
It is important to obtain as representative a sample as
4 CEMENT CONTENT OR CEMENT FACTOR possible for quality control verification of the soilcrete
The previously presented figures each indicate a target product. It must also be recognized that all sampling
cement content (CC) used for the project soil mixing. In methods, and some testing methods, are imperfect and that
most publications, cement factor (CF) is used to indicate the product being sampled is heterogeneous.
the amount of binder used in the soil mixing. The two The literature has typically reported core samples as
terms are defined as follows: the most widely used method for verification. There are
some very positive aspects of this sample method, and there
mass of dry cement are some negative aspects. Coring furnishes a sample of
Cement Factor = CF = 6
volume of soil the product cured in the most representative environment
and cores can be retrieved continuously from top to bottom.
mass of dry cement But coring suffers from some negative aspects:
Cement Content = CC = 7
volume of (soil + grout) § Samples are easily damaged during the coring
process, leaving microfractures in the sample, or
The authors have used cement content because it yielding untestable sections of sample. This leaves
includes many factors important to the quality of soil only the best samples for testing which can bias the
mixing that are not included when the term cement factor is test results toward higher strength values.
used. These factors include: § Coring requires specialized equipment, tooling, and
§ The concentration of cement in the injected slurry. driller experience. Two different drillers can get
Depending on the available water contained in the very different core retrieval.
soil, the water:cement ratio of the grout is adjusted § Retrieving deep samples from slender sections of
to maximize quality and minimize waste. soilcrete is very difficult due to the natural tendency
§ The volume of slurry injected. Depending on the of the core barrel to follow the path of least
soil type, the volume of slurry necessary for proper resistance out of the soilcrete. This frequently
shearing and mixing is an important aspect of occurs at a depth of about 10 meters or shallower.
preparing a uniform and consistent product. § Coring is costly and slow, limiting the number of
samples that can be retrieved.
Deep Mixing´05 45
This paper presents data from in situ wet grab samples 5. Case history reporting should include information about
on several large projects. This typically is done using a the cement content when the soil mixing is by the wet
sampler that is inserted into the uncured wet column method in consideration of the slurry concentration and
immediately after completion. The sampler can collect a the volumes installed.
discrete sample size from any depth. The sample is then 6. Additional review and evaluation of the strength of
cast into molds and moist cured on site or at a laboratory soilcrete for various cement contents and soil types along
facility after initial set. The sampling device can be with performance information will lead to more accurate
inserted to retrieve many samples from a variety of depths, design methods and broader acceptance of the wet soil
at the discretion of the quality control representative. mixing method.
Negative aspects of this sampling method are that the
specimen is not cured in situ, the test specimen only
represents what enters the sampling device, and its precise 9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
location in plan dimension is not known. Wet grab The data presented in this paper were obtained from
sampling offers several positive aspects: projects completed by Hayward Baker project managers
§ a large number of samples can be retrieved and Dennis Boehm, Sean Callan, and Joseph Cavey. Their
tested, even permitting testing at various ages to support in preparing this paper is greatly appreciated.
predict ultimate strengths. This is particularly
useful on smaller and short duration projects. 10 REFERENCES
§ all samples are of good quality. CDIT (2002), Japan. “The Deep Mixing Method”, A.A.
§ it is inexpensive, permitting the retrieval and testing Balkema Publishers.
of far more samples for a more accurate statistical
evaluation. FHWA-RD-99-138 (2000) “An Introduction to the Deep
As evidenced by the results presented in this paper and Soil Mixing Methods as Used in Geotechnical
those presented in other referenced papers, variability of the Applications,” US Department of Transportation, Federal
test results is to be expected. This variability is largely due Highway Administration.
to the inherent variability of ground conditions.
Matuso, O. (2002) “Determination of Design Parameters
for Deep Mixing,” Proceedings of Deep Mixing Workshop,
Tokyo, Japan.
8 CONCLUSIONS
Unconfined compressive strength data has been presented
Taki, O. (2003) “Strength Properties of Soil Cement
for more than 1,000 test specimens obtained by wet grab Produced by Deep Mixing,” Proceedings of the
sampling and coring for 11 single-axis wet soil mixing ASCE/Gnnneo-Institute Committee on Grouting’s
projects. This data has been statistically analyzed for Specialty Conference on Grouting, New Orleans, LA, USA.
comparison to previously published information for
verification and acceptance of soil mixed materials. This Topolnicki, M. (2004) Chapter: Soil Mixing. Ground
evaluation yields the following recommendations. Improvement. 2nd ed. Moseley, M P and Kirsch, K., ed.
1. Single-axis wet soil mixing performed with the Spon Press, London, UK
appropriate cement content and mixing energy can
provide high quality soilcrete similar to that reported for
other projects involving single and multi-axis soil
mixing.
2. Large diameter tooling may contribute to slightly higher
variability in the strength of the mixed soil, but the large
cross section permits acceptance of higher variability
provided that the mean value of the compressive strength
exceeds the imposed stress by a factor of 1.5.
3. It is recommended that both core and wet samples be
retrieved from production work for testing. Wet grab
sampling should be done at a rate of one set of samples
per 250 m3 with a minimum of one set of samples per
shift. Core sampling should be done at a rate of one core
location per 2,500 m3 of soilcrete.
4. Requirements for soilcrete strength should include the
required mean strength and a second criterion that the
guaranteed strength calculated by equation 5 be equal to
or greater than a specified value. This will allow up to
10 percent of the strength test results to be below the
guaranteed strength value.
46 Deep Mixing´05
The durability of deep wet mixed columns in an organic soil
Butcher, A.P.
BRE, Garston Watford, UK.
Butchert@bre.co.uk
ABSTRACT: The durability of deep wet mixed organic soils using a slag/cement binder has been investigated by the
excavation of 4 year old columns. Scanning electron microscopy and X ray diffraction techniques were used on samples to
examine the state of both the natural soil and the mixed soil to assess durability. Despite the acidic ground water and high
sulfates in the organic soil the deep mixed columns showed little signs of change in state.
1 INTRODUCTION the untreated soil. The project was also to examine the
Soft organic soils are characterised by their low strength durability of the deep mixed soil, when subjected to ground
and high short and long term compressibility. These water chemistry and soil binder reaction, by excavation of
characteristics preclude their use as a founding stratum for the mixed soil and field and laboratory testing of
infrastructure development. Solutions to this problem are specimens.
expensive and involve either the removal of the organic soil
or founding in a competent layer beneath. The stabilisation
of soft organic soils project ‘EuroSoilStab’ (partially 2 TEST SITE AND SOIL PROPERTIES
funded by the UK Highways Agency) carried out research The EuroSoilStab test site was located at Dartford close to
into deep soil mixing to stabilise soft organic soils. The the confluence of the Thames and Darent rivers. The soil
project developed binders and in situ deep mixing to profile consisted of up to 5.5m of soft organic silty clay
increase the strength and reduce compressibility of the soft overlying the Thames gravels. This profile is typical of the
organic soils and completed a unique full scale field trial lower Thames valley as fully described by Marsland (1986)
with a test embankment to assess the behaviour of the The Thames gravels are an aquifer connected to the tidal
stabilised soil under load. The test embankment was Thames river. The soil profile is shown in Figure 1 with
extended to test load untreated soil to provide a direct undrained shear strengths from 5 to 20 kPa and organic
comparison with the stabilised soil ( Butcher et al 2005a). content up to 80% with high moisture content and low bulk
However because of the EuroSoilStab project time scale density.
only the short term behaviour of the deep mixed soil was The deep soil mixing trial at the Dartford, UK, site was one
measured. of the six full scale trials completed during the
A follow on project ‘Long term behaviour of deep soil EuroSoilStab project. The details of the trial are included in
mixing of soft organic soils’, commissioned by the UK Butcher et al (2005b) but briefly comprised three sections
Highways Agency used the existing data and gathered more of deep mixed columns on a square grid as shown in Figure
data on the full scale field trial to assess the long term 2, Section BB: 5.5m deep, 0.9m diameter at 2m spacing,
behaviour of the loaded deep mixed soft organic soil and Section CC: 5.5m deep, 1.2m diameter at 2m spacing and
Moisture content (%) Organic content (%) Bulk Density (Mg/m3) Undrained shear strength (kPa)
0 200 400 600 0 20 40 60 80 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 40 80 120
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
Level (m AOD)
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3 -3
Laboratory triaxial
-4 -4 -4 -4 Field vane
Deep Mixing´05 47
Section AA Section DD Section BB Section CC
No deep 1.2m dia. 0.9m dia. 1.2m dia.
mixing 2m Centres 2m centres 2m centres
4m Depth 5.5m Depth 5.5m Depth
Plan
6m
5m
6m
4m Loading embankment
Gravels
Trench location
2m 2m
Figure 2: Plan and section of the deep wet mixing trial with test embankment.
Section DD: 4m deep, 1.2m diameter at 2m spacing mixed the soil with the binders to form a new material.
Section AA was left without deep mixed columns as a However SD1 does indicate that the effects of sulfates and
control to assess the behaviour of the natural ground. The acids can be controlled to some extent by using slag or pfa
loading embankment was constructed in 3 lifts of one metre mixed with OPC and so gave the lead to the selection of
per lift giving an increase in pressure at the original ground binder and an indication of the proportions of OPC to slag
surface of 54 kPa. that works in concrete.
The in situ mixing will include the sulfates and acids
in the organic soil in the mix and so poses a new problem
3 DEEP MIXING BINDER DESIGN such as the effect of sulfates and acids on the binder
The deep mixing binder design was completed as part of reaction. This problem appears to be related to the total
the Eurosoilstab project and was specifically selected not sulfates and pH value of the soil. The only work carried out
only to increase the strength of the natural soil but also to on this subject is related to the use of soil mixing to
resist the attack of the high sulfate ground water and the stabilise soils for road sub bases and is summarised by
effects of the organic material in the soil. Sherwood (1993). In this context the concerns were for
BRE Special Digest 1 (SD1) ‘Concrete in aggressive reactions that would create swelling or expansion (creation
ground' highlights the effect of sulfates and acids on of ettringite and thaumasite) as well as strength and
concrete and sets out a table to classify sites according to stiffness gain. This work highlighted the pozzolanic effect
the sulfates (SO4) in the groundwater. Typical organic clay of slag and OPC together to have a significant long term
sites have sulfates in the 3 g/l to 6 g/l range and SD1 strength gain over OPC alone.
recommends using sulfate resisting Portland cement or The selected binder consisted of granulated ground
High Slag Blast Furnace Cement with a slag content of not blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and ordinary portland cement
less than 74%. SD1 also considers the acidity of the soil (OPC) and the dosage was GGBFS:OPC in a 75:25 mix
and recommends, for pH in the 3.5 to 5.5 range, to increase with a water solid ratio of 0.5 and added at an average rate
the slag content in the cement or use pulverised fuel ash of 350kg/m3. Laboratory tests on mixed soil to the
(pfa) – Portland cement combinations. The recommended specification in the Eurosoilstab project output: Design
minimum cement content is 360 – 380 kg/m3 where cement Guide: soft soil stabilisation (2002) gave indications that
content means the reactive solids, that is including slag and the 28 day undrained shear strength would be increased by
pfa with the cement. This is to ensure the pH level rises 10 times the natural soil strength with a similar increase in
above the 12pH level that allows a pozzolanic reaction to stiffness.
start.
SD1 however looks at concrete cast in the ground and
its resistance to sulfates and acid which could permeate into
the concrete from the ground. The deep wet mixing process
48 Deep Mixing´05
4 DEEP WET MIXED COLUMN INSTALLATION
The deep wet mixed soil columns were installed by Keller
Ground Engineering as part of the Eurosoilstab project. The
equipment is fully described in the Eurosoilstab Design
Guide but briefly used a mixing tool, as shown in Figure 3,
rotating at a fixed rate of 16 revolutions per minute that was
progressively lowered into the ground at a fixed rate 0.5
metres per minute, to the design depth and then raised back
to the surface at the same rate of rotation and lift. The wet
mixing method requires the binder to be supplied both
during the downward progression of the tool and during the
raising, withdrawal, phase of the mixing. In this way the
soil is mixed twice with half the binder delivered on the
down stroke of the tool and the other half on the upward
stroke. Figure 3 shows the tool just before it contacted the Figure 3: Deep wet mixing tool.
ground with the binder supply started showing the binder
delivery hole close to the vertical axis of the tool. show a significant difference between the natural soil,
between the columns, and the mixed soil in the columns.
The pH values in the centre of the columns were in the
5 INVESTIGATION OF DEEP WET MIXED range 10 to 12 that is the level required to start the primary
COLUMNS pozzolanic reaction. The pH levels in the natural soil were
The deep wet mixed columns were investigated 4 years in the range 3 to 7 that is typical of recently (10000years
after construction. The investigation was completed by before present) deposited organic alluvium. The sulfate
excavating trenches, located as shown in Figure 2, to one levels were of a similar level in the natural soil as in the
side of a pair of columns. The trenches were supported to mixed soil but the undrained shear strength did not show
allow safe access and to excavate into the columns and the the increase predicted by the laboratory mixing trials of
soil between the columns. about 10 times the natural soil values. This data must be
viewed with the background that the tests were only
obtained where the field vane could be pushed into the
6 FIELD TESTING mixed soil.
Samples were taken and a series of in situ vane shear tests The photographic image of the excavated column in
completed to assess the strength of the soil between the Figure 5 shows a representative section through a column,
columns and the mixed soil in the columns. Specimens space does not allow a full profile to be included. The
were taken from the samples and tested for total sulfates lower part of the Figure gives an outline of the details that
and water soluble sulfates. The pH was assessed using an in only show up by colour on the photograph. The boundary
situ probe and with phenolphthalein that turns material red of the column was identifiable by a thin, up to 10mm thick,
when the pH is above 8.3. layer of very hard binder with very little soil. Other parts of
The results from these tests are given in Figure 4 and the mixed soil column included areas of mixed soil, with
pH Water soluble SO4 (g/l) Total SO4 (%) Undrained shear strength (kPa)
0 5 10 15 0 2 4 6 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
0.5
Level (m AOD)
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
Figure 4: Profiles of pH, sulfates, and undrained shear strength from both between and inside the soil mixed
columns
Deep Mixing´05 49
pH over 8.3 shown in part by the phenolphtalein pH Two samples were provided for the SEM
identifier, but also other areas of very hard binder without examinations, Sample P (Figure 6) of natural soil at 1.5m
soil. depth and Sample I (Figure 7) from the centre of a column
at 1m depth. The images from the SEM examinations of
Sample P are shown in Figures 6, with further magnified
7 LABORATORY TESTING areas in Figures 6A to 6C and those of Sample I in Figure 7
The samples taken from both the natural soil and from with further magnified areas in and Figures 7A to 7C. Each
within the mixed soil columns were split into specimens for image includes a scale by which to assess the size of the
laboratory testing for pH, water soluble sulfates and total particles.
sulfates. This data is included in Figure 4. Small specimens When viewing the SEM images it is useful to
were prepared for the Scanning Electron Microscopy remember that the size of silt particles is in the range
(SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) investigations. 0.002mm to 0.06mm, that is 2µm up to 60µm. Clay
These specimens were attached to SEM stubs, coated particles are smaller at less than 2 µm.
with an indicated 2nm of gold and examined by scanning Figure 6 of Sample P clearly shows an extremely
electron microscopy using back scattered electron imaging variable material with organic cellular structures (middle-
and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy to identify the left of the image), open structure (lower-centre) and more
elements present. intact material (left-centre and middle-top).
Figure 6A shows fibrous organic particles from the A
7.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) outline in the Figure 6 image, the cellular structure is clear,
The samples were examined by SEM to see if the effects of with the attached ‘balls’ of clay sized particles and further
the deep mixing could be seen. magnification reveals the clay sized particles attached
2.5 to 3.0m
Natural soil: brown organic clay with
roots
Soil discoloured by pH detector
(phenolphtalein, pH>8.3) natural soil
pH is about 5
Edge of column
Solid binder inclusion in column
Mixed soil inside column
B
2.5 to 3.0m
2.5m
Natural soil: brown organic clay with
roots
Soil discoloured by pH detector
(phenolphtalein, pH>8.3) natural soil pH
is about 5
Edge of column
Solid binder inclusion in column
3.0m Mixed soil inside column
Figure 5: Excavated portion of wet deep mixed column with interpretation of features
50 Deep Mixing´05
A
B
C
A 100µm 10µm
Figure 6: SEM image P4 of natural soil from 1.5m
Figure 6A: Magnified image of outline A in Figure 6
Figure 6B: Magnified image of outline B in Figure 6 Figure 6C: Magnified image of outline C in Figure 6
Deep Mixing´05 51
A
C
B
A 100µm 10µm
Figure 7: SEM image of mixed soil form 1m depth
Figure 7A: magnified image of outline A in Figure 7
B
100µm 10µm C 100µm 10µm
Figure 7B: Magnified image of outline B in Figure 7 Figure 7C: Magnified image of outline C in Figure 7
signature for Illite minerals. The results from the X-Ray The cause of this production of calcite appears
diffractions are generally qualitative although an indication therefore to be low dosage. A low dosage of cement would
of the portion of the mineral present can be obtained with not push the pH of the mix (including the acidic soil) above
experience. the 12 to 13pH required for the primary reaction of the
The main difference between the natural soil and the cement to start. The pozzolanic effect of the ggbfs is a
mixed soil is the presence of Calcite in all the mixed soil slower process than that of the cement.
samples and some mixed soil also had Gypsum with only The presence of the gypsum is less easy to explain as it
one sample (the results are shown in Figure 9) showing could be a by-product of the cementing process but it is not
small traces of Ettringite. included in all the mixed soil samples. Other cases have
The normal course of events with a granulated ground shown Gypsum to be leached from shallow layers of soil so
blast furnace slag (ggbfs) and ordinary portland cement mix the presence only in the 2.3m and 2.5m depth mixed soil
is for the pozzolanic part of the ggbfs to react with the could be due to this.
Portlandite (20 to 25% of the cement paste) in the cement to
create the cementing. If the pH of the mix is below about
11pH carbonation of the cement/ggbfs combination can 8 CONCLUSIONS
occur and create calcite. Deep wet mixing of organic soils can provide a durable
Alternatively the calcite could have been produced as a long term foundation solution provided the properties of the
by-product of the neutralising effect on the cement by the organic soil and the ground water are taken into account in
acidic soil (the natural organic soil has a pH of around 5). the binder design.
52 Deep Mixing´05
600
P02/1589/4 Sample P - Natural soil, 1.5m depth
Quartz
500
400
X-ray counts
Quartz
Kaolinite
300
Pyrite
Kaolinite
Illite
Illite
Kaolinite
Illite
Kaolinite
Pyrite
200
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Quartz
Pyrite
Illite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Quartz
Illite
100
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Diffraction angle (2 x theta)
The deep wet mixed columns examined in this quality with volumes of neat set binder and volumes of
investigation showed durable mixed soil with little or no mixed soil within the columns. The parts of column with
signs of sulfate attack or other degradation likely to reduce neat set binder showed that the mixed soil was likely to
the structural performance of the columns. have a dosage lower than the design and this was verified
However the columns were found to have poor mixing by the existence of calcite that is produced when a full
600
P02/1589/2 Sample J - Mixed soil, 2m depth
Quartz
500
400
X-ray counts
Illite
300
Quartz
Kaolinite
Illite
Illite
Kaolinite
Calcite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Ettringite
200
Kaolinite
Ettringite
Ettringite
Illite
Illite
Pyrite
Pyrite
Kaolinite
Pyrite
Quartz
Quartz
Calcite
Quartz
100
Pyrite
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Diffraction angle (2 x theta)
Deep Mixing´05 53
pozzolanic reaction cannot take place. The poor pozzolanic
reaction was because of the low pH of the soil and so
contributed to the low strength of the mixed soil. The
overall structural performance of the deep wet mixed
columns however was as expected (Butcher et al 2005b).
The X-ray diffraction results showed that little or no
sulfate attack on the mixed soil occurred as very little
ettringite was formed, an indicator of sulphate attack that
can have expansive properties that breaks up cemented
material
The SEM images confirmed a very variable structure
with platy clay sized particles, crystaline particles and
organic matter in the deep mixed columns.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper was funded by the UK
Highways Agency and the author would like to thank his
colleagues at BRE for their assistance and in particular K.
McElmeel for his invaluable help with the field work.
10 REFERENCES
BRE Special Digest 1 ‘Concrete in aggressive ground' BRE
Bookshop, 151, Roseberry Avenue, London EC1R 4GB,
(ISBN 1 86081 502 2) email:brebookshop@emap.com.
Butcher, A.P, Skinner, H.D, & McElmeel, K. (2005a).
Case study of a test embankment on organic clay. In
preparation.
Butcher, A.P, Skinner, H.D, & McElmeel, K. (2005b).
A case study of deep soil mixing to improve the properties
of an organic soil, In preparation.
Design Guide: soft soil stabilisation (2002) BRE
Bookshop, 151, Roseberry Avenue, London EC1R 4GB,
(ISBN 1 86081 599 5) email:brebookshop@emap.com.
Marsland A. (1986). The floodplain deposits of the
Lower Thames. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology,
vol 19, pp 223-247.
Sherwood,P.T. (1993). Soil Stabilisation with cement
and lime. State of the art review. Transport Research
Laboratory. HMSO London.
54 Deep Mixing´05
Strength Characteristic of Stabilized Peat using Different Types of
Binders
Hayashi, H. & Nishimoto, S.
Civil Engineering Research Institute of Hokkaido (CERI), 1-3 Hiragishi, Sapporo 062-8602, JAPAN
hayashi@ceri.go.jp, nishimoto@ceri.go.jp
ABSTRACT: When deep cement mixing is conducted for peat, a highly organic soil, the peat may not sufficiently solidify.
In this study, the unconfined compression test, observations with an electronic microscope, X-ray diffraction and other tests
were conducted on specimens prepared by treating peat with several binders of various chemical compositions. Results
indicated that a binder with high concentrations of sulfur trioxide and aluminum oxide was the most effective. It was also
found that the formation of ettringite, a hydration product, was closely related to the improved strength of peat.
Deep Mixing´05 55
Table 2 Chemical composition of binders used
2.2 Results of the unconfined compression test slightly lower than those of special cement specimens. All
For land works in Japan, the design strength of columns for binders, however, satisfied the required strength mentioned
the deep mixing method is specified at approximately 200 above.
to 500 kN/m2 in unconfined compressive strength. The For Yubarigawa peat, the effect varied depending on
strength in the laboratory mixing test was roughly three the binder. For portland cement and special cement F, the
times as high as the design strength (CERI, 2002). This strength was low at BC 20% and increased sharply at BC
discrepancy was due to the difference between on-site and 30%. Other binders did not show such a sharp increase in
laboratory mixing levels, which vary due to the type of strength, and showed a steady increase in strength as the
construction machinery and the blade rotation number at binder content increased. When the design strength was set
the site (Hayashi and Nishikawa, 1999). Values three times to be high, the necessary strength could not be obtained
as large are usually used for standard construction works in with ordinary portland cement, even at BC 50% .
Japan. Therefore a strength of 600 to 1,500 kN/m2 is For Enbetsu peat, with its high water content, the
necessary in a laboratory mixing test. strength varied considerably depending on the binder.
The amount of mixing for each binder and the With blast furnace cement, the strength was less than 20
unconfined compressive strength at the curing time of 28 kN/m2, even at BC 50%, and it was extremely small. When
days (qu 28) for each specimen is shown in Fig. 1. For special cements B, F and G were used, the stabilization
Ebetsu peat, with its relatively low water content, the effect was at the same level as that of blast furnace cement
strengths of portland and blast furnace cements were or lower. Special cements C, D and E showed stable and
56 Deep Mixing´05
high strength. The stabilization effect of special cement E
was especially notable. With special cement H, a sharp Dried peat (50deg.C., 48hr.)
increase in strength was observed at BC 30 to 50%,
although the strength at BC 20% was low. There has been Grind
Deep Mixing´05 57
Figure 4 The relationship between SAC ratio of binders and unconfined compressive strength of treated
peat at curing time of 28 days
closely related to the contents of certain components in efficiency and other conditions.
binders. In this section, criteria for selection of a binder
effective for use with peat will be presented based on these
two points. 3 MECHANISM OF INCREASE IN STRENGTH
The content ratio of sulfur trioxide (SO3), aluminum As stated in Chapter 2, the relationship between the
oxide (Al2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO) in a binder was increase in strength of cement treated with peat and
found by Eq. 2), and its relationship with the stabilization ettringite was found. A detailed experiment was conducted
effect was clarified. to further clarify this relationship.
58 Deep Mixing´05
Blast furnace cement
10000 10000
Special cement X
1000 1000
100 100
1000 1000
100 100
classified as peat, although it contains some humus. Teshio 3.2 Results of the unconfined compression test
peat is characterized by a high water content and ignition The unconfined compressive strength after curing for 7 and
loss. It also contains large amounts of bitumen, a substance 28 days is shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. In the case
that inhibit the solidification of binders. of Mihara organic clay, the necessary strength mentioned in
Three types of cement - blast furnace cement and two Chapter 2 was achieved at BC 20% for all binders. In all
special cements, one with a high SAC ratio, and one with a cases, the strength increased with the BC ratio. The
low ratio - were used as binders (see Table 4). Curing strength after curing for 28 days was also 1.3 to 1.7 times as
times of both 7 and 28 days were used. Other test high as that after 7 days.
conditions were the same as those in Chapter 2. A different tendency was observed, however, in
Teshio peat, with its high water content. In the cases of
Deep Mixing´05 59
(a) Curing time 7days using Blast furnace (b) Curing time 28ays using Blast furnace
(c) Curing time 7days using Special cement Y (d) Curing time 28days using Special cement Y
Figure 7 The results of analysis of X-ray diffraction of treated Teshio peat
(“Et” indicates ettringite)
blast furnace cement and special cement X, the necessary each other. It was therefore confirmed that the formation of
strength could not be achieved even after 28 days of curing. ettringite in stabilization of cement was closely related to
Even in the case of special cement Y, which had a high the cement’s strength, and that the SAC ratio corresponds
SAC ratio and was expected to be effective, the strength to the formation of ettringite.
was approximately 20 kN/m2 after 7 days of curing – far The result of observation with an electronic
lower than the necessary strength. After 28 days of curing, microscope (SEM) is shown in Photo 1. Needle-shaped
however, the strength increased dramatically, reaching the crystals of ettringite can be seen.
necessary strength.
60 Deep Mixing´05
3.4 Results of the pore-size distribution test
30
mixing Teshio peat and special cement Y under the same Pore size (A.U)
condition as that of the unconfined compression test.
Figure 9 The pore-size distribution of treated
The results of the pore-size distribution test are shown
Teshio peat using Special cement Y
in Fig.8. Comparing the results after seven days of curing,
when the strength was low, and after 28 days, when the
strength increased, it can be seen that the pore-size
distribution was decreasing. After the same number of 10000
days of curing, the pore-size distribution was smaller for
4 CONCLUSIONS
The unconfined compression test, observation with an
electronic microscope, X-ray diffraction analysis and other 1
examinations were conducted for peat stabilized with 0 5000 10000 15000
various types of binders, in order to clarify those binders Median of pore size (A.U.)
suitable for the cement treatment of peat, criteria for their
selection, and the mechanism of increases in strength. As Figure 10 The relationship between the median
a result, the following matters were clarified: pore size and unconfined compressive
(1) For Yubarigawa peat, with a natural water content of strength of treated Mihara organic
approximately 700%, there were some cases where the clay and Teshio peat
necessary strength was not achieved with ordinary
portland cement. However, blast furnace cement and
special cements for organic soil were found to be
effective.
REFERENCES
(2) Blast furnace cement was not effective for Enbetsu peat,
Civil Engineering Research Institute of Hokkaido (CERI).
with its higher natural water content, approximately
2002. Manual for Countermeasure against Peat Soft
900%. While some types of special cement were
Ground, pp.111-124 (in Japanese)
effective, others only achieved a low level comparable
Hayashi, H., Noto, S. and Shimaya, N. 1988. Strength of
to that of blast furnace cement.
Peat Stabilized with Cement Type Stabilizer, Proceedings
(3) When binders with high contents of sulfur trioxide
of 43rd Annual Meeting, Vol.3, JSCE, pp.172-173 (in
(SO3) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) were used, the
Japanese)
necessary strength could be achieved even for peats
Hayashi, H. and Nishikawa J. 1999. Mixing Efficiency of
having a high water content.
Dry Jet Mixing Methods Applied to Peaty Soft Ground,
(4) It is advisable to use Fig. 4 and apply the SAC ratio
Proceedings of The International Conference on Dry Mix
(SO3+Al2O3)/CaO as an index for the selection of
Methods for Deep Soil Stabilization, Stockholm, pp.333-
binders effective for peat.
338
(5) When using a binder with a high SAC ratio, large
Hayashi, H., Nishimoto, S., Ohishi, K. and Terashi, M.
amounts of a hydration product called ettringite are
2004. Long-term Characteristics on Strength of Cement
formed. Higher strength is realized, as pores in the peat
Treated Soil (part2), Monthly Report of Civil Engineering
are filled with ettringite.
Deep Mixing´05 61
Research Institute of Hokkaido, No.612, pp.28-36 (in
Japanese)
Kutara, K., Miki, H. and Okada, Y. 1984. Influences of
Humic Acid in Soil on Soil Stabilization, Civil
Engineering Journal, PWRI, Vol.26, No.8 (in Japanese)
Noto, S. and Shimaya, N. 1986. Influences of Organic
Matter on Soil Stabilization, Monthly Report of Civil
Engineering Research Institute, No.402, pp.15-26 (in
Japanese)
Okada, Y. and Shimoda, M. 1980. The Retardation
Mechanism of Cement Hydration by Peat (1) –Organic
Components of Peat-, Research Report of Onoda Co.
Ltd.,Vol.33, No.1, pp.11-24 (in Japanese)
The Japanese Geotechnical Society. 2000. Laboratory Soil
Testing Methods, pp.308-316 (in Japanese)
Washburn, E. W. 1921. Note on a Method of determining
the Distribution of Pore Sizes in Porous Material,
Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, Vol.7,
pp.115-116
Yamaguchi, H. and Ikenaga, H. 1993. Utilization of
Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry apparatus for Evaluation
of Soil Structure, Tsuchi-to-Kiso, JGS, Vol.41, No.4,
pp.15-20 (in Japanese)
62 Deep Mixing´05
Consolidation characteristics of the cement-treated soil in fresh state
Teraoka, K.
Katahira & Engineers Inc.,2-22-2, Koishigawa, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
teraoka@katahira.co.jp
ABSTRACT: Consolidation effect in fresh state for cement-treated soil has been studied. This paper describes the
consolidation characteristics of cement-treated clayey soil. As consolidation loading was delayed, the settlement strain
became smaller but the consolidation yield stress became greater. As the drain distance was longer, the ultimate
consolidation strain decreased and the time for 90% consolidation in the test were shorter than that of estimated. The
consolidation in fresh state may be neglected if the cement-treatment is applied for thick clayey layer.
Deep Mixing´05 63
3 ELAPSED TIME EFFECT ON CONSOLIDATION
Table 1 Soil properties BEHAVIOR
Natural water content % 129.1
3
Particle density Mg/m 2.587 3.1 Testing method
Wet density Mg/m3 1.377 Treated soil was filled into a ring right after treatment and
Consintency Liquid limit % 75.4 mounted to the standard consolidation test apparatus. The
inside size of the ring was 60mm in diameter and 20mm
Plastic limit % 39.4
high. One dimensional load was applied for 24hours and
Plastic index 36.0
the drain distance was 10mm. Delay of loading and stresses
Ignition loss % 10.28 for consolidation were shown in Table 2. Delay of loading
Texture Clay % 50.0 means the period between the commencement of loading
Silt % 47.8 and beginning of cement addition into soil. Circles in the
Sand % 2.2 table show the cases conducted. The loading stress was
constant for each case. The consolidation settlement was
measured by dial gauge.
cement slurry which water-cement ratio was 100% was 3.2 Results and discussions
mixed. The additional rate of the cement was 10% to dry Fig.2 shows the consolidation settlement curves of σv=19.6
soil in mass. and 78.5 kPa, respectively. Elapsed time is clocked from
the beginning of loading for consolidation. As loading was
delayed, the consolidation strain became smaller for a
consolidation stress. To describe the effect of consolidation
stress and delay of loading clearly, the hydraulic
Table 2 Consolidation condition
Delay of loading loading stress (kPa)
(hours) 1.0 4.9 9.8 19.6 39.2 78.5 157.0 313.9 627.8 1256
0.5 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
1 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
2 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
4 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
8 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
24 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
10 10
Settlement strain (%)
20 20
30 30
40 40
64 Deep Mixing´05
conductivity, elapsed time for 90% consolidation and e-log conductivities of cement-treated soil, which is located along
p relationship are shown in Figs. 3-5. the alternate long and short dash curve, were higher in one
Hydraulic conductivity and elapsed time for 90% order and decreased as the consolidation stress increased.
consolidation were obtained by the Taylor’s method. Considerable reasons of increased hydraulic conductivity
Character p in the figures denotes the mean consolidation are both that the soil was loosened in order to be slurry and
stress. Because consolidation test was conducted by one a chemical reaction due to the cement. When the cement is
stage, p is calculated as σv/2. Data obtained from untreated mixed into high water content soil, soil particle is
soil with natural water content at initial is also plotted. aggregated and forms flocks (Sogabe et al, 1996). The latter
It is well known that hydraulic conductivity of clayey soil mechanism has been used to reduce volume quickly for
decreases as the void ratio decreases. The hydraulic high water content clay disposal (e.g .Sogabe et al., 1996).
conductivity of the untreated soil decreased as mean As the chemical reaction progresses, the hydraulic
consolidation increased (dotted curve). Most hydraulic conductivity decrease because the free water in the mixture
1.E-06 10
t90 (min)
k’ (cm/s)
1.E-07 1
1.E-08 0
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
p (kPa) p (kPa)
5.0 1000
4.0
100
pc (kPa)
3.0
e
10
2.0
1
1.0 10 100 1000 10000
1 10 100 1000 10000
Loading delay (min)
p (kPa)
Deep Mixing´05 65
Loading cylinder Displacement
transducer
Drain pipe
Breathing hole
Piston
Water Mold
Upper plate
Measuring cylinder
Sample
Paper filter
Porous stone
66 Deep Mixing´05
4.2 Results and discussions
Fig.8 shows the settlement strain curves in consolidation.
The initial heights of the cement-treated soil pored into the 400
mold h0 were 40, 80 and 160mm. The curve of h0 =20mm low of H squared
were obtained by the standard consolidation test apparatus
mentioned section 3. Ultimate settlement strain of h0 300
=40mm agreed with that of h0 =20mm, but the strain
t 90 (min)
decreased as the initial height was larger. As mentioned the
200
above, consolidation characteristic changed with elapsed
time due to the proceeding of cementation. According to
the heat conduction type consolidation theory, time for 100
reaching a degree of consolidation is commensurate to the
Experiment
square of drainage distance (low of H squared). Elapsed
time of 90% consolidation of the experiment and the 0
estimated time obtained by the low of H squared are shown 0 50 100 150 200
in solid curve in Fig.9. The estimation is calculated based
on the experimental data of h0=20mm. They agree for the h0 (mm)
sample of h0=40mm, but experiment data for h0=80 and
160mm were very shorter than the estimation by the low of
H squared. The consolidation is stunted by the proceeding Fig.9 Difference of elapsed time for 90%
of cementation. consolidation between the low of H squared and
The samples after consolidation were sliced and their experiment
water contents were measured (see Fig.10). Hence, water
content of h0=20mm sample is a mean value. Water content
of h0=40mm sample was uniform and agreed with
h0=20mm sample. Water contents of h0=80mm sample and 160
h0=160mm sample were lager than that of h0=20mm sample h0=20mm Initial
except the drain boundary. These results indicate that 140
Height of sample after consolidation (mm)
100
5 CONCLUSIONS h0=160mm
Consolidation behavior of cement-treated clayey soil in 80
fresh state is studied. The specific conclusions are as
follows: 60
(1) As consolidation loading was delayed, the settlement h0=80mm
strain became smaller but the consolidation yield 40
stress became greater. h0=40mm
(2) As the drain distance was longer, the ultimate 20
consolidation strain decreased and the time for 90%
0
consolidation were shorter than the estimated time by
the low of H squared. 50 100 150 200
(3) The consolidation in fresh state may be neglected if Water content (%)
the cement-treatment is applied for thick clayey layer.
Fig.10 Water content distribution in the sample
6 REFERENCES after consolidation
Consoli, N. C. , Rotta, G. V. and Prietto (2000):Influence
of curing under stress on the triaxial response of cemented Sogabe, H., Aihara, A., Yamada, K., Saito, S. and
soils, Geotechnique, Vo. 50, No. 1, pp.99-105. Yamazaki, Y. (1996): Study on high pressure dewatering
Kobayashi A. and Tatsuoka, F. (1982): Mechanical method of cement-stabilized soft clay, Journal of
properties of saturated soft clay improved by cement Construction Management and Engineering, JSCE,
mixing VI- Effects of long-term curing -, Monthly journal pp.113-122 (in Japanese).
of the Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Yamamoto, T., Suzuki, M., Okabayashi, S., Fujino, H.,
Vol.34, No11, pp.32-35 (in Japanese). Taguchi, T. and Fujimoto, T. (2002): Unconfined
Ogishima, T. Kusakabe, O., Nomoto, H. and Mito, K. compressive strength of cement-stabilized soil cured
(1989): Strength characteristics of a cement mixed soil under an overburden pressure, Journal of Geotechnical
cured under a centrifuge field, Proc. 24th annual Engineering, JSCE, pp.387-399 (in Japanese).
conference of JSMFE, pp.1953-1954 (in Japanese).
Deep Mixing´05 67
68 Deep Mixing´05
Strength Properties of Stabilised Peat
ABSTRACT: Peat is a difficult soil to stabilise. Results from unconfined compression tests on specimens of stabilised Irish
moss peat are presented in this paper. Six different cementitious materials were added to the peat in order to study their
influence on strength and stiffness after stabilisation. All the mixes but one were cement-based. Other admixtures included
were blastfurnace slag, pulverised fuel ash, magnesium oxide, lime and gypsum. One mix contained blastfurnace slag,
gypsum and lime. In addition, scanning electron micrographs of the stabilised material are presented and discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION hand were not effective. Also in 1996, Cortellazo and Cola
The applicability of the soil mixing method to the (1996) used two Italian peats which were stabilised with
improvement of the engineering properties of soft deposits cement, lime, pfa and gypsum. They again reported that
has been shown to be a promising technique. Methods used only large amounts of cement allowed a substantial increase
for improving peat and clay deposits are extensive. in the unconfined shear stress. On the other hand, in the
However, an increase in the implementation of mass studies carried out for the EuroSoilStab Project (DGSSS,
stabilisation and deep soil mixing methods applied to 2001), mixtures of different agents like lime-cement, bfs-
stabilise organic soils has proved to be an economical and cement, pfa-cement, gypsum-cement, lime-gypsum-cement,
practical solution (Hampton and Edil, 1998; Åhnberg and lime-pfa-cement, pfa-bfs-cement and gypsum-pfa-cement
Holm, 1999; DGSSS, 2001; Jelisic and Leppänen, 2003; were used for stabilising peat. In this report, the mixtures of
Lambrechts et al, 2003; and McGinn and O’Rourke, 2003). peat-cement and peat-cement-gypsum provided good
Earlier studies have reported that one of the difficulties in results, although the best result was that from peat-cement-
applying these technologies to organic soils is that some bfs. On the contrary, mixtures of peat-lime-cement and
organic matter inhibits cementitious reactions responsible peat-lime-cement-pfa were deficient in their stabilisation
for strength gain (Huttunen and Kujala, 1996 and Kujala et performance. Finally, they concluded that the use of two
al, 1996). Hence research into the stabilisation of organic agents namely lime-gypsum-bfs and lime-gypsum-cement
soils is of great interest. provided the highest strength in the stabilised peat
Axelsson et al (2002) presented a study of the specimens.
stabilisation of mud and peat by adding different Hence, in order to increase our knowledge on the
cementitious materials like cement, ground granulated blast stabilisation process of peat with different cementitious
furnace slag (ggbs), fly ash/pulverised fuel ash (pfa), fine agents, this paper presents the results of the UCS and
sand, and lime. They concluded that the addition of stiffness properties of stabilised peat treated with six
different cements and admixtures to the soils varies different cementitious agents; cement, cement-bfs, cement-
considerably in effectiveness. In mud, cement alone pfa, cement-pfa-lime, cement-pfa-MgO and lime-gypsum-
provided the most effective agent of stabilisation while in bfs. The unconfined compression test was used to evaluate
peat, mixtures of cement and ggbs gave the best the strength of mechanically-mixed specimens. A quantity
stabilisation. Furthermore, for stabilising peat, mixtures of 250kg/m3 of agent was in all cases added to the soil.
containing, fly ash gave the worst result in almost every Based on the results obtained, a comparison between the
case. In peat, lime gave poor stabilisation effectiveness. behaviour of the six mixes is carried out in addition to the
Hebib and Farrell (1996) presented a study in which two effect of the water content of the peat using cement only
Irish peats were stabilised with cement, mixtures of cement- binder. Additionally, properties such as density and water
pfa-lime, blast furnace slag (bfs), bfs-cement and bfs- content are presented throughout the paper. Moreover, a
gypsum. They concluded that it is possible to stabilise comparison between the UCS results estimated here and
organic soils if enough stabilising material is added. In those from earlier studies reported in the literature is
addition, they reported that cement alone and the mixture of presented. Finally scaning electron microscopy results of
slag (85%) and gypsum (15%) provided the highest the mixes are presented and compared.
increase in unconfined compressive strength (UCS) in the
prepared mixtures. Mixes with pfa and lime on the other
Deep Mixing´05 69
2 PEAT AND CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS conditions sulphide can be converted to sulphate, which is
undesirable from the standpoint of sulphate attack on
2.1 Peat concrete. British specifications limit the content of acid
Moderately strong decomposed moss peat was used in this soluble SO3 and total sulphide sulphur in alga to 0.7% and
study. This is typically mainly amorphous and is also 2%, respectively.
fibrous as a result of varying growth and degradation
processes. The classification was based on the Von Post 2.4 Pulverised fuel ash
scale (Hartlén and Wolski, 1996) and is summarised in Pulverised fuel ash (pfa) is a synthetic pozzolana created by
Table 1. the combustion of coal. Generally two types of pfa exist,
namely low-lime pfa and high-lime pfa. The UK ashes are
Table 1. Classification of the Irish moss peat used. generally classified as low-lime pfa. Pfa is the main
Colour Brown-black pozzolana currently used in the UK, either a 15-35%
Moderately strong decomposition Portland cement replacement in Portland pulverised-fuel
(H6), indistinct plant structure, ash cement or as a 35-40% replacement in pozzolanic
Degree of considerable content of amorphous cement with pfa as the pozzolan (St John et al, 1998). The
humification material, about one third of peat material consists mostly of glassy, hollow, spherical
extruded when squeezed, presence particles called cenospheres. Pfa can be described as a
of fibres and roots residue more siliceous and aluminous material which on its own
resistant to decomposition possesses little or no cementitious value, but in a finely
Water content B2, 210 % ± 20% divided form and in the presence of moisture will
Main constituents Amorphous material chemically react with lime to form compounds possessing
Sedge fibres F1, a low fibre content cementitious properties (Neville and Brooks, 1993). Lime is
Root threads R1, fine fibres needed to promote the pozzolanic reactions. However, not
Wood remnants V (S), Sphagnum all types of pfa exhibit good pozzolanic properties. The
Tensile strength T0, zero strength reactivity appears to depend upon the nature and proportion
Smell A2, moderate of the glass phase present. The stabilisation effect of pfa
Plasticity P0, not possible relies on the formation of calcium silicate gels which
gradually harden over a long period of time to form a stable
Organic content N4, 94%
material. Although slow to harden, the hydration products
Natural density 294 (kg/m3)
may be similar to those of PC (Taylor, 1997), indicating
pfa’s potential as a binder.
2.2 Portland cement
Although several types of cement, from CEM I (Portland
2.5 Magnesium oxide cement
cement) to CEM V (composite material), are available
The recent emergence of magnesium oxide cements (MgO
commercially (BS EN 197-1, 2000), ordinary Portland
cements) (Pearce; 2002, Dyer, 2003) provides a unique
cement (OPC), now Portland cement (PC), is the most
opportunity to develop durable high quality novel cement-
commonly used for stabilisation. A description of the origin
based materials. MgO cements use ‘reactive’ magnesia that
and the reactions that cement produces as a binder in the
is manufactured at much lower temperatures than PC,
stabilisation process is given elsewhere (Neville, 1995; Al-
contains a large proportion of by-product pozzolans, is
Tabbaa and Perera, 2003). Only PC was used in this study.
more recyclable than PC and is expected to provide an
improved durability and to have a high propensity for
2.3 Blastfurnace slag
binding with waste materials. MgO cements are
Blastfurnace slag (bfs) is obtained from the manufacture of
fundamentally different and have a very different chemistry
pig iron and contains silica, alumina and lime. There are
from PC (Harrison, 2003). They are produced by mixing
many types of slag mentioned in the literature, with little
‘reactive’ magnesium oxide (magnesia), from the calcining
attempt to distinguish between them. They are different
of magnesite (magnesium carbonate), and a pozzolan in the
from pozzolans, in that the nature of the reactions and the
presence of a small quantity of hydraulic cement such as
reaction products are different. Ground granulated
PC.
blastfurnace slag (ggbs), which is the type most available in
The hydration of reactive magnesia occurs at the same
the UK, is classed as a latent hydraulic cement with
rate as that of PC and results in the formation of brucite
compositions broadly intermediate between pozzolanic
(magnesium hydroxide) which replaces the portlandite that
materials and Portland cements (Taylor, 1997). The
is deliberately consumed by the pozzolans. Brucite is much
blastfurnace slag cement is similar to normal Portland
less soluble than portlandite resulting in a lower
cement in its physical properties, except that the rate of
concentration of pore water hydroxide ions alleviating
hardening is slower in the first 28 days. It is important to
alkali aggregate reaction problems and introducing greater
mention that large quantities of slag in the cement render it
durability and a higher resistance to carbonation and
more resistant to chemical attack. Likewise, the presence of
aggressive salt attack. Brucite maintains a pH of around
excessive iron sulphide in slag may cause colour and
10.5-11 for much longer periods than portlandite, as it
durability problems in concrete products. Under certain
carbonates much less rapidly. In conventional standards of
70 Deep Mixing´05
practice, the presence of magnesia in PC is limited to a 3 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
small quantity because in the production of PC, the
presence of a magnesite impurity produces magnesia in the 3.1 Description
form of periclase or ‘dead burnt magnesia’ which hydrates For each mix, cylindrical samples (50mm diameter x 100
slowly causing dimensional stress due to expansion high) were prepared in triplicate. Unconfined compression
(Hewlett, 1998). In contrast, a reactive magnesia-based tests were carried out on the stabilised specimens and the
cement can tolerate high levels of material impurities. In unconfined compressive strength and the initial tangent
addition, MgO cements are unlike magnesium salt or Sorel elastic modulus were obtained from the stress-strain curves.
type cements, which are known to release undesirable salts, After testing, samples from the stabilised materials were
and are subject to phase changes to weaker forms. Hence subjected to microstructural examination using the scanning
MgO-based cement is included in this work for comparison electron microscope (SEM).
with PC and to investigate its potential binding capability
and any other advantages over PC. 3.2 Admixtures proportions
Two sets of admixtures were designed as detailed in Table
2.6 Lime 2. The first was used to study the effect that the water
Although several forms of lime exist, generally it is only content of the peat has on the stabilisation process. For this
quicklime (calcium oxide) and hydrated lime (calcium purpose two different water contents, in addition to the
hydroxide) that are used as binders. Quicklime, which natural water content were used. The natural water content
exists either in granular or powder form, is produced from (210%) of the peat, with a 294kg/m3 density, was increased
heating chalk or limestone. Hydrated lime, which is to 500% and 1000%. Therefore, two new peaty soils with
generally available as a fine, dry powder, is produced as a densities of 446 kg/m3 and 1014kg/m3 were produced.
result of the reaction of quicklime with water. In this study These values of density were used to estimate the
only hydrated lime was used. proportions of the mix to be added to the peat (see Table 2).
In this study only PC was used as the binder and one dry
2.7 Gypsum binder quantity, of 250kg/m3, was added to the peat. This
Gypsum is the dihydrate of calcium sulphate CaSO4·2H2O was added in the form of a slurry at a water:solid ratio of
and occurs widely as a naturally occurring mineral. 1:1 for the 210% and 500% water content peat and it was
Deposits of gypsum can be either pure or impure. In the reduced to 0.5:1 for the 1000% water content peat due to
impure deposits it can be found with other mineral like the large water content already present. The soil to grout
anhydrite, quartz, calcite, dolomite, clays, etc. Therefore, ratio was 1:1.7, 1:1.12 and 1:0.37 for the 210%, 500% and
gypsum is a very versatile material in cementitious 1000% water content peat respectively.
compositions. In the UK impure deposits are common. In the second set of mixes, the effect of different
Most quantities of gypsum are produced by flue gas binders on one peat was investigated. Hence in those
desulphurization at coal-fired power stations. By-product mixtures only the peat with a 500% water content was
gypsums are generally named after the chemical process stabilised. The quantity of cement in the mixtures with bfs,
from which they have been obtained for example, pfa, pfa-lime and pfa-MgO varied from 5.2% to 13.2%. In
phosphogypsum from phosphoric acid manufacture, addition, a mixture of lime-gypsum-bfs with no PC was
fluorogypsum from hydrofluoric acid manufacture, also used as a binder. In those mixes a soil:grout ratio of
formogypsum from formic acid manufacture, 1:1.12 was used throughout. The ratios of the binder
desulphogyspsum (or FGD-gypsum) from flue gas constituents for each binder mix are given in Table 2 in
desulophurization, etc (Bensted and Barnes, 2002). Two of which six different binders, including PC alone, are
the main obstacles to a more widespread use of gypsum are detailed.
the variability in the composition of the product and the
presence of impurities, which affect the setting and strength 3.3 Procedure
characteristics of cement. On the other hand, the gypsum in After mixing the peat and grout in a concrete-type mixer for
the cement affects not only the setting time, but also the ten minutes, the mix was placed in split PVC moulds and
strength development and the volume stability (Taylor, compacted in order to achieve uniform density.
1997).
Table 2. Proportions of the admixtures used.
Proportions Proportions Peat water Binders
Admixtures Peat:grout Binders dry peat water added PC pfa bfs lime MgO gypsum
% % % % % % % % %
Peat-PC-210 1:1.7 11.9 25.1 31.5 31.5
Peat-PC-500 1:1.12 7.8 39.4 26.4 26.4
Peat-PC-1000 1:0.37 6.6 66.0 9.0 18
Deep Mixing´05 71
Generally, the samples were compacted in five layers peat was clear. The results of the lime-gypsum-bfs mix
of approximately 20mm high and the same compactness (with no PC) are interesting in that although the UCS at 28
effort applied to all. After the specimens were prepared, days was the lowest of all the mixes (at 45.5kPa), it then
they were placed on trays inside containers and cured at a rose to 635kPa at 90 days which is much higher than the
room temperature of around 21ºC and a relative humidity of UCS produced by the other mixes with partial cement
95%. All the specimens were permited to take up water replacement. This increase can be related to the slow rate of
from the bottom and the top during storage. The samples hydration of bfs in comparison with the other binder
were cured for 28, 60 and 90 days before they were materials. Comparing the UCS values of the peat-PC-bfs,
extruded and trimmed for testing. Unconfined compression peat-PC-pfa, peat-PC-pfa-lime and peat-PC-pfa-MgO, all
tests were then conducted. show a generally similar performance with the bfs and pfa
mixes resulting in a slightly higher UCS compared to the
other two.
4 RESULTS
Table 3. Water content and density values.
4.1 Water content and density
In order to evaluate the variation of water content and Admixtures Curing time wc (%) Density (kg/m3)
density during the period of curing, these parameters were
measured at various time intervals. The water content was 0 NM NM
measured using an oven temperature of 105oC. Table 3 Peat-PC-210
28 NM 1376
60 NM NM
shows the values obtained to each mix at four different
90 NM 1305
curing periods of 0 days (which represent the values of the
0 178 1308
fresh mixture), 28, 60 and 90 days. The reduction in the 28 155 1263
water content with curing period, being consumed during Peat-PC-500
60 156 1275
the cementitious hydration processes, and hence the 90 145 1266
reduction in density, is clear. 0 290 1335
Also, it is clear that the main loss in the water content 28 209 1211
Peat-PC-1000
60 NM NM
occurs during the first 28 days, reflecting the time period
90 206 1232
required for the majority of the hydration processes to take
0 174 1611
place. In general a water content loss of 7% took place 28 162 1305
during the first 28 days, followed by a 4% reduction from Peat-PC-bfs
60 161 1262
28 to 60 days and only 2% reduction from 60 to 90 days. 90 147 1279
Thus, a total loss of 13% moisture content occured during 0 188 1573
the first 90 days of curing. Only in the peat with 1000% wc 28 175 1261
Peat-PC-pfa
60 169 1245
–and cement only mixture, a 30% water content was lost
90 161 1248
due mainly to the very high initial water content of the
0 182 1575
material which was lost at an early stage after sample 28 170 1271
preparation. In all cases a 19% reduction in density was Peat-PC-pfa-lime
60 161 1242
obtained during the first 28 days with only 1% subsequent 90 152 1250
decrease from 28 to 90 days. A similar trend was reported 0 179 1569
in the EuroSoilStab project (DGSSS, 2001). 28 167 1250
Peat-PC-pfa-MgO
60 158 1234
90 155 1227
4.2 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
0 195 1600
Figure 1 shows the UCS results with an average margin of 28 172 1299
error of ± 10%. All the results generally show an increase Peat-lime-gypsum-bfs
60 166 1254
of strength with time, although this change is minimal for 90 164 1239
some of the mixes. From the results of the cement alone NM: Not measured
binder it can firstly be seen that the natural water content
(wc) of the peat has an important effect on the UCS gained.
Peat with 210% wc achieved a strength of 988kPa at 90 4.3 Stiffness
days while peat with 500% wc and 1000% wc attained The initial unconfined tangent elastic modulus, E, was
851kPa and 308kPa strength respectively. Secondly, it is evaluated from the UCS stress-strain curves, and the values
clear that the cement alone binder is the best agent for are presented in Figure 2. Similar to the UCS values,
increasing the UCS of the peat although larger quantities of mixtures with agent containing PC-bfs, PC-pfa, PC-pfa-
cement are required to achieve a more consistent lime and PC-pfa-MgO had a much lower value of the
stabilisation (Hernandez-Martinez and Al-Tabbaa, 2004). tangent elastic modulus, than those using both PC alone and
Specimens containing peat with 210% wc and 1000% wc lime-gypsum-bfs binders. The initial tangent elastic
were not prepared for testing at 60 days hence those results modulus for those mixes also remained generally
are not available. The reduction in UCS obtained when PC unchanged with time. The mixes with the PC alone and
is partially replaced by the other binders for the 500% wc lime-gypsum-bfs binders resulted in a generally much
72 Deep Mixing´05
higher values for the tangent modulus, which generally All the mixtures have a quantity of binder of 250kg/m3
increased with time. and were tested at 28 days of curing. Note that some of the
values from the literature presented here are for peats with
1200 water contents of over 1000%, with distinct size specimens
28 days
1000
and with different conditions of curing -e.g. stabilised
60 days
samples, 68 mm diameter and 136mm height, were
800 90 days
UCS (kPa)
00
00
00
0
10
00
00
which surprisingly gave a higher UCS than the other two
50
00
-5
-5
-5
-2
-5
-5
e-
-1
gO
fa
PC
PC
fs
fs
m
PC
-b
-p
PC
um
-
fa
fa
-p
ps
this study for the cement alone binder and 1000% wc are
-p
PC
PC
gy
e-
Admixtures
Figure 1. UCS values of the peat-binder mixes with
3
250kg/m quantity of different binders. 6 MICROSTRUCTURE
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is useful in
90 providing a better understanding of the hydration products
80 28 days resulting from the application of different cementitious
70 60 days binders and how they develop over time. They also provide
60 90 days an indication of the porosity and degree of homogeneity of
E (MPa)
50
the hydration products with the mix. Typical SEM
40
30
micrographs of all the mixes are presented below and
20 compared for both 28 and 90 days of curing. All are for wc
10 of 500% peat mixes. All the micrographs have a
0 magnification of 1000.
00
00
00
0
10
00
00
50
00
-5
-5
-5
-2
-5
-5
6.1 Peat
e-
-1
gO
fa
PC
PC
fs
fs
m
PC
-b
-p
-b
M
-li
PC
PC
ps
-p
PC
gy
e-
Table 4. Comparison of UCS values with corresponding results from the literature.
This study Hebib et al ( 1996) Pousette et al (1996) Axelsson et al (2002)
Moss Ballydermot bog Raheenmore bog Arvidsjaur Arlanda Örebro (1) Örebro (2)
Admixtures
Irish Irish (750-950%wc) Irish (1200-1400%wc) Sweden (570%wc) Sweden (442%wc) Sweden (1308%wc) Sweden (1413%wc)
kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa
Peat-PC-500 557 346
Peat-PC-1000 198 290 558 657 527
Peat-PC-bfs 199 293 223
Peat-PC-pfa 182 330 402
Peat-PC-pfa-lime 139 168
Deep Mixing´05 73
The limited development of the calcium silicate coating layer of C-S-H gel, although hollow regions are still
hydrate (C-S-H) gel is clear in the peat-cement mix during observed. Figure 8, shows a typical image at 90 days which
the early period of curing (Figure 5). An important clearly shows the development of the C-S-H gel around the
observation is the poor development of ettringite around the peat particles. Figure 8b shows a particle of peat showing
small wood fibre shown inside the circle. This is evidence an absence of any hydration products within its structure or
of the influence of some organic matter on the enhancement around it. This suggests a level of heterogeneity within the
of strength. Figure 6, on the other hand, shows a more pear-binder mixes and the problems with stabilising peat.
dense area of mainly C-S-H gel although some crystals of
ettringite (inside the circle) are still visible Table 5. Elemental composition analysis for the peat.
Element Average (%)
Carbon (C) 41.86
Oxygen (O) 51.51
Silicon (Si) 2.73
Calcium (Ca) 3.90
74 Deep Mixing´05
SEM images by their distinctive spheroidal shape or even
relatively coarser hollow cenospheres. Some of these
unreacted cenospheres can be observed in the circled
regions in both images. In addition, the presence of needle
crystals of ettringite is clear. Similarly, the increased
presence of the C-S-H gel at 90 days compared to 28 days
is also clear. The lower level of presence of ettringite in
Figure 9 compared to Figure 5 and the less dense presence
of the C-S-H gel in Figure 10 compared to Figure 6 shows
the reduced level of hydration in the peat-PC-pfa mix
compared to the peat-PC mix.
Deep Mixing´05 75
Figure 11. Typical peat-PC-pfa-lime mix after 28 days Figure 13. Peat-PC-pfa-MgO mix after 28 days of
of curing. curing.
Peat
Figure 12. Typical peat-PC-pfa-lime mix after 90 days Figure 14. Peat-PC-pfa-MgO after 90 days of curing.
of curing.
76 Deep Mixing´05
decomposed, particles within the peat and the high porosity mixtures over time and their linkage with the strength
observed in the peat-cementitious admixture mixes. A more development. In all cases the cement-alone binder gave the
detailed microstructural investigation is currently being highest UCS and highest elastic modulus values. The peat-
carried out, which also include x-ray diffraction analysis, to lime-gypsum-bfs mix generally provided better results than
further understand the differences between the binder the peat-PC-bfs, peat-PC-pfa and peat-PC-pfa-lime mixes
mixes. although the improvement was at the later periods of
curing. The peat-PC-pfa-MgO mix produced very difficult
hydration products and is the subject of detailed
investigation. Finally, the UCS results presented here are in
good agreement with other results presented previously in
the literature although they are generally on the low side.
8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 16. Peat-lime-gypsum-bfs mix after 90 days of Bensted J. and Barnes P. (2002). Structure and Performance
curing. of Cements. Spon Press, UK.
Deep Mixing´05 77
Dyer O. (2003). “A Rock and Hard place, Eco-cement yet McGinn A. J. and O´Rourke T. D., (2003). “Performance of
to Cover Ground in the Building Industry”. Guardian Deep Mixing Methods at Fort Point Channel”. Report to:
newspaper, Wednesday 28 May, UK. Massachussetts Turnpike Authority Federal Highway
Administration Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff, April, USA.
Hampton M. B. and Edil Tuncer B. (1998). “Strength Gain
of Organic Ground with Cement-Type Binders”. Neville A.M. (1995). Properties of Concrete. Addison
Proceedings of Geo-Congress 98. Soil Improvement for Big Wesley Longman Limited, England.
Digs., A Geotechnical Special Publication No. 81, ASCE,
pp. 135-148. Neville A.M. and Brooks J.J. (1993). Concrete Technology.
Longman Group UK limited.
Harrison A.J.W. (2003). “The Case for and Ramification of
Blending Reactive Magnesia with Portland Cement. Pearce F. (2002). Green Foundations, New Scientist. Vol.
Presented at the conference on Our World in Concrete 175, Issue 2351, 19 July, pp. 39-41.
Structures, Singapure, August.
Pousette K., Mácsik J., Jacobsson A., Anderson R. and
Hartlén J. and Wolski W. (1996). Embankments on Organic Lahtinen P. (1999). “Peat Soil Samples Stabilised in
Soils. Development in Geotechnical Engineering, 80. Laboratory-Experiences from Manufacturing and Testing”.
Elsevier Science B. V. Amsterdan, The Netherlands. pp. Proceedings of the Dry Mixing Methods for Deep Soil
16-30. Stabilisation. Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90-5809-1082,
pp. 85-92.
Hebib S., and Farrell E.R. (1999). “Some Experience of
Stabilising Irish Organic Soils”. Proceedings of the Dry St John D. A., Poole A. B., and Sims I. (1998). Concrete
Mixing Methods for Deep Soil Stabilisation. Balkema, Petrography. A Handbook of Investigative Techniques.
Rotterdam, ISBN 90-5809-1082. pp. 81-84. Arnold. UK, pp. 110.
78 Deep Mixing´05
Correlation of shear wave velocity with unconfined compressive strength
of cement-stabilised clay
Hird, C. C. & Chan, C. M.
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK
c.hird@sheffield.ac.uk, cip02cmc@sheffield.ac.uk
ABSTRACT: Using piezoelectric transducers (bender elements) shear wave velocities were measured in cylindrical
specimens of cement-stabilised kaolin clay that were also tested in unconfined compression. A correlation was thus
established between shear wave velocity and unconfined compressive strength which was valid for a range of initial water
and cement contents of the stabilised soil and for a range of curing times. This was done with two different mixing
procedures and the resulting correlations were very similar. Linear correlations were then derived between maximum shear
modulus and unconfined compressive strength. The experimental technique adopted was relatively simple and could readily
be applied to natural clays to establish site-specific correlations. These could potentially be used in conjunction with in situ
seismic tests to monitor the effectiveness of stabilisation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Seismic testing of geomaterials to determine the shear wave Larsson and Mattson, 2003). This could be useful both in
velocity and hence the maximum shear modulus, Go, has monitoring the effectiveness of soil stabilisation in the field
become increasingly common over the last decade. Quite and in investigating suitable design mixes in the laboratory.
apart from direct applications in earthquake engineering and For stabilised clays, the value of Go/qmax might be expected
soil dynamics, this development has taken place because to lie somewhere in the range 200 to 1000, but it would be
knowledge of Go, when coupled with test data at larger necessary to establish the relevant value of Go/qmax more
strains, helps to define the non-linearity of the stress-strain precisely before seismic methods could be used on a
behaviour which has an important influence in a wide range particular project.
of engineering applications (e.g. Burland, 1989). In In this paper, a method of investigating the relationship
addition, Go can be correlated with other soil properties, between Go and qmax is described and results for
notably the undrained shear strength of clays (e.g. Larsson reconstituted kaolin clay stabilised with cement are
and Mulabdic, 1991). presented. Go was determined by measuring the shear wave
In triaxial tests, it is possible with special velocity using piezoelectric transducers (bender elements)
instrumentation to measure the stiffness of the specimen at installed in cylindrical specimens of the stabilised soil.
very small strains and obtain essentially the same stiffness These same specimens were subjected to unconfined
that would be obtained using seismic methods. Tatsuoka compression tests to determine qmax.
and Shibuya (1992) showed data for a wide range of The development of suitable methods for measuring
geomaterials relating the maximum Young’s modulus, Eo, the shear wave velocity in stabilised soil columns is beyond
and the maximum deviator stress in triaxial compression, the scope of the present paper. However research into such
qmax. For artificially cemented sands, the value of Eo/qmax methods is currently underway (Mattsson, 2004).
fell mainly in the range 1000 to 3000, corresponding
roughly to a range of 300 to 1000 for Go/qmax. Further data,
for both artificially cemented sands and clays, were 2 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
provided by Tatsuoka and Kohata (1995) and a similar
range of values of Eo/qmax was reported. The results did not 2.1 Specimen preparation
appear sensitive to whether the tests were conducted under The kaolin used in the research was supplied in powdered
drained or undrained conditions. Still more data were form and had a liquid limit of 61 %, a plastic limit of 31 %
reported for a variety of stabilised soils from the Trans- and a specific gravity of 2.60. The required amounts of
Tokyo Bay Highway project by Tatsuoka et al. (1996), oven-dried kaolin powder and ordinary Portland cement,
extending the range of Eo/qmax from about 500 to 3000. conforming to BS EN 197-1: CEM 1 42.5N (British
However, some of the lower values may have been Standards Institution, 2000), were weighed out and placed
influenced by sampling disturbance. Significantly, in a food mixer. In the main series of experiments the
Tatsuoka et al. found that Eo/qmax was reasonably constant powders were blended together before a pre-determined
for a given type of cement-treated soil if conditions, amount of water was added and the mixture was stirred by
including the curing time, were kept similar. the machine for approximately 2 minutes. However, in a
On the basis of the work outlined above, there is preliminary series, the powders were not blended before the
clearly potential to use seismic methods to assess, by non- water was added. On completion of this initial mixing, the
destructive means, the strength of stabilised soil. One materials were scraped by hand off the paddles and the base
important benefit of seismic methods is that they can readily of the bowl. The mixing process was then resumed for
be used to assess the gain of soil strength with time (e.g. another 2 minutes.
Deep Mixing´05 79
The mixture was then transferred to a split mould, 38
mm in diameter and 76 mm in length, in 4 layers, each of 20 mm
which was tamped with a miniature compaction tool. After
compaction, the collar of the mould was removed and the
surface of the specimen was trimmed off. The specimen was
weighed with the mould to allow calculation of the bulk
Piezoelectric ceramic
density. 7 mm (10 x 16 x 0.5 mm)
Next, small Perspex blocks were inserted into the top
and bottom surfaces to form slots, 12 mm x 3 mm x 7 mm
deep, for insertion of the bender elements. The Perspex
20 mm
blocks remained in place during curing of the specimen.
Brass cup filled with
Finally, the specimen was removed from the mould, resin
wrapped in cling film and cured in a moist atmosphere at a
room temperature of 20oC.
The specimens were prepared with a variety of water
and cement contents: water contents, defined as mass of
water divided by mass of kaolin, of 42, 46, 50 and 57 %; Shielded coaxial cable
cement contents, defined as mass of cement divided by
mass of kaolin, of 1.5, 3, 6 and 9 %. Various curing periods
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of BE probe.
were also allowed: 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. In the main test
series a total of 128 specimens was made and tested, so that
2 specimens were prepared for each combination of
parameters. This allowed the repeatability of the specimen
formation and testing methods to be checked.
80 Deep Mixing´05
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS In each test, signals with frequencies of 7, 9, 12 and 15
kHz were employed and the results were averaged. Typical
3.1 Interpretation of bender element tests variations of shear wave velocity with frequency are
A typical BE test result is shown in Figure 3. The illustrated in Figure 4 and within the range 7-15 kHz are
difficulties of determining the arrival time of the shear wave reasonably constant. Higher frequencies were not employed
from such records are well known (e.g. Arroyo et al., 2003). because the received signal amplitude reduced; lower
In the present work, dispersion effects, including near field frequencies would have risked greater near field effects.
effects, were evident to varying degrees. However, it was
still possible to identify an arrival time based on the start of 3.2 Preliminary test series results
the first major peak in the received signal (see Figure 3). The relationship between qmax and vs obtained from the
preliminary test series is given in Figure 5. Assuming that
ρ = 1.71 Μg/m3 (the average measured value), the
10 0.36 ms- time of shear wave arrival 0.1 correlation shown corresponds to the relationship between
0.36 ms- time of shear wave arrival
qmax and Go obtained by linear regression in Figure 6:
5 0.05
qmax = (1.30x10-3) Go (2)
0 0
6% cement
qmax = (6.00x10-10) Go2 + (9.83x10-4) Go (4)
400
3% cement
The corresponding correlations between qmax and vs in
Figure 7 assume ρ = 1.70 Μg/m3 (the average measured
value).
200
Kaolin: initial water content 42%, 3 days curing.
First specimen
4 DISCUSSION
Second specimen
0 Comparing Figures 6 and 8, it can be seen that the strengths
6 8 10 12 14 16
and stiffnesses measured in the main test series extended
over a significantly larger range than those measured in the
Input Frequency (kHz) preliminary series. This is attributed to the difference in the
mixing procedure during specimen preparation. Mixing the
Figure 4: Typical variations of shear wave clay and cement powders before adding water in the main
velocity with frequency. test series ensured a more even distribution and more
efficient use of cement. Thus, for a given specimen
composition and curing period, a higher strength and
Knowing the travel time and distance, the shear wave stiffness were measured.
velocity, vs, could be determined. The length of the travel Figure 9 shows comparisons between the results of
path was taken as the distance between the tips of the tests on specimen pairs in the main test series, where the
bender elements in the specimen. Assuming the medium specimens in each pair had the same composition and
through which the shear waves propagate to be isotropic curing period. The results of the BE test appear to have
and elastic, the maximum shear modulus is given by been repeatable to within about 20% and those of the
unconfined compressive strength test to within about 25%.
Go = ρvs2 (1) These variations, in combination, would be sufficient to
explain the observed scatter of the data about the
where ρ is the bulk density of the medium. It was assumed correlations shown in Figures 7 and 8. In terms of axial
that the bulk density at the time of testing was the same as strain at failure, the results of the unconfined compressive
that of the fresh specimen. strength tests showed significantly less repeatability than is
observed for strength in Figure 9a. The failure strain
Deep Mixing´05 81
600
400
qmax (kPa)
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
vs (m/s)
600
qmax= 1.30x10-3Go
500
R2 = 0.9710
(R = correlation coefficient)
400
qmax (kPa)
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Go (MPa)
82 Deep Mixing´05
1200
800
qmax (kPa)
600
400
200
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
vs (m /s)
1200
qmax = 1.29x10-3Go
R2 = 0.9468
1000
qmax =(6.00x10-10Go2) + (9.83x10-4Go)
R2 = 0.9606
(R = correlation coefficient)
800
qmax (kPa)
600
400
200
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Go (MPa)
Deep Mixing´05 83
1200 approximately 13% lower than the line shown (defined by
Equation 3).
1000 The Go/qmax values defined by Equations 2 and 3 are 769
Line of equality
and 775 repectively. These values lie in the upper part of
qmax Specimen 1 (kPa)
generally ranged between 0.5% and 2.5% but occasionally British Standards Institution (1990). Methods of test for
values as high as 6% were recorded. The failure strain soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standards
showed no correlation with strength, although the Institution, London.
occasional higher values were always associated with
relatively low strengths (qmax < 100 kPa). British Standards Institution (2000). Cement, composition,
The linear correlation in Figure 8 appears to specifications and conformity criteria for common cements.
systematically overpredict the strength at lower stiffnesses British Standards Institution, London.
and underpredict it at higher stiffnesses. Hence, the non-
linear correlation performs slightly better. However, it is Burland, J.B. (1989). The ninth Bjerrum Memorial Lecture:
uncertain whether the apparent non-linearity represents a “Small is beautiful” – the stiffness of soils at small strains.
fundamental behaviour pattern or whether it is a Canadian Geotechnical Journal 26, No. 4, 499-516.
consequence of experimental technique. In the lower range
of qmax or Go (qmax < 500 kPa or Go < 400 MPa), which is Greening, P.D. and Nash, D.F.T. (2004). Frequency domain
probably of greatest practical interest, a linear correlation determination of Go using bender elements. Geotechnical
would be adequate. The slope of a linear regression line Testing Journal 27, No. 3, 288-294.
fitted to the data of Figure 8 in this lower range would be
84 Deep Mixing´05
Larsson, R. and Matsson, H. (2003). Settlements and shear
strength increase below embankments – long-term
observations and measurement of shear strength increase
by seismic cross-hole tomography. Report No. 63, Swedish
Geotechnical Institute, Lingkoping.
Larsson, R. and Mulabdic, M. (1991). Shear moduli in
Scandinavian clays. Report No. 40, Swedish Geotechnical
Institute, Lingkoping.
Deep Mixing´05 85
86 Deep Mixing´05
Factors Affecting Strength of Lime-Cement Columns Based on a
Laboratory Study of Three Organic Soils
Jacobson, J. R.
S&ME, Inc., Arden, NC 28704,USA
jjacobson@smeinc.com
ABSTRACT: During feasibility studies for a deep mixing project in Virginia, laboratory prepared specimens of lime-
cement-soil mixtures from two different laboratories produced very different strengths. Also, incorporation of lime in soil-
cement mixtures produced a dramatic decrease in strength. Subsequent laboratory testing of three organic soils disclosed
that drying and re-wetting soils prior to mixing can decrease mixture strength, and it confirmed that lime can reduce mixture
strength for some soils. For cement-soil mixtures without lime, strength decreases with increasing water-to-cement ratio.
1 INTRODUCTION slurry is mixed with the soil. In the dry method of deep
As part of the Woodrow Wilson Bridge Replacement mixing, dry lime, dry cement, or a combination of dry lime
Project, an existing 6-lane bridge across the Potomac River and dry cement is mixed with the soil. Deep mixing
will be replaced with a new 12-lane bridge, which will methods are described by Porbaha (1998), CDIT (2002),
require significant realignment and widening of the EuroSoilStab (2002), Broms (2003), Bruce and Bruce
approach interchanges. On the Virginia side, the (2003), and many others. Because this was the first large
interchange between I-95 and US Route 1 shown in Figure project of its type in the mid-Atlantic region and the first
1 will be reconstructed in an area underlain by alluvial use of deep mixing by the Virginia Department of
deposits of very soft and highly compressible organic silts Transportation (VDOT), laboratory mix design studies,
and clays. New embankments will be constructed to widen field trials, and construction and monitoring of a test
existing embankments, which are approximately 3 m high. embankment were performed.
Significant primary and secondary consolidation Laboratory tests applicable to the dry method were
settlements on the order of 0.6 to 1.5 m were predicted performed by two different engineering consulting firms,
beneath the new embankments (Shiells et al. 2003). In which are referred to as Firm A and Firm B in this paper,
some areas, short-term embankment stability was a primary and the results were quite different. The example data
concern. Project requirements included maintaining traffic shown in Figure 2 indicate a four-fold difference in 28-day
flow and meeting a tight construction schedule. strength for cement-soil mixtures with the same nominal
To address these challenges, the “wet” and “dry” dose rate.
methods of deep mixing were considered for support of the Laboratory testing also disclosed a surprising impact
new embankments (Lambrechts et al. 2003, Shiells et al. of lime, as shown in Figure 3, where it can be seen that
2003). In the wet method of deep mixing, water-cement replacing a small amount of cement with lime produces a
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
1000
Lime:Cement :: 0:100
Dose Rate = 150 kg/m3
100
Firm A
500
50
Firm B
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Curing Time (days)
Deep Mixing´05 87
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
88 Deep Mixing´05
3 RESULTS FOR I-95/ROUTE 1 SOIL potassium-saturated clay fractions were also analyzed by
thermogravimetric analyses. Samples were heated from 50
3.1 Soil Characteristics to 1000°C in a nitrogen atmosphere at a rate of 20°C per
Bulk samples of the I-95/Route 1 soil were obtained from 3 minute. Kaolinite and gibbsite quantities were verified by
to 4.6 m below the ground surface. Important mass-equivalent calibration of weight loss using poorly
characteristics of the soil are listed in Table 1, which crystalline Georgia kaolinite and Reynolds synthetic
indicates that this soil is an organic silt, with about 6 gibbsite as standards.
percent organic material by dry weight, a water content of The results of the mineralogical analyses show that the
about 67 percent, and a liquid limit of about 69. clay fraction of the I-95/Route 1 soil is dominated by
Table 1 also includes data on the mineralogical montmorillonite, with some kaolinite, vermiculite, mica,
composition of the clay fraction (i.e., particles less than 2 and chlorite present.
micrometers). Mineralogical analysis consisted of x-ray
diffraction and thermal analysis. Pretreatment of the whole 3.2 Influence of Lime Type, Cement Type, Curing
sample for mineralogical analysis included removal of Temperature, and Soil Water Content on
organic matter with 30% H2O2 buffered at a pH of 5 with 1 Mixture Strength
M NaOAc (Kunze 1965). Sand was separated by retention For the I-95/Route 1 soil, a total of 23 batches of lime-
on a #300 mesh wet sieve. The suspension passing through cement-soil mixtures were prepared, cured, and tested using
the sieve included the silt and clay fractions, which were the procedures described above to investigate the influence
separated by centrifugation and decantation using 1 M of various factors on mixture strength. Comparison of the
Na2CO3 (pH 9.5) as a dispersant. X-ray diffraction was 28-day strengths from the initial batches showed that (1)
used to determine clay-mineral suites present by analyzing hydrated lime produced about the same results as quick
oriented, magnesium-saturated, glycerol-solvated samples lime, (2) Type I/II portland cement produced about the
both with no heat treatment and after 4 hours of heating at same results as Type II portland cement, (3) the mixture
110°C. A similar analysis was performed on potassium- strength increased as curing temperature increased, and (4)
saturated samples both with no heat treatment and after the mixture strength decreased as the water content of the
heating for 4 hours at 110, 300, and 550°C. Samples were soil increased. Subsequent batches were mixed using quick
scanned at a fixed counting time of 4 seconds at 0.075° of lime and Type I/II portland cement, with an initial soil
2θ per step using CuKα radiation (20 mA, 40 kV). Mineral moisture content equal to the average natural water content
quantities were estimated as integrated intensities of their of 67 percent. For routine testing, specimens were cured at
respective x-ray diffraction peaks. Sub-samples of the room temperature (about 20°C).
State Route 33
Item Test Procedure I-95/Route 1 Zone 1 Zone 2
USCS Classification ASTM D2488 OH OH OH
USCS Name ASTM D2488 Organic Silt Organic Silt Organic Silt
Liquid Limit ASTM D4318 69 109 209
Plastic Limit ASTM D4318 38 52 129
Plastic Index ASTM D4318 31 57 80
Natural Water Content (%) ASTM D2216 67 92 120
Organic Content (%) ASTM D2974 6 7 15
Clay Fraction (%) ASTM D422 38 65 52
Specific Gravity of Solids ASTM D854 2.65 2.60 2.60
pH ASTM D4972 6.6 4.8 3.7
Sulfate Content (mg/kg) AASHTO T290 730 10,000 10,400
Composition of Clay Fraction
Montmorillonite 55 55 60
Kaolinite 15 20 20
See Text
Vermiculite 15 15 3
Mica 10 10 15
Chlorite 5 0 2
Deep Mixing´05 89
Unconfined Compressive Strength (psi)
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
90 Deep Mixing´05
(kg/m) )
3
Lime Beneficial
3
Rate(kg/m
DoseRate
LimeDose
Lime Detrimental
Lime
3 3
CementDose
Cement DoseRate
Rate(kg/m
(kg/m ))
Figure 5. Contour Plot of 28-day Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa) for I-95/Route 1
Deep Mixing´05 91
Zone 1
Lime Dose Rate (kg/m )
3
Zone 2
3
Cement Dose Rate (kg/m )
Figure 7. Contour Plots of 28- day Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa) for State Route 33
92 Deep Mixing´05
soils to determine whether they provide results close to the 6 CONCLUSIONS
trend line shown. Based upon review of published procedures, primarily the
A potential use of this trend line is to estimate the procedure in Carlsten and Ekstrom (1995), a 35 step
amount of cement required to reach a desired laboratory procedure was developed for laboratory preparation, curing,
value of the unconfined compressive strength based solely and testing of lime-cement-soil specimens applicable to the
on the initial moisture content and dry density of the base dry method of deep mixing. The procedure is for fine-
soil. For example, suppose that a soil with characteristics grained inorganic and organic soils, but not peat. The
similar to those of the soils listed in Table 1 is to be treated procedure covers soil storage, soil preparation, lime and
with cement using the dry mixing method. The soil is cement preparation, soil and stabilizer mixing, placing the
saturated, with a water content of 80% and a specific mixture in molds, curing, specimen extraction, unconfined
gravity of solids equal to 2.65, so that the dry density is 850 compression testing, and data reduction and presentation.
kg/m3. Further suppose that a strength of 500 kPa is Several of the most important aspects of the procedure are
desired for laboratory mixed and cured specimens using a discussed in this paper, and all the details are presented in
lime-to-cement ratio of 0:100. Figure 8 indicates that a Jacobson et al. (2003).
water-to-cement ratio of about 5.3 would produce the The procedure was applied to three Virginia soils from
desired strength. For a water content of 80%, this means two sites. All three soils classified as organic silts, with
that a cement content of 0.8/5.3 = 0.15 = 15% on a dry average natural water contents ranging from 67 to 209
weight basis would be necessary. Converting cement percent. Key findings include the following:
content to dose rate, the necessary dose rate is (0.15)(850 • Hydrated lime and quick lime produced about the same
kg/m3) = 128 kg/m3. Because there is scatter in the data in mixture strength for the I-95/Route 1 soil.
Figure 8, laboratory trials could be initiated using dose rates • Type I/II and Type II portland cement produced about
in the range from, say, 100 to 150 kg/m3. the same mixture strength for the I-95/Route 1 soil.
The trend line in Figure 8 for dry mixed materials is • Increases in curing temperature produced increases in
for cement-soil mixtures without any added lime. As mixture strength for the I-95/Route 1 soil.
demonstrated above, lime can have beneficial effects or • Drying and re-hydrating the I-95/Route 1 soil caused
detrimental effects, depending on the soil type and mix drastic decreases in mixture strength.
proportions. The effect of lime on mixture strength may be • Contour plots can be a useful way to present strength
dependent on complex interactions among the lime, test results for lime-cement-soil mixtures.
organics, clay minerals, and possibly sulfates in the soil. • According to the contour plot for the I-95/Route 1 soil,
The authors are not aware of means to predict the effect of lime is detrimental to mixture strength for lime-to-
lime in advance, and site specific testing is necessary. cement ratios between about 33:67 and 0:100.
Another important factor regarding use of Figure 8 is • According to the contour plots for the Route 33 soils,
that the strength of laboratory prepared and cured lime is beneficial for the range of mix proportions
specimens is expected to be different from the strength of tested.
field mixed and cured specimens due to differences in • Increases in soil water content produced decreases in
thoroughness of mixing, curing conditions, and loading mixture strength.
conditions. • The strength of cement-soil mixtures without lime
decreases with increasing water-to-cement ratio of the
mixture. The trend line for this relationship can be
used to make preliminary estimates of the cement dose
rate needed to produce a desired mixture strength based
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
Deep Mixing´05 93
Forest Soil: Drought and Rewetting Effects. Soil Science
Society of America Journal, 63, 1848-1855.
Broms, B. B. (2003). “Deep Soil Stabilization, Design
and Construction of Lime and Lime/Cement Columns.”
Draft Report.
Bruce, D. A., and M. E. C. Bruce. (2003). “The
Practitioner’s Guide to Deep Mixing.” Grouting and
Ground Treatment, GSP 120, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 475-488.
CDIT (Coastal Development Institute of Technology).
(2002). The Deep Mixing Method: Principle, Design and
Construction. A.A. Balkema: The Netherlands.
EuroSoilStab (2002). “Development of design and
construction methods to stabilise soft organic soils.” Design
Guide Soft Soil Stabilization, CT97-0351 Project No.: BE
96-3177.
Jacobson, J.R., Filz, G.M., and Mitchell, J.K. (2003).
“Factors Affecting Strength Gain in Lime-Cement Columns
and Development of a Laboratory Testing Procedure,”
Report VTRC 03-CR16, Virginia Transportation Research
Council, Charlottesville, 69 p.
Janz, M. and Johansson, S.E. (2002). “The Function of
Different Binding Agents in Deep Stabilization.” Swedish
Deep Stabilization Research Centre, Report 9, Swedish
Geotechnical Institute, Linkoping.
Kunze, G.W., 1965. Pretreatment for Mineralogical
Analysis. In C.A. Black et al. ed., Methods of Soil Analysis,
Part 1, Agronomy Monograph 9. American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Laguros, J.G., and Davidson, D.T., 1963. Effect of
Chemicals on Soil-Cement Stabilization. Highway
Research Record No. 36, Highway Research Board,
Washington, D.C., pp. 172-203.
Lambrechts, J. R., Ganse, M. A., and Layhee C. A.
(2003). “Soil Mixing to Stabilize Organic Clay for I-95
Widening, Alexandria, VA.” Grouting and Ground
Treatment, Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No.
120, New Orleans, 575-85.
Miura, N., Horpibulsuk, S., and Nagaraj, T.S. (2002).
“Engineering Behavior of Cement Stabilized Clay at High
Water Content.” Soils and Foundations, Japanese
Geotechnical Society, Vol. 41, No. 5, pp. 33-45.
Porbaha, A. (1998). “State of the art in deep mixing
technology; part 1. Basic concepts and overview.” Ground
Improvement, 2, 81-92.
Sehn, A.L., 2001. Personal communication.
Shiells, D. P., Pelnik III, T. W., and Filz, G. M. (2003).
“Deep Mixing: An Owner's Perspective.” Grouting and
Ground Treatment, Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference, ASCE Special Publication No. 120, New
Orleans, 489-500.
URS (2000). URS Greiner Woodward Clyde
transmittal to Dr. James K. Mitchell, URS Protocol, dated
September 7, 2000.
94 Deep Mixing´05
Comparison of tensile strength of cement treated sand by various test methods
Mihira, S.
Zenitaka Corporation, 2-2-11 Nishi-Honmachi, Nishi-ku, Osaka-shi, Osaka 550-0005, Japan
mihira_shingo@zenitaka.co.jp
Takeya, N.
Formerly student at College of Industrial Technology, Nihon University, Japan
Yoshizawa, M.
Takenaka Research Development Institute, 1-5-1, Inzai, Chiba 270-1395, Japan
yoshizawa.mutsuhiro@takenaka.co.jp
ABSTRACT: In order to evaluate rationally the tensile strength of cement treated sands, a series of splitting tests, unconfined
tension tests, and unconfined torsional shear tests were conducted and compared. The tensile strength obtained by the
unconfined tension tests was larger than the one obtained by the conventional splitting tests, while it was largely underestimated
by the unconfined torsional shear tests on hollow cylindrical specimens. Such difference was possibly caused by different
extents of progressive failure during each type of tests, which may have been largest with the unconfined torsional shear tests.
Deep Mixing´05 95
The specimen diameter was 50 mm originally. The
50 diameter at the middle height was trimmed down to 41 and
供試体の寸法と 載荷装置
Loading device 45 mm, respectively, in the first and second series of tests,
LDTの設置位置
based on which the nominal tensile stress was computed.
45 LDT 外 部変位計
External disp. Refer to Figures 2 and 3 for the detailed dimensions. The
140
96 Deep Mixing´05
30
Lower section of the holder
Elements at the
GS surface of specimen 10
60
Central section 0
300 600 900 1200 1500
Gypsum
LDT Normal Stress(kPa)
Specimen 1500
Normal Stress(kPa)
(half
Central section Lower section of the holder
section)
35 1000
Average
EXT: External disp. transducer stress at
GS: Proximity transducer central
500 section
LDT: Local deformation transducer 0 5 10 15 20 25
25 unit : mm Distance from the axis of specimen(mm)
Figure 2. Detailed specimen dimension employed in the first series of unconfined tension tests and results
from finite element analysis
1000
Horizontal distribution at the height of symbol □
35 900
σy (kPa)
800
700
□
20 600
◇
(kPa)
1000
900
σy (kPa)
○
800
60
700
Horizontal distribution at the height of symbol ◇
600
22.5
1000
20 900
σy (kPa)
← At central
800
section Horizontal distribution at the height of symbol ○
700 (at central section)
35
600
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
0 1000 2000
25 unit : mm Vertical normal tensile stress σy (kPa) Distance from the axis of specimen (m)
at the elements along the side surface of specimen
Figure 3. Detailed specimen dimension employed in the second series of unconfined tension tests and results
from finite element analysis
Deep Mixing´05 97
-0.7 0.6
Unconfined tension test Unconfined tension tests
Deviator stress, q=σv-σh (MPa)
Figure 6. Typical results from the second series of Figure 7. Tensile strengths by unconfined tensile
unconfined tension tests
tests and splitting tests at different water contents
3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
were in general larger than the latter ones. In Figure 8, these 0.6 2.2
tensile strengths are compared with the unconfined
compression strength. The strengths shown in Figures 7 and Unconfined
0.5 2.0
8 have been corrected for the reference curing time of 180 tension tests
hours, referring to the dependency of tensile strengths on the
0.4 1.8
curing time as shown in Figure 9.
It should be noted that, as can be seen from Figure 7, Splitting tests
there was no significant difference in the tensile strengths 0.3 1.6
obtained by the two series of unconfined tension tests, 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200
although the the uniformity of stress distributions within the Curing time (hours)
specimen obtained by the FE analysis was largely different
(Figures 2 and 3). However, as mentioned above in Figure 6,
Figure 9. Dependency of tensile strengths and
more accurate measurement of local axial deformation could
be made in the second series of tests than in the first series. unconfined compressive strength on curing time
98 Deep Mixing´05
200
180 Water * 2.0
Tensile strength, σt (kPa)
160
With less frictional ends:
140
t=2 cm, without blades
120 t=1.5 cm, without blades
t=2 cm, with blades a) Frictional end b) Less frictional end
100
80 With frictional ends
60 and without blades: Figure 11. End conditions of specimens for
40
t=2 cm unconfined torsional shear tests
Unconfined tension tests t=1.5 cm
20 Splitting tests t=1 cm
0
160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Curing time (hours)
hand, when the specimen with less frictional ends was With less friction ends:
350
employed without blades, the direction of failure plane t=2 cm without blades
Tensile strength, σt (kPa)
tended to change toward the nearest ditch at the end of the 300 t=1.5 cm without blades
specimen in a manner that is similar to the case with blades. t=2 cm with blades
250 Water * 1.5
It can be seen from Figure 10 that the tensile strengths With frictional ends
obtained by the unconfined torsional shear tests on 200 and without blades:
Water*2.0 specimens were mostly in the range of 60 to 100 t=2 cm
150
t=1.5 cm
kPa, while exhibiting no systematic dependency on the end
t=1 cm
conditions. The effect of specimen thickness on the tensile 100
Deep Mixing´05 99
3.3 Discussions 0.6
In Figures 15 and 16, results from the unconfined tension Water * 2.0
and torsional shear tests on Water*2.0 and Water*1.5 0.4
Estimated failure envelop Unconfined torsional
specimens, respectively, are compared in terms of the
based on these results by assuming that the internal friction Unconfined torsional
Unconfined shear test (t=1.5 cm,
angle of the specimen is 30 degrees, referring to relevant -0.2
tension test with frictional ends
triaxial compression test results (Mihira et al, 2003). On the without blades)*
other hand, the estimated failure envelopes for tensile failure -0.4 Unconfined
*With exceptionally lower water
are obtained based on the unconfined tension test results. compression test content than the other specimens.
The Mohr’s circles for unconfined torsional shear tests -0.6
-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
on specimens having a thickness of 2 cm with frictional ends
Normal stress, σ (MPa)
and without blades drawn in Figures 15 and 16 are based on
the average results over three specimens (plotted as open
diamonds in Figures 10 and 14), respectively. These results Figure 15. Mohr’s circles of stress at failure for
underestimated the tensile strength largely, due possibly to Water*2.0 specimens
the occurrence of progressive failure starting from the outer
0.6 Unconfined
surface of the hollow cylindrical specimen, which is caused compression test
Water * 1.5
by the nonuniform distribution of torsional shear stresses
0.4
within the specimen. The splitting test results may have been Estimated failure t=1.5 cm,
Shear stress, τ (MPa)
ABSTRACT: A research program is now underway between Monash University and Griffith University in Australia, to
study the engineering properties of selected soft clay in Australia, and to evaluate the potential for suitable ground
improvement techniques. The work in Griffith relates to the sites in Southeast Queensland and those in Monash relates to
the soft clay (Coode Island silt) in Melbourne, Victoria. In this paper, comprehensive laboratory studies conducted at
Monash University and at Griffith University in treating the clays at both States were found to be excellent. In addition to
the physical and index properties of the clays, unconfined compression tests and consolidation tests are performed to
evaluate the strength increase and the reduction in compressibility.
1 INTRODUCTION in the matrix of the treated clay, which have very high
values of apparent pre-consolidation pressures. Thus, the
A major research program is now underway between settlement characteristics of the treated clay will be very
Monash University and the Griffith University in Australia, much reduced when compared to the untreated clay. This
to systematically study the engineering properties of improvement with cement additives on soft Australian clays
selected soft clay in Australia, and to evaluate the potential will also be compared with those studied extensively in the
for suitable ground improvement techniques. The work in Southeast Asian clays. Deep chemical mixing methods are
Griffith relates to the sites in Southeast Queensland and not yet implemented in Australia and these data are very
those in Monash relates to the soft clay (Coode Island silt) convincing in employing these methods effectively in many
in Melbourne, Victoria. The Southeast Queensland soft clay motorways and expressways, which are constructed in soft
is estuarine in nature and is found predominantly in areas clays.
closer to the creeks, while the Melbourne clay is deltaic in
nature. Preliminary studies conducted with stone columns 2 MELBOURNE EXPERIENCE
and vertical drains in the Southeast Queensland soft clays
found that, stone columns are not very effective in ground 2.1 Coode Island Silt
improvement works. However, the sensitivity of the
Queensland clays is high and therefore the remoulding Coode Island Silt (CIS) is one of the youngest formed
effects during the installation of drains seem worrisome, sedimentary formations in the Melbourne geological region
and perhaps influence the performance of the vertical drains. of the Yarra Delta. The Yarra Delta covers most of the
Thus, shallow and deep stabilization techniques with Melbourne CBD and stretches towards the Port Philip bay.
cement additives were thought have merits as ground Despite the suggestion from the names, CIS is
improvement schemes. On the other hand, Coode Island predominantly silty clay (CH) along with some minor
silt was found to respond positively to cement treatment constituents of fine sand/silt. It can be found in either dark
In this paper, comprehensive laboratory studies grey or dark grey-brown. CIS contains organic materials
conducted at Monash University and at Griffith University such as marine shells, shell fragments and fragmentary
in treating the clays at both States were compared and were plants. These contribute to generally considerable organic
found to be excellent. In addition to the physical and index content. It has been recorded to a depth between 5-23m
properties of the clays, unconfined compression tests and (Neilson, 1992).
consolidation tests are performed to evaluate the strength From a summary of results obtained, CIS is a highly
increase and the reduction in compressibility characteristics. compressible deposit of high plasticity in general and has a
The direct conclusions that can be reached from the studies record of very variable settlement under load (Ervin, 1992).
indicate that, 5-15 percent cement can produce adequate It is characterised as a normally consolidated soil, and
strength to be used in deep chemical mixing works. The exhibits significant secondary compression or creep
consolidation studies carried out indicate that the influence behaviour, even at very low applied loads. Settlement at
of the cement additive causes an over-consolidation effect loads ranging between overburden pressures to pre-
Figure 2(b): UCS distribution of stabilised CIS with carrying cement content and w/c ratios (28 days curing).
Figure 3(c): Development of strength for cement/slag Figure 4(b): Compression curve for cement stabilised
mixture w/c=0 (WC0 denotes w/c=0, and S25 denotes CIS with varying cement content with w/c=1
cement:slag (by mass) = 25:75).
Figure 3(d): Development of strength for cement/slag Figure 4(c): Compression curve for cement stabilised
mixture w/c=1 (WC1 denotes w/c=1, and S25 denotes CIS with varying cement content with w/c=2
cement:slag (by mass) = 25:75).
Figure 5(b): Compression curve for cement/fly ash Figure 5(d): Compression curve for cement/slag
stabilised CIS with varying weight ratios and w/c=1. stabilised CIS with varying weight ratio and w/c=1.
cases Cv = 0.1 - 0.3 m2/yr, and Cv/Ch = 1.0 have been -11 Liquid limit
250
Table 3: Physical properties of cement treated clay
200
Total Unit Dry Unit
Cement Moisture
Weight Weight 150
Untreated
Content (%) Content (%)
(t/m3) (t/m3) 100
5% Cement
10% Cement
0 1.255 0.711 90.72
50 15% Cement
5 1.351 0.765 86.93
10 1.459 0.828 77.92 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
15 1.483 0.845 75.26
Strain (%)
Cement Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Void Ratio,
Content (%) (%) (%) e Figure 7(a): Comparison of stress-strain behaviour of
0 59.8 23.0 2.727 treated and untreated clay (7 days curing period)
5 109.1 31.8 2.464
10 121.5 44.3 2.188 650
550
Untreated specimens of Southeast Queensland soft
clay were tested in unconfined compression. It is evident 500
from the results that the natural clay was very soft, attaining 450
a peak unconfined compressive strength of about 27 kPa.
Normal Stress (kPa)
400
Further, cement treated specimens of Southeast Queensland
soft clays were tested. Samples of 5, 10, and 15% cement 350
400
350
300
2.00
250
200
Void Ratio, e
Untreated
150
5% Cement
1.50
100 10% Cement
15% Cement
50
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0% Cement
1.00
Strain (%)
5% Cement
0.50
650 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
log σ v
631.00
Figure 9(a): Void ratio (e) and log σ v relations of
treated and untreated clay in oedometer test (7 days
600 599.56 curing time)
Peak Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
580.70 2.50
575.79
550
547.00
2.00
529.72
524.77
Void Ratio, e
500
498.26
1.50
482.35
7 Days
14 Days
28 Days
450
5 10 15
1.00
Cement Content (%)
0% Cement
15% Cement
0.50
Compressibility characteristics of untreated specimens 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
of Southeast Queensland soft clay were tested using the log σ v
oedometer consolidation test. The results of these tests are Figure 9(b): Void ratio (e) and log σ v relations of
graphically presented in Figure 9. It is apparent from the
results that, the natural clay was very compressible, treated and untreated clay in oedometer test (14 days
curing time)
attaining a peak compression index (Cc) of 1.79. Plots of
void ratio and vertical stress for sample sets of differing
For the 10 and 15% cement samples, behaviour was
cement content at curing times of 7, 14 and 28 days are
very similar. A very low (e, log σv) slope is observed for
presented in Figure 9. A dramatic difference in compressive
stresses up to 800kPa, indicating considerable
behaviour is evident between the 5% cement sample and
compressibility improvement compared to untreated
the higher ratios at all curing times explored. The slope of
samples. It was observed that the samples treated with 10
the (e, log σv) plot for 5% cement is much greater than the
2.00 5 REFERENCES
Larsson, S.
Tyréns AB, SE-118 86 Stockholm, Sweden / Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
stefan.larsson@tyrens.se
Kosche, M.
SWECO VBB AB, SE-100 26 Stockholm, Sweden, former at Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
mirja.kosche@sweco.se
ABSTRACT: The transition zone and the thin boundary layer surrounding seven types of lime-cement columns installed in
laboratory prepared kaolin clay have been investigated. Each type had a different recipe to consider several factors of
influence; the installation method; the lime/cement ratio and; the peptizer content. A large numbers of tests were performed
in the soil surrounding the columns at different column ages in order to investigate the changes in geotechnical
characteristics. The paper describes the laboratory tests and presents the results of the conducted geotechnical test series.
G F
5 00 mm
After the installation of the columns, the boxes were producing method, lime to cement ratio and if peptizer was
closed with a filter paper, a 50 mm sand layer and a steel added or not, according to Table 2.
plate. A low pressure, 15 kN/m2, was applied in form of
steel weights. The water level was kept constant at the 3.4 Sampling and testing
upper surface of the soil in order to prevent it from drying. Fall-cone tests were performed on the surrounding clay at
The preparation of the kaolin clay and the installation of the different distances from the column peripheries. The fall-
lime-cement columns in the test boxes correspond to the cone apparatus was fastened on an extension arm in order
procedure described by Larsson (1999). to facilitate testing over the whole surface.
Samples were taken according to Figure 3. The
3.3 Test columns samples were approximately 5 mm thick and taken around
The columns, 50 mm in diameter, were placed forming a the columns. Figure 4 shows the exposed surface of the test
hexagon with one column in the middle according to Figure box after 14 days.
2. Fourteen columns were installed in two test boxes for the The natural water content, the liquid limit, the plastic
tests on 7 to 30 days old columns. Three of these columns limit, the undrained shear strength and, the remoulded shear
were tested after 90 days. strength, was determined according to Swedish Standards
Seven different mixing recipes were used in order to (SIS 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1990b, 1995)
study a number of influencing factors. The recipes differ in
Column B 1.2
Liquidity index, LI
8
Column C 1.0
Column D
6 0.8
Column E
Column F 0.6
4
Column G
0.4
2
0.2
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Distance from column periphery (mm) Distance from column periphery (mm)
1.2
Liquidity index, LI
8
1.0
6 0.8
0.6
4
0.4
2
0.2
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Distance from column periphery (mm) Distance from column periphery (mm)
Column B 1.2
Liquidity index, LI
8
Column C 1.0
Column D
6 0.8
Column E
Column F 0.6
4
Column G 0.4
2
0.2
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Distance from column periphery (mm) Distance from column periphery (mm)
1.2
Liquidity index, LI
8 Column B
1.0
Column E
6 Column G 0.8
0.6
4
0.4
2
0.2
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Distance from column periphery (mm) Distance from column periphery (mm)
Figure 5 The stabilisation effect Seff and the Liquidity index LI in the surrounding kaolin clay
1.5 1.5
remoulded .
S
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
S
0.0 0.0
A B C D E F G A B C D E F G
Column Column
1.5 1.5
remoulded .
1.0 1.0
S
0.5 0.5
S
0.0 0.0
A B C D E F G A B C D E F G
Column Column
1.5 1.5
remoulded .
1.0 1.0
S
0.5 0.5
S
0.0 0.0
A B C D E F G A B C D E F G
Column Column
2.0 90days 2.0 90 days
1.5 1.5
remoulded .
1.0 1.0
S
0.5 0.5
S
0.0 0.0
B E G B E G
Column Column
Figure 7 The stabilisation effect Seff in the boundary layer; the left figures show the undisturbed stabilisation
effect Seff and; the right figures show the corresponding remoulded stabilisation effect, Seff remoulded
Hoffstedt, M. and Johansson, S-E. (2002). Peptizing in deep SIS (1989b). Geotechnical test methods - Atterberg limits.
mixing. Work Report No. 24, Swedish Deep Stabilization SS 02 71 18, 2nd Edn., Swedish Standard, SIS, Stockholm.
Research Centre, Linköping. (in Swedish)
SIS (1990a). Geotechnical test methods. Liquid limit. SS 02
Honkanen, J. and Olofsson, J. (2001). Lime-cement 71 20, 2nd Edn., Swedish Standard, SIS, Stockholm.
columns installed in rows – model tests. MSc-thesis, Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm. (in Swedish) SIS (1990b). Geotechnical test methods. Plastic limit. SS
02 71 21, 2nd Edn., Swedish Standard, SIS, Stockholm.
Kosche, M. (2004). A laboratory study on the transition
zone around lime-cement columns. MSc-Thesis 04/10, SIS (1995). Geotechnical test methods. Undrained shear
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm. strength - Fall-cone test - Cohesive soil. SS 02 71 25 E.
Swedish Standard, SIS, Stockholm.
Löfroth, H.
Swedish Geotechnical Institute/Chalmers University of Technology. SE-581 93 Linköping, Sweden
hjordis.lofroth@swedgeo.se
ABSTRACT: Deep mixing has been extensively used in Sweden since the late 70’s. However, only limited studies of the long-
term change in properties of stabilized soils have been carried out. Therefore, a study of the properties of about 10-year-old
lime-cement columns was carried out at two sites: road E6 at Munkedal and a by-pass railway at Kungsbacka, Sweden. In
particular, long-term strength increase of soil treated by lime and cement and influence of treated soil on the surrounding soil
was studied. Comparisons of the shear strength reveal an increase of the shear strength since shortly after installation.
Determination of the calcium content in the clay indicates a slow migration of calcium from the columns to the untreated clay
closest to the column.
1
5
6 2
Depth below natural ground level (m)
7
3
Test No 37 - 50 days
after installation
10
In Kungsbacka, there is an excavated slope from the natural Test No 33 - 1 year after installation
1 1
2 2
triaxial test
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
BLOWS
BLOWS
7 7 Column penetration test No 1
Test No 1 - 11 years after installation
Column penetration test No 2
Test No 2 - 11 years after installation
Column penetration test No 3
Test No 3 - 11 years after installation
8 8
Column penetration test No 5
Test No 5 - 11 years after installation
Unconfined compression test, B row 9
Test No 37 - 50 days after installation
Unconfined compression test, A row 9
9 Test No 209 - 50 days after installation 9
Unconfined compression tests and one
Test No 409 - 50 days after installation triaxial test, row 8
10 10
Figure 6: Shear strength evaluated from traditional Figure 7: Shear strength evaluated from traditional
column tests 50 days and 11 years after installation at column tests in the field and unconfined compression
Munkedal. and triaxial tests in the laboratory 11 years after
installation at Munkedal.
1 1
2 2
triaxial test
3 3
Depth below natural ground level (m)
5 5
triaxial test
6 6
7 7
8 8
BLOWS BLOWS
Figure 9: Shear strength evaluated from traditional Figure 10: Shear strength evaluated from traditional
column tests one year and 9.5 years after installation column tests in the field and unconfined compression
at Kungsbacka. and triaxial tests in the laboratory 9.5 years after
installation at Kungsbacka.
Column
surface
By-pass railway, Kungsbacka
12
2.3 m depth - gyttja clay, serie 1
2.3 m depth - gyttja clay, serie 2
Reference measurement No 1, 2 m depth, gyttja clay
10
Reference measurement No 2, 2 m depth, gyttja clay
CaO-content in column according to the design
8
CaO (%)
4
Figure 12: Calcium contents
(CaO) as a function of distance
2
from the periphery of the lime-
cement column – samples from
0 2.3 m depth in gyttja clay,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Distance from column surface (mm) Kungsbacka.
Column
surface By-pass railway, Kungsbacka
12
4.3 m depth - clay, serie 1
4.3 m depth - clay, serie 2
10 Reference measurement 1, 3 m depth, clay
Reference measurement 2, 3 m depth, clay
Reference measurement 1, 5 m depth, clay
8 Reference measurement 2, 5 m depth, clay
CaO-content in column according to the design
CaO (%)
10
8,5
Figure 14: pH as a
7,5
function of distance from
the periphery of the lime-
cement column,
7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Kungsbacka.
Distance from column surface (mm)
5 OTHER EVALUATED PARAMETERS unconfined compressive strength (Figure 15) is E50 ≈ 220qu.
A similar relation, E50 ≈ 190qu, was obtained for samples from
5.1 Modulus and deformation lime-cement columns in clay in Arboga tested 8 weeks after
Other parameters were also evaluated from the unconfined installation (Axelsson 2001).
compression tests on specimens from Kungsbacka. The The strain at failure in the unconfined compression tests
Young’s modulus, E50, evaluated as the secant modulus at 50% varies from 0.4 to 1.9% (mean value 0.85, coefficient of
of the maximum unconfined compressive strength (qu), varies variation 0.43). The relation between deformation at failure
between 20 and 570 MPa for the specimens from the column and unconfined compressive strength is shown in Figure 16.
samples in gyttja clay. The Young’s modulus of the specimens
from column samples in clay varies between 90 and 660 MPa.
A rough relation between Youngs modulus, E 50, and the
700
Youngs modulus, E50 (MPa)
600
E50 = 224*qu
500
2
R = 0,854
400
300
1,4
Strain at failure (%)
1,2
0,8
0,6
1600
Unconfined compression tests - 2,3 m depth - gyttja clay, water content 56-69%
1400 Unconfined compression tests - 4,3 m depth - clay, water content 48-69%
1200
Shear strength (kPa)
1000
800
600
Figure 17: Relation between
400 shear strength and calcium
content (CaO), Kungsbacka.
200 According to the design, the
CaO-content in the columns
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
should be about 10 to 11%.
CaO (% )
8 REFERENCES
Axelsson, M. (2001). Djupstabilisering med kalkcementpelare
– metoder för produktionsmässig kvalitetskontroll i fält.
(Deep stabilisation with lime-cement columns – methods
for production effective quality control in the field) (In
Swedish). Royal Institute of Technology. Stockholm.
Edstam, T., Ekström, J., Hallingberg, A. and Nilsson, L. (2004).
Provning av kalkcementpelare i Göta älvdalen. (Testing
of lime-cement columns in the Göta River valley.) (In
Swedish). XIV Nordic Geotechnical Meeting (NGM
2004), Report No 3, pp D43 – D54. Ystad.
SGF (2000). Kalk- och kalkcementpelare – Vägledning för
projektering, utförande och kontroll. (Lime and lime-
cement columns – Guidance for project planning,
execution and inspection.) (In Swedish). Swedish
Geotechnical Society. Report 2:2000. Linköping.
Terashi, M. (2003). Long-term Strength Gain vs. Deterioration
of Soils Treated by Lime and Cement. International
workshop on deep mixing. Proceedings pp 39-57. Tokyo.
Tränk, R and Johnson, U. (1998). Undersökning av KC-pelare
med avseende på dess “homogenitet”. (Investigation of
L/C-columns regarding their homogeneity.) (In Swedish).
Swedish Deep Stabilisation Research Centre. Working
Report No 4. Linköping.
Öberg, A-L. (1997). Homogenitet hos K/C-pelare – En
fältstudie. (Homogeneity of L/C-columns – A field study.)
(In Swedish). Report B 1997:8. Chalmers University of
Technology. Göteborg.
ABSTRACT: The quantitative assessment of the deformation behaviour of fine-grained soils, improved by deep mixing, is
important for the analysis of many geotechnical and earthquake engineering problems. Only limited information is available
on the dynamic and static deformation properties, in spite of their importance for geotechnical design. The paper presents
the results of extensive seismic and static investigations on soil improved by dry mixing. Seismic methods are described,
which can be used in the field and in the laboratory for the determination of the shear wave velocity at small strains. The
effects of strain rate and shear strain level on the soil modulus are discussed. Based on the results of extensive field and
laboratory tests, recommendations are given regarding the assessment of the deformation modulus at static and dynamic
loading.
1 INTRODUCTION
Deep mixing is used extensively to improve the The most common investigation method for deep
geotechnical properties of soft soils. The most common mixing projects is laboratory testing of the soil by adding
objectives are to reduce total and differential settlements different quantities of a stabilizing agent. The increase in
and to increase the stability of embankments and slopes. strength is measured at different time intervals after mixing,
Deep soil mixing can also enhance the dynamic and cyclic usually by the unconfined compression test. The undrained
properties of the ground in seismic regions. In some parts of shear strength is often correlated with the deformation
the world, deep mixing is used extensively for the (shear and/or compression) modulus, using empirical
strengthening of foundations for marine and off-shore methods. However, such correlations must be used
installations. Another area of increasing importance is to cautiously as soil type, mixing method and curing
modify the dynamic response of dynamically loaded conditions affect the results, which may not reflect the
foundations (e.g. railway embankments or machine actual conditions in situ.
foundations). Surprisingly little information can be found in Tests on samples from actually installed columns
the geotechnical literature regarding the dynamic and cyclic provide more realistic information than artificially mixed
deformation properties of soil, treated by deep mixing. samples. At the design stage of a project, it is usually
The realistic assessment of their properties is important difficult to establish the geotechnical properties of the
for many geotechnical design problems. Figure 1 illustrates improved ground by field trials. The most reliable method
the problem of load transfer from an embankment to a soil is by full-scale tests in the field. However, such field trials
layer reinforced by stabilized soil columns. The stress can usually be performed only in the case of large or
distribution between the stiffer elements and the untreated complex projects. It is also difficult to determine the
soil depends primarily on the geometric arrangement of the stiffness of stabilized columns with conventional
individual columns and on the relative stiffness of the geotechnical methods. Instead, push-down/pull-up probing
unstabilized soil and the columns. Therefore, it is important is commonly used, from which it is difficult to assess
to know as accurately as possible the deformation deformation properties reliably.
properties of the virgin soil, of the individual columns and Another important aspect is that the strength and
of the composite structure. stiffness of stabilized soils increases with time. Field
conditions are different to those in the laboratory and it is
therefore difficult to assess this effect by laboratory tests.
Thus, there is a need for simple, yet reliable field and
laboratory methods which can determine the static
properties (deformation modulus) and the seismic
properties (shear wave velocity) of stabilized columns.
In the present paper, the results of comprehensive
seismic field and laboratory tests are described. The
strength and deformation properties of actually installed
columns were tested by conventional static tests, as well as
by seismic field and laboratory tests. It will be shown that
Figure 1. Load transfer from embankment to soil seismic methods are useful for the determination of the
stabilized by columns. deformation modulus of the unstabilized soil, as well as of
the stabilized columns at different time intervals after
installation.
K 0 = 0.0042 PI + 0.44
Figure 6. Shear stress – shear strain relationship for (8)
fine-grained soil at undrained loading. The normalized shear modulus as calculated from Eq.
Three commonly used definitions of the shear modulus (7) is shown in Figure 7 as a function of the water content,
G are indicated. At very low stress levels (i.e. very low for different values of the plasticity index, PI and normally
strains), the shear modulus is called the maximum shear consolidated conditions (OCR = 1).
It is assumed that the soil is fully saturated. The valid for undrained conditions at large strains (> 0.1 %).
normalized shear modulus decreases markedly when the However, this value is not necessarily valid at small strain
water content of the soil increases. In Figure 7, results of levels (< 0.001 %), where ν can be significantly lower (0.15
investigations published in the literature are presented. The – 0.3). This aspect can have important practical
data included field and laboratory tests and in a variety of consequences when interpreting the results of small-strain
fine-grained soils. They follow quite closely the semi- tests, but it is usually not appreciated.
empirical relationship from to Eq. 7. Values determined in
the field aregenerally about 10 to 20% higher than 3.3 Shear Modulus at Large Strains
laboratory results. For many design problems, Eq. 7 can be The stress-strain behaviour of fine-grained soils has been
used with sufficient accuracy. investigated extensively in the areas of soil dynamics and
It is apparent that water content (and the thus void earthquake engineering. The most widely used correlation
ratio) has a strong influence on the small-strain modulus. was proposed by Vucetic and Dobry (1991). Massarsch
The shear modulus ratio is high in silty clays and silts and (2004) analyzed stress-strain data published in the literature
can range from 1500 – 2000. In the case of low-plastic (mainly RC tests) and performed a regression analysis. A
clays (wn around 20 %), the ratio is in excess of 1000, but modulus reduction factor, Rm = Gs/Gmax was used to
decreases to 250 in plastic clays with wn approaching 100 define the decrease of the shear modulus Gs at three shear
%. The modulus ratio can be even lower in organic soils, strain levels, 0.1, 0.25 and 0. 5 %, cf. Figure 8. The
but the available database is limited. modulus reduction factor Rm decreases rapidly in the case
The following example illustrates the use of Figure 7. of silty soils, and less in soils with higher PI.
Assuming a normally consolidated soft clay, with τfu = 15 For example, in a soil with PI = 20 % at γ = 0.1 %, the
kPa, wn = 50 %, and PI = 40, the shear modulus ratio, shear modulus is 0.45 Gmax. At a shear strain level of
Gmax/(τfupa)0.5 = 750. The shear modulus at small strain is γ = 0.5 %, the modulus value decreases to 0.15 Gmax. For
thus, Gmax = 28.7 MPa. In this case, the rigidity index (ratio normally consolidated clay with a plasticity index of 40%,
between the shear modulus and the undrained shear the modulus reduction factor at 0.5% shear strain, Rm =
strength), Gmax/τfu = 1920. The elastic modulus E and the 0.28. Thus the maximum shear modulus, Gmax (28.7 MPa)
constrained modulus M, are related to the shear modulus G decreases at a stress level of approximately 50 % of the
according to the following relationships failure load to G50 = 8.1 MPa. Assuming Poisson’s ratio
ν = 0.5, according to Eq. 9, the elastic modulus E50 = 24.3
E = 2 (1 + ν ) G (9) MPa. The ratio between the elastic modulus E50 (24.3 MPa)
and the undrained shear strength (20 kPa) is thus
2 (1 − ν ) approximately E50 / τ fu = 1200. The shear strain γ at G50
M = G can be estimated from the ratio of the shear modulus and
(1 − 2ν ) (10) the undrained shear strength: γ = τ fu / G (20/8100 =
0.00185) and is about γ 50 = 0.25 %.
where ν is Poisson’s ratio. It is commonly assumed that for
undrained conditions in fine-grained soils, ν = 0.5, which is
Figure 10. Reduction of compression modulus from field load tests on LC columns, after Kivelö (1994).
Figure 19. Variation of shear modulus Gmax with time after installation of LC columns, cf. Figure 18.
Figure 20. Shear modulus determined from triaxial tests within shear strain range of 0.5 to 6 %.
Figure 22. Variation of shear modulus Gmax with confining stress at 0.6 and 2.0 % shear strain for columns with
different mixing quantities.
Figure 23. Shear strength of samples from LC columns determined by triaxial and direct shear tests.
ABSTRACT: The strength of deep mixed material is highly variable, even at a single construction site, due to variability of
the in-situ soil, variability of mixing effectiveness, and other factors. Statistical analyses of data sets from several projects
in the United States were performed to determine the types of distributions that best match the data, values of the coefficient
of variation, correlations between strength and soil mix parameter values, the degree of spatial correlation between columns,
and the relationship between unconfined compression strength and Young’s modulus.
Sample Strength
Project Type # Tests Mean σ V Source
(MPa) (MPa)
Baker Library Wet Grab 81 1.44 0.66 0.459
Capitol Visitor Center Wet Grab 44 1.01 0.5 0.494 Weatherby
Knafel Center Wet Grab 106 1.56 0.81 0.522 (2004)
Total 231 1.41 0.74 0.520
Port of Oakland Core 118 2.98 1.55 0.521
Oakland Airport Core 184 3.54 1.57 0.445 Yang (2004)
Total 302 3.20 1.58 0.494
Glen Road Interchange Ramps G&F Core 184 3.26 1.12 0.343
Core 634 2.84 1.21 0.425 Dasenbrock
Glen Road Interchange Ramps H&E
(2004)
Total 818 2.94 1.24 0.421
Blue Circle / Kinder Morgan Cement
Wet Grab 487 4.7 3.49 0.742 Burke (2004)
Silos
Jackson Lake Dam: Owner Samples Core 340 4.83 3.05 0.633
Jackson Lake Dam: Contractor Samples Wet Grab 1683 2.83 1.79 0.633
Farrar (2004)
Jackson Lake Dam: Owner Samples Wet Grab 546 2.70 1.44 0.534
Total 2569 3.06 2.06 0.672
I-95 Interchange: Dry method Core 473 2.84 1.9 0.669
I-95 Interchange: Wet method Core 2199 3.42 2.27 0.663 Shiells (2004)
Total 2672 3.32 2.22 0.669
The data sets from these sources have been separated where 3 DISTRIBUTIONS
there is indication of change in site conditions, mixing McGinn and O’Rourke (2003) fit strength data from DMM
method, or type of sample taken. All of the projects in construction at the Boston Central Artery project to both
Table 1 used the wet method of deep mixing, except for the normal and lognormal distributions.
dry-method columns that were used at a test location for the In this paper, we evaluate the goodness of fit for the
I-95 interchange project. In cases where data has been normal, lognormal, uniform, and triangular distributions
separated for these reasons, statistics are also presented for against the strength data from each project included in
the total set of all samples. The statistical information from Table 1. For example, Figure 1 shows data from the Glen
all samples from each source may help demonstrate Road Interchange Ramps H & E plotted with normal,
differences in variability that arise due to other factors that lognormal, uniform, and triangular distribution functions.
can affect strength, such as regional geology and It can be seen that the lognormal distribution provides a
construction practices. good fit to the data.
Statistical information in the literature indicates that The Chi-square test and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-
there is a large variation of strength for improved soil S) test were used to evaluate the goodness of fit for each
created by deep mixing methods. Values of the coefficient distribution to the data for each project. These tests show
of variation, V, reported in the literature typically range that the lognormal distribution function generally fits the
from 0.3 to 0.6, although values of V as low as 0.15 and as strength data better than the normal, uniform, or triangular
high as 1.35 have been reported (Honjo 1982, Unami and distributions.
Shima 1996, Matsuo 2002, McGinn and O’Rourke 2003). The results of the K-S test are shown in Table 2. Low
Values in Table 1 show a variation of strength for improved values of the test statistic for K-S indicate a better fit of the
soil from the projects investigated in this paper consistent data to the distribution than do high values. The K-S test is
with the values presented in the literature. based on the distance from the measured number of
samples to the predicted number of samples from the
cumulative distribution function. An excess or deficient
number of low strength values tend to greatly influence the
Cumulative Frequency
lognormal cumulative distribution function.
500
150 400
Lognormal
300
Normal
200 Data
100
Lognormal distribution
Triangular
Frequency
100
Uniform 0
50 0 2 4 6 8 10
Unconfined Compression Strength, qu (MPa)
Distribution
Project Normal Lognormal Uniform Triangular
Baker Library 0.125 0.044 0.334 0.159
Capitol Visitor Center 0.197 0.127 0.326 0.255
Knafel Center 0.140 0.043 0.332 0.209
Port of Oakland 0.092 0.053 0.488 0.348
Oakland Airport 0.074 0.047 0.339 0.169
Glen Road Interchange Ramps G&F 0.081 0.026 0.339 0.163
Glen Road Interchange Ramps H&E 0.064 0.025 0.774 0.135
Blue Circle / Kinder Morgan Cement Silos 0.097 0.039 0.622 0.334
Jackson Lake Dam: Owner Core Samples 0.107 0.021 0.882 0.286
Jackson Lake Dam: Contractor Wet Samples 0.077 0.043 0.467 0.045
Jackson Lake Dam: Owner Wet Samples 0.102 0.070 0.464 0.260
I-95 Interchange: Dry method 0.110 0.080 0.277 0.495
I-95 Interchange: Wet method 0.068 0.050 0.999 0.078
(1) Cement content is listed as controlled when it is a specified value, whereas cement content is listed as uncontrolled when
it is a measured quantity from the sample.
(2) Ramps G&F are at a cement content of 270 kg/m, and Ramps H&E are at a cement content of 300 kg/m.
2
Table 5. Regression Coefficients and R Values for Case 1.
Project Intercept A D R2
Baker Library 3.95 0.494 -2.24 0.62
Capitol Visitor Center -0.61 0.490 0.221 0.68
Knafel Center 1.95 0.631 -1.14 0.64
Total 2.72 0.545 -1.57 0.61
Oakland Airport 3.880 -0.105 0.00
Port of Oakland 1.158 0.538 0.01
Total 3.349 -0.044 0.00
Glen Road Interchange Ramps G&F 1.194 0.763 0.23
Glen Road Interchange Ramps H&E 4.37 0.877 -0.0321 0.48
Total 0.549 0.904 0.22
Blue Circle / Kinder Morgan Cement Silos 0.142 1.560 0.22
Jackson Lake Dam: Owner Core Samples -17.0 -0.03 17.3 0.04
Jackson Lake Dam: Contractor Wet Samples -2.86 1.52 0.949 0.61
Jackson Lake Dam: Owner Wet Samples -1.12 1.16 0.369 0.52
Total -4.07 1.34 2.37 0.43
I-95 Interchange: Dry method 2.947 -0.027 0.00
I-95 Interchange: Wet method 3.880 -0.125 0.00
Total 3.800 -0.130 0.00
5 20
Measured Strength (MPa)
4
15
3
10
2
5 2
1 2
R =0.61 R =0.22
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 10 15 20
Predicted Strength (MPa) Predicted Strength (MPa)
Figure 3. Measured vs. Predicted Strengths Figure 4. Measured vs. Predicted Strengths
for DMM Data for the Baker Library / Capitol for DMM Data from the Blue Circle / Kinder
Visitor Center / Knafel Center. Mogan Cement Silos.
5 SPATIAL CORRELATION
Spatial correlation is a measure of how closely values at there should be no spatial correlation between values.
one location match values at other locations. For variables Studies of spatial correlation are applicable to
that are spatially correlated, values measured at locations measurements of DMM strength from samples taken at
closer together are more representative of one another than various locations in the field.
are values measured at locations farther apart. When The amount of spatial correlation can be estimated
measurements are taken at great distance from one another, using plots of correlation versus distance. These plots,
Correlation, ρ
correlation between strength values for pairs of columns is 0.4
plotted as a function of separation distance. Variowin
(Pannatier 1995) is a computer program that was used to 0.2
perform all of four of these steps in two dimensions.
The only data set for which we had sufficient 0.0
information to perform spatial correlation studies is the
VDOT I-95/Route 1 interchange data. There are 206 -0.2
0 25 50 75 100 125
columns with coordinate and strength information for this
data set. Separation Distance, h (m)
Several test results are available at each column Figure 5. Correlogram using Average
location because columns were sampled at several depths, Values for Wet Method Samples from
and these samples were tested at different curing times. I-95 Rt. 1 Interchange.
The Variowin software cannot perform a 2D analysis with
multiple strength values at the same X-Y coordinates. Two
approaches have been considered for addressing this, both 1.0
of which are recommended in the Variowin manual: (1)
average all values at each location and (2) use the minimum 0.8
value at each location. As shown below, both approaches δ=12m
yield the same spatial correlation for this data set. 0.6
Correlation, ρ
0.2
result in artificially high values of the ratio E50/qu.
0.0
Removing the cluster of samples with an unconfined
-0.2 compression strength between 6.56 and 7.25 MPa (950 and
-0.4 1050 psi) results in the case with 2208 samples listed in
-0.6 Table 7. Removing the samples in this range does lower
-0.8 the E50/qu ratio from 391 to 319.
-1.0 Next, outliers in the data set of 2208 samples were
0 25 50 75 100 125 removed by progressively removing 1%, 2%, and 5% of the
Separation Distance, h (m) extreme E50/qu values such that an equal number of extreme
high and low values of E50/qu were removed for each
Figure 7. Correlogram using Minimum
percentage. This process tends to lower the E50/qu ratio, as
Values for Dry Method Samples from
can be seen in Table 7. The R2 values lose some
I-95 Rt. 1 Interchange.
significance in the process because the data removal
process eliminates the points that contribute most to low
6 MODULUS VALUES values of R2. Nevertheless, this approach is useful because
The Young’s modulus, E, of DMM improved soils is it shows that the values of E50/qu are only moderately
widely assumed to be directly proportional to the affected as extreme values are trimmed from the data set.
unconfined compressive strength, qu, of the improved soil. The same type of investigation was performed after
The ratio of E/qu ranges from 75 to 1000 for wet mix soils separating columns installed by the wet method from
(Fang et al. 2001, CDIT 2002, McGinn and O’Rourke columns installed by the dry method. Results for the wet
2003) and ranges from 75 to 300 for dry mix soils (Baker method, as well as results from the dry method, are
2000, Broms 2003, Jacobson et al. 2003). included in Table 7. Although the wet mix column
The secant modulus of elasticity, E50, is defined as the strengths are much higher than the dry mix column
slope of the line extending from the origin of the stress- strengths, the values of E50/qu are very comparable for the
strain plot to the point corresponding to half the maximum two methods of constructing columns. There is a lot of
stress. The value of E50 is frequently used as the Young’s scatter in these trends, as indicated by the relatively low R2
Modulus for DMM materials. In this paper, E50 values values, but it appears that a value of E50/qu equal to about
were determined from 2672 unconfined compression tests 300 is reasonable for both the wet method and the dry
performed on samples from the I-95/Route 1 interchange method of column construction, based on the data from the
project. Judgment is sometimes required in choosing the I-95/Route 1 project. It is important to note that the data for
secant modulus from the plot of stress versus strain in an the dry mix method from this project are dominated by
unconfined compression test in order to account for seating cement-soil mixtures without lime.
effects at the specimen ends. To standardize determination
of modulus values from all 2672 samples, the E50 values
25000 5000
E50/qu=500
Modulus Value, E50 (MPa)
4000
Modulus Value, E50 (MPa)
20000
E50/qu=286
15000 3000
10000 2000
E50/qu=100
5000 1000
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 2 4 6 8 10
Unconfined Compression Strength, qu (MPa) Unconfined Compression Strength, qu (MPa)
Figure 9. Filtered Values of E50 vs. qu for
Figure 8. E50 vs. qu for Columns Installed with Columns Installed with the Wet Method at
the Wet Method at I-95 Rt. 1 Interchange. I-95 Rt. 1 Interchange.
Figure 9 shows the strength data from columns correlation and the ratio of modulus to unconfined
installed with the wet method at a different scale, along compressive strength were evaluated for the data from one
with the trend line and two lines that represent E50/qu ratios of the sources. Key findings include the following:
of 100 and 500 for comparison purposes after filtering the • Values of the coefficient of variation ranged from 0.34
high concentration of values where the unconfined to about 0.74, with an average value of about 0.55.
compression test was terminated, and removing 1% of • DMM strength data tends to fit a lognormal
outliers. distribution better than a normal distribution, a uniform
distribution, or a triangular distribution.
• Regression analyses indicated that the strongest
7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS correlations to unconfined compressive strength
Data sets of unconfined compressive strengths for DMM provided by controllable parameters were with age and
materials were analyzed to determine basic statistical data, water-to-cement ratio of the slurry. The values of R2
goodness of fit to standard distributions, and regressions for these correlations ranged from zero to 0.68.
against controllable parameters. Altogether, 13 data sets • When the trend from the regression analyses were
from 6 sources were analyzed. In addition, the spatial removed from the data, the coefficients of variation
decreased such that the minimum value was 0.17, the
Porbaha, A.
California State University, Sacramento, 6000 J St., Sacramento, California, USA
porbaha@ecs.csus.edu
ABSTRACT: Cross-borehole ground penetrating radar (XBGPR) tomography and electrical resistivity (ER) tomography are
high-resolution geophysical imaging techniques that use in situ geophysical measurements and inversion methods to map the
subsurface structure. These methods have successfully imaged numerous subsurface natural and artificial subsurface features
and may be able to non-destructively evaluate the uniformity and presence of defects in deep-mixed columns.
y = 347.41 + 21.387x
1200 0% cc, 29% wc
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
2
1000
800 10% cc
0% cc 600
600
400
400
200
200
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 20 40 60 80 100 120
(a) (a)
1400 1200
0% cc, 29% wc
10% cc 5% cc, 26% wc
1200
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)
400
400
200 200
0 0
10 Apparent Dielectric Constant (K ) 100 1 10 100
Apparent Dielectric Constant (K )
a
(b)
(b)
Figure 1 Unconfined compressive strength versus electrical
resistivity (a) and apparent dielectric constant (b) for constant Figure 2 Unconfined compressive strength versus electrical
cement content resistivity (a) and apparent dielectric constant (b) for variable
cement content
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 XBGPR tomograms of a 1-m column with 0.3-m
(b)
inclusion, (a) velocity (Ka), (b) attenuation
Figure 6 ERT image of 1-m column with 0.3-m inclusion, (a)
dipole-dipole array, (b) pole-pole array
ABSTRACT: This paper deals in particular with the mechanical behaviour of dredged sediments stabilised with cement.
The results do suggest that blast furnace cements have a specific potential for the stabilisation of this type of material as
compared to other binders. The extensive laboratory investigation has been supplemented with sample testing from coring
in deep mixing field columns. The important role of the special SSI-field mixing intensity has been highlighted.
3000
a rather normally consolidated state with a slightly Portland cement
Unconfined compressive strength [kPa]
2000
3 STABILISATION IN THE LABORATORY
1500
3.5 Microstructure
In order to understand better the binder efficiency in the
samples, the microstructure of laboratory specimens mixed
with blast furnace cements and Portland cement was
studied by means of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
on specimens cured for about 300 days (Fig. 7).
Through the SEM analysis it became obvious that the
Figure 4. Bender element test set up microstructure of the specimens mixed in the laboratory
with Portland cement and blast furnace cement were
markedly different.
Curing
In figure 7, the main products of cement hydration
period have been identified such as the calcium silicate hydrate (C-
7 days S-H phase), the calcium hydroxide (CH) and the needle-
shaped ettringite (AFt).
Ettringite is a typical Portland cement early hydration
14 days product and its presence after such long curing period of
300 days denotes probably an incomplete hydration. Only
700000
28 days
Portland cement Eo = 714 x UCS
600000 from BE testing
Blast furnace cement 173 days
42 days
Young's modulus [kPa]
500000
98 days
78 days
400000
15 days
98 days 300000 42 days
28 days
49 days
14 days
200000 28 days
7 days 120 days Es 50 = 110 x UCS
7 days
εf=1.2%
193 days εf=0.9% from UC testing
28 days
100000
εf=1.3%
120 days
εf=1.8%
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
UCS [kPa]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
µ s)
S-wave arrival time (µ
Figure 6. Young’s modulus at small strain levels (E0)
Figure 5. S-wave arrival time measured at several and secant Young’s modulus at 50% of deviatoric
curing time intervals on specimen mixed with blast stress (Es50) versus UCS.
furnace cement cured under water at 10°C.
(a) Specimen mixed in the laboratory (a) Specimen mixed in the laboratory
(b) Specimen mixed in the field (b) Specimen mixed in the field
Figure 9. Specimens for SEM analysis: (a) mixed in Figure 10. SEM pictures with an amplification factor of
the laboratory with blast furnace cement in a dough x1700 on specimens (a) mixed in the laboratory with
mixer (b) mixed in the field with blast furnace cement blast furnace cement in a dough mixer (b) mixed in
by means of SSI. the field with blast furnace cement by means of SSI.
Norrman, T.
Ramböll Sverige AB, SE-851 06, Sundsvall, Sweden
Tomas.Norrman@Ramboll.se
ABSTRACT: In this laboratory study unconfined compression tests have been conducted on laboratory prepared samples
in order to determine and compare compression strength. The samples were produced from different mixtures of sulphide
soils and binders. From the test results it can be concluded that it is possible, in the laboratory, to satisfactory stabilise the
sulphide soils investigated. However, the stabilisation effect, i.e. the maximum obtained compression strength, varies
between the soil types (depths) tested. The achieved compression strength also depends on type of stabilisation agent,
amount of stabilisation agent, and curing time.
2 Fe
3 S
4
5
6
Figure 2 The content (of dry soil) of iron (Fe) and sulphur (S) for the natural soil, Mácsik (2003).
3 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION tested after 90 days curing time. Soil from 3.5, 4 and 5 m
depths were tested. For soil from 3,5 and 4 m samples were
3.1 Test program and binders made with cement plus an addition of water (C100+H20). In
Eleven mixtures, of lime (K), cement (C), slag (M), gypsum the third part complementary tests were conducted and also
(G) and Ash (A), have been used in the study as stabilisation agents with ashes (9-11 in table 3) were tested.
stabilisation agents. The amount of stabilisation agents As a total, 106 samples (53 parallel) were prepared and
varied from 100 to 250 kg/m3. The different mixtures are tested.
presented in table 3.
Table 3 Mixtures of binders used in the investigation. 3.2 Sample preparation and testing
Num- Mixtures of binders Notation The samples were prepared according to Swedish
ber recommendations, Carlsten (2000), except for the mixing
1 Lime/Cement, 50/50 KC50/50 time of the stabilised samples, which was 3-4 minutes
2 Lime/Cement/Gypsum, 33/33/33 KCG33 instead of recommended 5-6 minutes.
3 Lime/Cement/Slag, 33/33/33 KCM33 A quantity of a soil, sufficient to prepare required
4 Cement/Slag, 70/30 CM70/30 number of samples in a series, was mixed together in a
5 Cement/Slag, 50/50 CM50/50 dough mixer until the soil was visually homogenous. This
6 Cement/Slag, 30/70 CM30/70 soil batch was then divided into the required number of
7 Cement C100 pieces. When preparing the stabilised samples a piece of the
8 Cement+water C100+H20 soil and the given amount of stabilisation agent was mixed
9 Cement/Ash, 50/50 CA50/50 together in the mixer until it visually was homogenous. The
10 Cement/Ash, 70/30 CA70/30 stabilised soil was packed into sample tubes with a diameter
11 Ash A100 of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm. The soil was packed into the
tube in 5 layers and each layer was loaded with a
The notation KC50/50 means a blend of 50 weight-% lime compaction stamp applying 100 kPa for about 5 seconds.
and 50 weight-% cement, and KCG33 a blend of 33 weight- The tubes were sealed with a plastic cover and tape. During
% of each binder. The cement used was Standard Portland curing time the samples were stored in a refrigerator at a
Cement, the slag ground granulated blast furnace slag (a temperature of +7°C, without any particular precautions
product named Merit) and the ash came from incineration concerning air humidity. When preparing the samples the
of sludge at a sewage treatment work. water content was determined for the soil used in each
The test program was divided into three parts. In the mixture and for the soil-binders mix. The bulk density of
first part, 7 mixtures of binders (1-7 in table 3) and soil the prepared samples was determined.
from three depths (2.5-3, 3.5 and 4 m) were studied. The Unconfined compression tests were performed on the
amount of stabilisation agent was 150 kg/m3 and the stabilised soil samples after a curing time of 28 days (94
samples were tested after a curing time of 28 days. In the samples) or 90 days (12 samples). The bulk density and
second part 3 stabilisation agents (KCG33, CM30/70 and water content of the samples tested were determined at the
C100) was selected for further investigations. Samples were time for testing.
made with different amount of the stabilisation agents,
ranging from 100-200 kg/m3 and some of the samples were
1200
Depth
1000
2,5-3
800 3,5 m
600 4m
400 5m
200
0
KC50/50 KCG33 KCM33 CM70/30 CM50/50 CM30/70 C100%
3
Stabilisation agent, 150 kg/m , 28 days
3
Figure 3 Compression strength for parallel samples of different stabilisation agents and depths for 150 kg/m
amount of stabilisation agent after 28 days.
Com pr ession st r en g t h [k Pa ]
0 2 00 4 00 6 00 800 1 000 1 2 00 1 4 00
2 ,2 5
2 ,7 5
3 ,2 5
Depth [m]
3 ,7 5
4 ,2 5
4 ,7 5
5 ,2 5
3
Figure 4 Compression strength versus depth for samples of different stabilisation agents for 150 kg/m amount of
stabilisation agent after 28 days. Average values of parallel samples.
Depth [m]
(a)
1800
1600
100
1400
1200 100
1000 150
800
600 150
400 200
200
200
0
2,5-3 3,5 4 250
(b)
1800
1600
1400 100
1200 100
1000
150
800
600 150
400 175
200
0 175
2,5-3 3,5 4 200
Depth [m] 200
(c)
Figure 5 Compression strength after 28 days for samples with different amount of stabilisation agents at three
different depths for the stabilisation agents KCG33 (a), CM30/70 (b), and C100 (c).
(a)
2000
1800
Depth 4 m
Compression strength [kPa]
1600
1400 Amount of
1200 stabilisation
3
1000 agent 150 kg/m
800
600 KCG33
400 C100
200 CM30/70
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
(b)
Figure 6 Compression strength for samples as a function of curing time (28 and 90 days) at 3.5 (a) and 4 m (b)
depths for the stabilisation agents KCG33, CM30/70, and C100. Average values of parallel samples.
CA /50 0
CM /70 0
33 50
CM 33 0
C1 0 90
00 150
C1 10 75
CA 20 0
0
30 250
0
CM /50 0
CM 30 150
CM 0 1 0
30 200
C1 250
CM /30 0
CG 9
50 15
30 0 9
CG 0
CM 25
+H 0
CG 5
25
50 15
/7 1 5
70 15
1
K 32
1
00 0 2
K 01
K 150
C G 33
K 33
15
C1 00
00
0
30 7 0
0
5
/7
/7
0/
C
C5
K
Stabilisation agent
Figure 7 Compression strength for parallel samples of different stabilisation agents, amount of stabilisation
agents, curing time (28 or 90 days) at 3.5 m depths. The samples with 90 days curing time are marked with 90.
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Considering the whole soil profile investigated, the
three CM stabilisation agents and the stabilisation agent
5.1 Laboratory study C100 show significantly higher compression strength
In the laboratory unconfined compression tests have been compared to the other stabilisation agents, except at 3.5 m
conducted on laboratory prepared samples in order to depth. The stabilisation agents KC50/50 and KCM33 give
determine compression strength. The samples were the smallest stabilisation effect of the stabilisation agents
produced from different mixtures of sulphide soils and investigated. The stabilisation agent KCG33 gives the
binders. The sulphide soil, which was taken from one field smallest variation of compression strength in the soil
location, showed a significant variation with depth of profile. The strength of the stabilisation agent C100 was
geotechnical and soil chemical properties. Different blends reduced when adding water to the mixture
of cement (C), lime (K), slag (M), gypsum (G) and ash (A) The compression strength increases significant with
in various amounts, 150-250 kg/m3, were used as increasing amount of stabilisation agent for the stabilisation
stabilisation agents in the mixtures. The samples were agents KCG33 and C100, about two times when increasing
tested after 28 or 90 days of curing time. The sulphide soil from 150 to 250 kg/m3 for KCG33 and even more for
was investigated at the four depths 2.5-3, 3.5, 4, and 5 m. C100. Depending on investigated depth the compression
From the test results it can be concluded that it is strength for the stabilisation agent CM30/70 either decrease
possible, in the laboratory, to satisfactory stabilise the or increase with increasing amount of stabilisation agent.
sulphide soils investigated. However, the stabilisation For the three stabilisation agents studied, KCG33,
effect, i.e. the maximum obtained compression strength, CM30/70, and C100, the compression strength increase
varies between the soil types (depths) tested. The achieved with curing time. For the stabilisation agent KCG33 the
compression strength also depends on type of stabilisation strength increases about 2.5-3 times from 28 to 90 days.
agent, amount of stabilisation agent, and curing time.
The sulphide soil at 3.5 m depth was the most difficult
one to stabilise. The soil at this depth differs, as compared 5.2 Future work
to the other depths investigated, mainly by having lower The stabilisation agents and the amount of stabilisation
density, higher water content, higher loss on ignition, lower agents found interesting, i.e. having a good stabilisation
redox potential, and higher conductivity. However, the effect of sulphide soil, will be used and tested when later in
content of sulphur and iron, and the clay and silt content, at the current project installing columns in the field. Previous
3.5 m did not differ especially much from the soil types at experiences of stabilisation of sulphide soils, as well as
the other depths. other soils, show that the strength achieved in laboratory
At 3.5 m depth for 150 kg/m3 amount of stabilisation and in the field might differ much. More types of sulphide
agent and 28 days curing time, the stabilisation agents soils need to be investigated in the laboratory to be able to
CM70/30, KCG33, and CM30/70 show the highest generalise the relations between stabilisation agents and soil
compression strengths (about 240-200 kPa), followed by types regarding stabilisation effect. Perhaps some other
the stabilisation agents C100, C100+H20, and CM50/50 binders and stabilisation agents should also be tested. The
(about 170-130 kPa), and significant lower the stabilisation work should proceed in order to find explanations why
agents KC50/50 and KCM33 (70-40 kPa). some types of sulphide soils with specific chemical soil
properties are easier to stabilise than others and to identify
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project is supported financially by The
Swedish Road Administration (Vägverket), The Swedish
Railway Administration (Banverket), The Development
Fund of the Swedish Construction Industry (Svenska
Byggbranschens Utvecklingsfond), Botniabanan AB,
Hercules Grundläggning AB, The Swedish Deep
Stabilization Research Centre (Svensk Djupstabilisering),
Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Luleå University of
Technology, Cementa AB, Nordkalk AB, and Holmen
Paper AB.
7 REFERENCES
Andersson, M. and Norrman, T. (2004). Stabilisering av
sulfidjord – En litteratur- och laboratoriestudie.
(Stabilisation of sulphide soil – A literature and
laboratory study) Master Thesis, 2004:126 CIV,
Division of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå.
(in Swedish)
Botniabanan (2004). www.botniabanan.se . (2004-02-24)
Carlsten, P. (2000). Kalk- och kalkcementpelare,
Vägledning för projektering, utförande och kontroll.
Swedish Geotechnical Society, SGF Report 2:2000,
Linköping. (in Swedish)
Mácsik, J. (1994). Risken för utfällning av ferriföreningar
ur dräneringsvatten från anaeroba och aeroba
sulfidjordar. Licentiate thesis, 1994:10, Division of
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Luleå
University of Technology, Luleå. (in Swedish)
Mácsik, J. (1999). Soil Improvement Based on
Environmental Geotechnics, Environmental and
geotechnical aspects of drainage of redox-sensitive
soils and stabilisation of soils with by-products. Ph.D.
Thesis, 1999:09, Division of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Luleå University of
Technology, Luleå.
Mácsik, J. (2003). Bedömning av sulfidjord -
Stabiliseringseffekt vs typ av sulfidjord. Internal report,
Ramböll (Scandiaconsult), Sundsvall. (in Swedish)
Wiggers, A. G.
Royal Haskoning, Barbarossastraat 35, 6500 AD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
a.wiggers@royalhaskoning.com
Perzon, J.
Lime Column Method AB (LCM), Östra Lindomevägen, 437 Lindome, Sweden
jan.perzon@lcm.se
ABSTRACT: The Lekkerkerk Trial is a comprehensive study to assess the possible application of deep mixing to improve
the stability of Dutch river dikes. The design principal comprises mass-stabilised blocks placed under an inclination and
embedded in a deeper sandlayer. Mixing the organic soils of the dike’s foundation gives satisfying results when using 300
kg/m3 blast furnace slag cement combined with water injection during mixing. In-situ and laboratory tests carried out at the
trial site show some critical aspects which are important for the designer.
5 LABORATORY TESTING
-1
-2
5.1 Laboratory tests on small size samples
Several laboratory strength tests have been carried out
-3
on small size samples: triaxial compression tests (CIUC),
direct shear or shear box tests (DS) and unconfined
compressive strength tests (UCS). The tests were carried
Depth relative to NAP [m]
-4
out on samples taken from the stabilized blocks at the depth
-5 of original peat and clay strata. The following conclusions
can be drawn from these tests:
-6 • Most of the tests show a substantial strength
reduction when passing the peak shear strength at
-7 progressive deformations.
• Compared to natural soils the cement treated soils
-8 show a large scatter of peak shear strength values.
• Compared to the peak values the residual shear
-9 strength values are more narrow scattered (Fig. 5).
• The DS tests do not show a clear relationship
-10 between peak shear strength and normal stress
KPS-B-B01 (between 2 col. - 33 days) (Fig. 5).
KPS-B-B02 (centre of col. - 33 days)
KPS-B-B03 (between 3 col. - 33 days)
DS B-B02 (centre - 28 days)
• Adding water to the soil during mixing improves
DS B-B01 (between 2 col. - 28 days)
DS B-B03 (between 3 col. - 28 days)
the quality of the stabilised soil.
UCS B-C01 (between 3 col. 7days)
UCS B-C01 (between 3 col.-14days)
• The samples taken from the centre of the column
do have more shear strength than those taken from
the overlap of columns. Some samples taken
Figure 3: predrilled KPS-tests and results of between the 3 columns (Fig. 4) are poorly
laboratory tests (Lekkerkerk, NL) stabilised, especially when no water is added
during mixing.
4.2 Sampling • There seems to be a correlation between the dry
Different sampling methods have been used: density of the cement-treated organic soils and the
• Continuous sampling using thin-walled Shelby residual shear strength.
tubes. These samples are taken a few days after • By the use of 300 kg/m3 cement binder the peak
mixing in order to test the specimen at different shear strength of peat has increased by a factor of
curing periods and to prepare sample material for 5 to 10. The residual shear strength has increased
the triaxial tests. by a factor of 3 to 7.
300
The failure modes are separately assessed by a Level I-
probabilistic design approach, following the current Dutch
200
codes for geotechnical and structural hydraulic engineering.
Partial safety factors are applied to all relevant design
100 parameters. The partial safety factors are based on a
minimal allowed safety index corresponding to a certain
probability of failure and a lifetime of 100 years. To obtain
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 the design value of the shear strength of the mass-stabilised
blocks the following procedure is followed:
Normal stress σ'n [kPa]
• Selection of weak zones in the column by in-situ
tests for the different soil types.
• Representative sampling of selected zone.
Direct Shear Tests (DS) • Laboratory testing of individual samples recording
peat sampels from mass-stabilised block
RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH the peak and residual strength.
• Statistical analyses on peak strength and residual
500
strength data in order to derive the characteristic
centre
between 3 col.
values of the mean strength of a stabilised block.
relative high density
400 between 2 col. The characteristic value for lateral loaded blocks is
related to the mean shear strength of a block
Shear stress τ = T/A [kPa]
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was performed as part of a research project
INSIDE (Innovations on Stability Improvements enabling
Dike Elevations) undertaken by the CUR, the Dutch Centre
for Building and Research and Rijkswaterstaat, the Dutch
Ministry of Public Works.
9 REFERENCES
Axelsson, M., Larsson, S., Column penetration tests
for lime-cement columns in deep soil mixing experiences in
Sweden, Grouting and Ground Treatment. Proceedings of
the Third International Conference. February 2003, New
Orleans, Louisiana
Åhnberg, H., Johansson, S.E., Retelius, A.,
Ljungkrantz, C., Holmqvist, L., Holm, G., Cement och kalk
för djupstabilisering av jord – Report No 48. Swedish
Geotechnical Institute, 1995 Linköping, Sweden
Broms, B.B., “Can Lime/Cement Columns be used in
Singapore and Southeast Asia?”. 3rd GRC Lecture NTU.
Singapore, November 1999
EuroSoilStab, Design Guide Soft Soil Stabilization.
2002
CUR, Diepe grondstabilisatie in Nederland, CUR
Report 2001-10. 2001, Gouda, The Netherlands
Dry Mix Methods for Deep Soil Stabilization.
Proceedings of int. conference on dry mix methods for deep
stabilization. 1996, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Grouting and Deep Mixing. Proceedings 2nd Int.
Conference on Ground Improvement Geosystems. 1996
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
CUR, Handreiking No-Recess technieken, CUR Report
199. Gouda 2001 The Netherlands
Holm, G., Deep Mixing. Soft Ground Technology.
2000
Consortium HKR, INSIDE Innovatieve dijkversterking
- Validatie en Uitwerkingsfase Mixed-in-Place. June 2003
Larsson, S., Mixing Processes for Ground
Improvement by Deep Soil Mixing. Doctoral Thesis KTH
Civil and Architectural Engineering. Stockholm, November
2003
ABSTRACT: Development of the wet method of deep mixing for on-land works. Member of CDM-land4 are recently
developed to increase the construction speed and low cost. CDM-land4 machine with four mixing shafts have larger
diameter of 1.0 or 1.2 m and are capable of improving down to 33 m to 25 m, which can make a column with across
sectional area ranging from 2.83 m2 to 4.52 m2. This method had numerous problems during the planning development;
Stability of machine against overturning and durability of parts used in the base machine under maximum load and others.
1 INTRODUCTION
Members of CDM association improved soft material by 2 Developments of the CDM-Land4 Method
The Two Mixing Shaft Type up to now from 1978.
Recently, a client's requirement was more economically 2.1 Type of improvement
than two mixing shafts type. We started research and CDM-Land4 method has two types of mixing blade size,
development for CDM-Land4 Method in May 2000. As for 1.0 m and 1.2 m.
a goal for development, one base machine is equipped with
four mixing shafts. . When it is developed Land 4 method A basic improvement pattern of CDM-Land4 method
of mixing blade diameter is 1000 mm. The construction (Show the Figure 2-1,2-2)
ability was GL - 25 m for the reason by the safety of the 1) Block type: All columns are composed.
execution machine and load allowable limit of base Mixing blade 1.0 m and shaft interval is set up in 0.8
machine. Also mixing blade diameter 1200 mm of the m.
construction ability was GL -20m for the same reason. As (Cross section area is 2.83m2)
for this announcement, these execution actual results are Mixing blade 1.2 m and shaft interval is set up in 1.0
understood. Adoption cement slurry plant ability 45m3/h, m.
adoption light weight leader of truss type, adoption stretch (Cross section area is 4.21m2)
shaft, adoption wide frame for base machine. 2) Tangent block type: Two columns are composed and
CDM-Land4 Method has almost twice ability than ordinary two columns are Columns-in-contact.
2 shafts type improvement method. Mixing blade 1.0 m and shaft interval is set up in 0.8
As the characteristics m and 1.0 m. (Cross section area is 3.00m2)
1) Big shortening of construction period becomes possible Mixing blade 1.2 m and shaft interval is set up in 1.0
by wider cross section m and 1.2 m. (Cross section area is 4.34m2)
area than ordinary type. 3) Tangent column type: All columns are in contacted.
2) The congestion of Mixing blade 1.0 m and shaft interval is set up in 1.0
the spot execution m.
machine is reduced, too. (Cross section area is 3.14m2)
3) Extremely precise Mixing blade 1.2 m and shaft interval is set up in 1.2
construction for vertical m.
direction. (Cross section area is 4.52m2)
4) Wide variety for 4) Column type: All columns are separated.
improvement patterns. Mixing blade 1.0 m and shaft interval is set up
distance up to 1.5 m.
2000~2500
1000~1500
1800
2000
1000
800
2400
1200
Investigation of
conditions for 1. Soil condition 2. Purpose of improvement
plan and 3. Depth of improvement 4. Rate of improvement
construction 5. Circumference environment investigation
No No
Confirmation of L < 25 m L < 33 m
depth for
construction
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Confirmation of
Blade size is 1.2 m by 4 shafts. Blade size is 1.0 m by 4 shafts. Blade size is 1.0
method and blade
diameter m by 2 shafts.
Mixing shaft
⑤ ③ Backhoe
Cement lorry
②
Item of Equipment Weight: The center of W*X (ton-m) Position of W*X (ton-m)
W (ton) gravity: X (m) gravity: Z (m)
Base machine and pole leader and 98.43 -0.40 -39.37 5.10 501.99
others
Switchboard 1.00 -1.70 -1.70 2.80 2.80
Top sheave Block 0.40 3.29 1.32 31.90 12.76
Auger motor 4 sets 11.00 5.24 57.64 24.50 269.50
Maintenance flame for rod leader 8.00 5.24 41.92 24.50 196.00
Mixing shaft with blade (3 m) 3.40 5.24 17.82 2.00 6.80
Mixing shaft (19 m) 8.80 5.24 46.11 13.00 114.40
Cabtyre cable 1.00 5.24 3.29 16.50 16.50
Shaft holder 1.00 5.24 5.24 2.50 2.50
Total 133.03 0.99 132.26 8.44 1123.25
Table 2-6 data of base machine Table 2-8 Result of degree of stability
Tim e
0 .7 m /m in u te 2 m in u te 1 .0 m /m in u te
1
d e p th
(m )
2 in jec t c o lu m n
3 4
Item Speck
Mixing blade 1.0 m and 1.2 m
Count of mixing blade Standard type is 4 step, 2
sheets
Distance of shafts Φ1.0 m: 0.8 m to 1.5 m
Φ1.2 m: 1.0 m to 1.5 m
Åhnberg, H.
Swedish Geotechnical Institute, SE-581 93 Linkoping, Sweden
helen.ahnberg@swedgeo.se,
Johansson, S.-E.
Cementa AB, Box 30022, SE-200 61 Malmö, Sweden
sven-erik.johansson@cementa.se
ABSTRACT: For design of deep mixing, the strength of different mixtures of soils and binders is normally investigated at
various time intervals after mixing. However, limited design time often leads to tests being performed on only one or two
occasions. The full strength development is thus not usually determined or taken into account. The variation in strength
increase when using different types of binder has been studied for three stabilised soils up to two years after mixing in the
laboratory. The study shows that there can be a considerable increase in strength also long after mixing. The results provide
increased insight into the effect of different binders on the increase in strength of stabilised soils.
cl
1500 1500
l
cs cs
c
c
1000 1000
cl
cf cf
500 500
sl
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, days Time, days
3000
Holma gyttja
100 kg/m 3 Lime
2500
Cement
Unconfined compressive strength q uc , kPa
Cement–lime, 50/50
Cement–fly ash, 50/50
2000
Cement–slag, 50/50
cl Slag–lime, 50/50
sl
1500
1000 c
cs
500
cf Figure 1. Measured compressive strength with
time after mixing with cement, lime and
0
composite binders 50:50.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, days
13
Linköping clay-7days
long-term increase in strength. The strength increase at 12 92days
360days
different times after mixing is shown in Figure 2, where 11 Löftabro clay, 7days
92days
the 7-, 91- and 364-day strengths for the different binder 10 360days
Holma gyttja, 7days
cement–slag and cement–fly ash the strength after 7 days 6 Löftabro clay
was about 0.4 to 0.7 times that of 28 days. One year after 5
Holma gyttja after one year was lower than that after 1
the existence of cracks or other inhomogeneities in the Figure 2. Compressive strength measured at 7, 91
specimens. The increase in strength of the cement- and 364 days relative to the strength at 28-day vs
stabilised samples was of the same order as, or slightly type of binder.
reactions
S,C,A Alkaline
Slag Hydration CSH,(CAH),(CASH)
activa- CH
tion
CH
CH
Figure 3. Rough outline of the principal chemical reactions and reaction products formed by different types of
binders. The abbreviations are explained in Table 3.
mixing, rough estimates were made of the amount of belite in the cement. Estimates of the quantities of
bondings being formed. The amount of reaction products hydration products formed, mainly in the form of CSH
generated when adding a quantity of binder and CH, were made according to:
corresponding to 100 kg/m3 to the soil was assessed
based mainly on the mole weights of the principal 100 kg cement + 30 kg H → 98 kg CSH +32 kg CH (3)
chemical elements involved. When using quicklime, the
amount of CH generated by slaking can be calculated as The CH may react with the minerals in the soil.
follows: Assuming that principally strätlingite is formed, this
would result in about 90 kg CASH. The total amount of
100 kg CaO + 32.1 kg H2O → 132.1 kg Ca(OH)2 (1) reaction products formed by the cement can thus be
estimated to be about 188 kg. The binder combination
The lime used in the study had an available C content of cement–lime (50:50) can be estimated to result in a
92%. Adding 100 kg of this binder would thus generate quantity of reaction products between those of pure
about 122 kg CH. Assuming roughly that this CH in turn cement and pure lime.
reacts fully with the silica and alumina present in the soil Slag will typically generate about the same types of
and that then primarily CASH, expressed in the form of reaction product as cement. However, the water content
strätlingite, C2ASH8, is formed, the quantity of the latter is generally lower and the paste somewhat denser than
can be calculated according to:
that of hydrated Portland cement. The quantity of CH
formed by slag is low. When used together with cement,
100 kg CH + 109 kg (A+S) + 73 kg H→ 282 kg CASH (2)
the quantity of CH produced has been reported to be even
A quantity of 100 kg/m3 of the quicklime may thus lower than if slag had not taken part in the reactions
produce approximately 343 kg of reaction products per (Taylor, 1997). The composite binder cement–slag
m3 of soil. (50:50) was roughly estimated to generate reaction
For hydrated cements, the chemically bound water products according to:
content is typically about 28% (Betonghandbok, 1997) to
32% (Taylor, 1997). Apart from the main constituent 100 kg cement–slag + 25 kg H → 110 kg CSH + 15 kg CH (4)
C3S2H3, hydrated cement typically contains about 25%
CH (e.g. Betonghandbok, 1997; Taylor, 1997). The A total quantity of 152 kg of reaction products was
quantity of CH formed varies with the ratio of alite to calculated assuming that the CH in turn reacts with the
soil minerals and forms CASH. Using slag together with