A - Comparison - of - The - Effects - of Conducting Gestures

INFORMATION TO USERS
The most advanced technology has been used to photo

graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm
master. UMI films the text directly from the original or
copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies
are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type
of computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the

quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print,
colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs,
print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper
alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a
complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these
will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material
had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re

produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the
upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in
equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also
photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced
form at the back of the book. These are also available as
one exposure on a standard 35mm slide or as a 17" x 23"
black and white photographic print for an additional
charge.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have

been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher
quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are
available for any photographs or illustrations appearing
in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly
to order.
UMI
University Microfilms International
A Bell & Howell Information C om pany
3 0 0 North Z e e b Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 06 -1 3 4 6 USA
3 1 3 /7 6 1 -4 7 0 0 8 0 0 /5 2 1 -0 6 0 0
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
O rd e r N u m b e r 8907022
A com parison o f the effects of verbal instruction and nonverbal

teacher-student m odeling on instructional effectiveness in
instrum ental music ensembles
Dickey, Marc Roland, Ph.D.

The University of Michigan, 1988
C opyright © 1988 by Dickey, Marc R oland. A ll rights reserved.
UMI
300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF VERBAL INSTRUCTION
AND NONVERBAL TEACHER-STUDENT MODELING
ON INSTRUCTIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC ENSEMBLES
by
Marc Roland Dickey
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
(Music: Music Education)
in The University of Michigan
1988
Doctoral Committee.
Professor James 0. Froseth, Chair

Associate Professor Robert L. Culver
Professor Paul R. Lehman
Professor M. Anthony Schork
Professor Donald £. P. Smith
RULES REGARDING THE USE OF
MICROFILMED DISSERTATIONS
Microfilmed or bound copies of doctoral dissertations submitted

to The University of Michigan and made available through University Micro
films International or The University of Michigan are open for inspection,
but they are to be used only with due regard for the rights of the author.
Extensive copying of the dissertation or publication of material in excess of
standard copyright limits, whether or not the dissertation has been copy
righted, must have been approved by the author as well as by the Dean of
the Graduate School. Proper credit must be given to the author if any
material from the dissertation is used in subsequent written or published
work.
Marc Roland Dickey 1988
0 All Rights Reserved
Dedicated with love to my mother and father.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to
James 0. Froseth, for his wisdom, guidance, and encouragement

throughout the study
Don Smith, for his invaluable editing and moderating perspective
Tony Schork, for his statistical expertise and good humor
Robert Culver and Paul Lehman, for their assistance and support
Michael Chiumento, for his willingness and courage in teaching,

and learning, along with me
Glen Adsit and Linda Mapes Calzone for their willingness to

turn over their classes to a "perfect stranger"
Students and administration of the Central. Pioneer, and West Middle

Schools, for their interest and participation in the study
Louis Bergonzi and Michael Dunlap, for their expertise and willingness
to analyze hours and hours of videotapes
Friends and colleagues, for the supportive, cooperative learning

environment we enjoy
THANK YOU
iii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
DEDICATION.................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. iii
LIST OFTABLES .......................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... ix
LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... x
CHAPTER
I. THE PROBLEM OFTHE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF

VERBAL AND MODELING STRATEGIES................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ....................................... 5

Limitations of the Study ......................................... 8
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................... 10
Gestural Communication
in Teaching and Conducting .............................. 10
Verbal Communication
Modeling Communication
III. ' METHOD OF PROCEDURE....................................................... 30
Description of the Subjects.................................... 30

Description of Test Instrum ents............................ 34
Design of the Studies.............................................. 38
Procedure ................................................................ 39
Training of the Replicator.............................40
Pretesting Procedures................................ 41
Instructional Procedures.......................... 42
Posttesting Procedures.............................. 48
Evaluation Procedures................................ 48
Data Analysis.............................................. 49
iv
IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES OF DATA
FOR STUDIES OF THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS
OF VERBAL AND MODELING STRATEGIES.............................. 52
Comparability of Subjects' Gender, Age, Private

Lessons, and Musical Environment....................... 53
Comparison of the Means and Standard Deviations
of Musical Antitude Profile
Standard Scores................................................... 63
Comparison of Musical Aptitude Profile
Standard Scores for TAG and non-TAG
Subjects in Author s Treatment Group . 64
Content Analysis and Inter-judge Reliability
of Videotape Observations.................................. 66
Comparisons of TETHT." TKRRM," and
"TMD" Pretest Scores .................................. 67
Comparison of "IETHT" Posttest Scores.................. 74
Comparison of "TKRRM" Posttest Scores................ 77
Comparison of "TMD" Posttest Scores..................... 80
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................ 84
Purpose of the Studies........................................... 84

Design of the Studies............................................. 85
Discussion of the Results........................................ 93
Conclusions........................................................... 97
Implications for Music Education........................... 97
Observations........................................................... 99
Recommendations for Further Research................ 100
APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 102
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................... I l l
LIST OFTABLES
! • CHRONOLOGY OF BEGINNING INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN COOPERATING

SCHOOL DISTRICT FROM 1985 TO 1988 ............................................................ 32
2. ONE-FACTOR CONTROL-TREATMENT GROUP DESIGN

WITH CONCURRENT REPLICATION.................................................................. 39
3. REPERTOIRE STUDIED IN AUTHOR'S CLASSES ................................................ 43
4. REPERTOIRE STUDIED IN REPLICATOR'S CLASSES .......................................... 44
5. COMPARISON OF REMEDIES APPLIED FOR SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE

PROBLEMS IN VERBAL AND MODELING CLASSROOMS .................................. 47
6 . GENDER OF SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS . . . . 53
7. GENDER OF SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS . 54
8 . AGES OF SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS..............54
9. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AGES OF AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND

TREATMENT GROUPS....................................................................................... 55
10. AGES OF SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS . . . . 55
11. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AGES OF REPLICATOR'S CONTROL

AND TREATMENT GROUPS .............................................................................56
12. AVERAGE YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS TAKEN BY SUBJECTS

IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS .......................................... 57
13. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS

IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS .......................................... 57
14. AVERAGE YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS TAKEN BY SUBJECTS

IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS....................................58
15. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS

IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS ................................... 59
16. HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX FOR SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S

CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS.............................................................. 60
17. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX

FOR AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS ......................^ ............ 61
vi
18. HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX FOR SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR S
CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS................................................................62
19. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX

FOR REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS .............................. 62
20. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAESTANDARD SCORES

OF AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS........................................ 63
21. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAP STANDARD SCORES

OF REPLICATOR S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS................................. 64
22. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAE STANDARD SCORES OF TAG

AND NON-TAG SUBJECTS WITHIN AUTHOR'S TREATMENT GROUP................. 65
23. PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON VERBAL AND MODELING

STRATEGIES IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS................... 67
24. PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON VERBAL AND MODELING

STRATEGIES IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS 67
25. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR TETHT" PRETEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS................................................................ 68
26. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR 'IETHT" PRETEST SCORES OFREPLICATOR'S

CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS............................................................ 69
27. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM'' PRETEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

28. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM'' PRETEST SCORES OF REPLICATOR'S

29. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" PRETEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

30. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" PRETEST SCORES OF REPLICATOR'S

31 • ANALYSIS OFVARIANCE FOR "IETHT" POSTTEST SCORES OFAUTHOR'S

CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS .......................................................... 75
32. ANALYSIS OFCOVARIANCEFOR "IETHT" POSHEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

33. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR TETHT ' POSHEST SCORESOF REPLICATOR'S

34. ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "IETHT" POSHEST SCORES OF REPLICATOR'S

35. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSHEST SCORES OF AUTHOR S

36. ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S
CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS ........................................................... 78
37. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES OFREPLICATOR S

38 . ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES OFREPLICATOR'S

39. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTTEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

40. ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCEFOR "TMD" POSTTEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

41. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTTEST SCORES OF REPLICATOR'S

42. ANALYSIS OFCOVARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTITST SCORES OFREPLICATOR’S

viU
LIST OF FIGURES
1 DIAGRAM OF ORGANIZATION OF CLASSES IN STUDY BY TEACHER

AND TREATMENT............................................................................................. 33
2. HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX ....................................................... 59
is
LIST OF APPENDICES
A. INFORMED CONSENT LETTER.............................................. 103
B VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM.................................................................. 105
C. EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES ON VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM.............. 107
D. PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ONEACH CATEGORY

ON VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM.............................................................. 109
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM OF THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF

VERBAL AND MODELING STRATEGIES
Conducting a musical ensemble is a process that utilizes a combination of
verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Berio provides a perspective for the concept of
process as it relates to conducting:
If we accept the concept of process, we view the events and relationships as

dynamic, on-going, ever-changing, continuous. When we label something as a
process we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence
of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a process
interact; each affects all the others.!
Conducting is a communicative process that occurs through the use of the eyes, face,
fingers, hands, arms, and through the stance and posture of the body, as well as
through verbal instruction.^
Competent conductors are able to predict musical events by means of
comparing aural and visual observations to aural and visual images. The ability to
discriminate between acceptable and unacceptable performances is dependent on
ore diction.3 Competent conductors also possess diagnostic skills.4 The necessity for
1David K. Berio, The Process of Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston, Inc., I960), p. 24.
^Gregory K. Lyne, "Effective Bodily Communication: A Key to Expressive

Conducting," Choral Tournal. 20 (September 1979), 22-4.
3james 0. Froseth, "Some Thoughts on Teacher Training" (paper presented to

the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, Michigan State University, 1982), p. 5. Part
of this paper was published under the same title in The Canadian Music Educator. 24
(Spring 1983), 19-21.
1
prediction.1 Competent conductors also possess diagnostic skills.2 The necessity for
these skills indicates that conducting is a teaching process as well as a communicative
one. Solutions to musical performance problems can be prescribed through verbal or
nonverbal means.
Verbal and nonverbal communication are highly related. Nonverbal
behavior has been described as behavior that transcends the spoken or written word.3
Words make little sense without a nonverbal contest.4 Mehrabian states that the
perception of a communication is derived seven percent from the content of a
statement, 38 percent from its verbal contest, and 55 percent from its nonverbal
contest.^ Research in the field of teacher behavior indicates that nonverbal
communication has a great influence on the quality of communication in the
classroom.6 Leach describes how nonverbal communication transcends verbal in
musical performance:
Music, like speech, can be recorded in writing, but... a musician in reading the
score transcribes what he reads into muscular movements. For example,
qualities of loudness and pace variation, which are "paralinguistic" in the
contest of speech, acquire central grammatical importance in the contest of
1James 0. Froseth, "Some Thoughts on Teacher Training" (paper presented to

the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, Michigan State University, 1982), p. 5. Part
of this paper was published under the same title in The Canadian Music Educator, 24
(Spring 1983), 19-21.
2 Ibid., p. 1.
3Aaron Wolfgang, "State of the Art of Nonverbal Behavior in Intercultural

Counselling," in Nonverbal Behavior: Perspectives. Applications. Intercultaml
Insights, p. 335. Edited by Aaron Wolfgang (Lewiston, N. Y.: C. J. Hogrefe, Inc., 1984).
^Richard M. Jones. Fantasy and Feeling in Education (New York: New York
University Press, 1968), p. 106.
5Albert Mehrabian, "Communication Without Words," Psychology Today 2

(September 1968), 53-55.
6Jan Carl Roshong, "Exploratory Study of Nonverbal Communication

Behaviors of Instrumental Music Conductors" (Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University,
1978).
3
music. But, in this context, these qualities are translated by the conductor of an
orchestra into a complex combination of movements of the arms, head, and eyes.
No two conductors code their signals in the same way, yet trained musicians
seem to have little difficulty in understanding what is being "said.
Because nonverbal behaviors are learned behaviors, they can be beneficial to the
teaching process.2 Conductor-teachers can control and change their nonverbal
behaviors. They can also observe the nonverbal behaviors of others, as well as
responses of others to their own nonverbal behaviors.
The nonverbal communication that has been described thus far is gestural.
Conducting is an imitative form of communication utilizing patterns of movement that
have evolved into a series of conventionally understood gestures. In order to
communicate musical ideas through the nonverbal language of conducting, there
should be a tangible [isomorphic! relationship between these gestures and the musical
score.3 A conductor's gestural communication thus consists of conventional beat
patterns reflecting the score in concert with those learned nonverbal behaviors that
accompany all normal human verbal interaction (e. g., a smile showing approval, eyes
showing expectation, a posture showing strength).
Discriminations evolve from a comparison of performance trials to predicted
performance outcomes.4 When discrimination skills indicate an actual performance
that does not meet the level of a predicted outcome, diagnosis comes into play. Gestural
communication is not always sufficient to offer an appropriate diagnosis. When the
Êdmund Leach, "The Influence of Cultural Context on Non-Verbal

Communication in Man." in Nonverbal Communication. Edited by R. A. Hinde
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p. 318.
2James R. Hughes, "How Do You Behave? Your Nonverbal Actions Are Critical
to Student Motivation," Music Educators Journal. 67 (January 1981), 52-3.
3Gail Poch, "Conducting: Movement Analogues Through Effort Shape,"

Choral Journal. 23 (November 1982), 21-2.
4Froseth, p. 5.
4
gestural vocabulary of the conductor-teacher is inadequate, or when the relationship
between conducting gestures and the musical score is not successfully established, a
change in communication strategies is necessary.
Two possible alternatives to gestural communication are verbal strategies
and modeling strategies. Among the studies that investigate verbal communication in
the teaching and conducting process, Pontious found that, in high school band
rehearsals, conductor talk occupied 42 percent of active rehearsal time.* Thurman
found that choral conductors used 40 percent of rehearsal time for verbal
communication %Erbes believes that the minimizing of verbal exchange between
conductor and performers is too often stressed in conducting pedagogy, and that "a
growing body of research literature suggests ... that a high level of verbal interaction
between students and teachers has positive effects on the quality of rehearsals."3
However, no body of literature has materialized to support this position. Hicks states
that, although verbal instruction is necessary at every rehearsal, it is not always a
precise way of communicating because words can be given various connotations.4
Hicks concludes that "until something better comes along, we are forced to use verbal
communication as the principal tool for guiding the music rehearsal."^
1Melvin Floyd Pontious, "A Profile of Rehearsal Techniques and Interaction

of Selected Band Conductors" (Ed. D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, 1982), p. 177.
^Virgil Leon Thurman, "A Frequency and Time Description of Selected

Rehearsal Behaviors Used by Five Choral Conductors" (Ed. D. dissertation, University of
Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 1977), p. 100.
^Robert Erbes, "I Used to Direct My Rehearsals Like A Drill Sergeant... Until
I Learned About Interaction Analysis," Music Educators lournal. 65 (October 1978), 50-3.
4Val Hicks, "Would You Enjoy One of Your Rehearsals?--Knowing the Four
Functions of Rehearsal Language Will Lead to Better Communication and a Better
Performance," Music Educators lournal. 62 (December 1975), p. 50.
5lbid„ p. Si-
5
The second alternative to gestural communication is the use of modeling
strategies. Sang describes four skills necessary to effective modeling:
The first skill is the teacher's ability to demonstrate basic musical performance
behaviors on the instrument(s) he/she is teaching, such as tone quality or
articulation ... The second skill is the demonstration of the more subtle aspects
of musical performance ... such as phrasing or vibrato. Third, and closely
related to the first two skills, is a teacher's ability to demonstrate a variety of
musically-related performance behaviors such as posture, playing position, or
embouchure. Finally, a teacher should be able to demonstrate a wide variety of
brief melodic and rhythmic sequences on an instrument by ear ... That is, a
teacher must be able to imitate incorrect pupil performances and also provide a
musically correct model.*
Sang found that modeling skills are the greatest single contributors to
variance in instructional effectiveness.^ The importance of teacher modeling and
pupil imitation has been emphasized by Aristotle, Comenius, Bandura, and others.3 The
potential for use of modeling skills in the conducting-teaching process is substantial/*
Yet, teacher demonstrations on instruments are relatively infrequent in rehearsal
environments.5
Statement of the Problem
Two alternatives to gestural communication have been identified as useful
when gestural communication is insufficient. Verbal communication is most
frequently used to remediate music performance problems. Yet there is reason to
*Richard C. Sang. "A Study of the Relationship Between Instrumental Music

Teachers' Modeling Skills and Pupil Performance Behaviors" (paper submitted at the
Eleventh International Research Seminar, Frankfurt, July, 1986), pp. 3-4.
2Richard C. Sang, "Modified Path Analysis of A Skills-Based Instrumental

Effectiveness Model for Beginning Teachers in Instrumental Music Education" (Ph. D.
dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1982), p. 203.
^Richard C. Sang, "Effectiveness Research and the Instrumental Music

Educator." Dialogue in Instrumental Music Education. 8 (Spring 1984), 23.
*Froseth, p. 6 .
5Sang, "Effectiveness Research," p. 24.
believe that nonverbal modeling strategies may be more effective than verbal
instruction in such situations. The paradox between the mere common use of verbal
communication and the potentially more effective use of modeling is illuminated in the
literature. On one hand are Pontious's finding that high school band directors use 42
percent of active rehearsal time in conductor talk* and Thurman's finding that choral
conductors use 40 percent of rehearsal time for verbal communication %On the other
hand is Grechesky's conclusion, based on a study of verbal and nonverbal conductor
behaviors, that nonverbal communication skills have a positive effect on ensemble
p erform an ce.3 Sang found a strong and significant relationship between modeling
activities and student performance.4 Of the hundreds of teaching competencies
compiled by Raiman5 and Parr,6 teacher demonstration is involved in 75 and 40
percent, respectively. Yet, teacher demonstration is relatively infrequent in the
instrumental music classroom.
Thus, the primary purpose of these studies is to determine whether modeling
strategies or verbal strategies yield greater instructional effectiveness. Stated as a
hypothesis, it is predicted that modeling-dominated strategies w ill result in greater
instructional effectiveness than verbal-dominated teaching strategies. Stated in
operational terms, it is predicted that the scores of students taught with modeling-
1Pontious. p. 177.
^Thurman, p. 100.
3Robert Nathan Grechesky, "An Analysis of Nonverbal and Verbal

Conducting Behaviors and Their Relationship to Expressive Musical Performance" (Ph.
D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1985), p. 153
4Sang, "A Study of the Relationship," p. 203.
5Sang, "Effectiveness Research," p. 24.
6Ibid.
7
dominated strategies w ill be significantly different from the scores of students taught
with verbal-dominated teaching strategies on a battery of music achievement tests.
This battery w ill include measures of some of the most primary, essential
aspects of musical discrimination, namely the abilities to respond kinesthetically to
music, to imitate melodic patterns, and to make fundamental aural discriminations from
a variety of musical phenomena. Although many other measures could be used, these
measures were selected on the assumption that an instrumental music educator's
primary objective is to lead students to independent musicianship through the
development of the abilities to feel, hear, and visually associate musical phenomena, in
that order. Although verbal instruction may be as effective and efficient if the
instrumental music educator's only objective is ensemble performance, educational
reformers have long advocated providing a model in music instruction. Among the
"Principles of the Pestalozzian System of Music" presented to the American Institute of
Instruction meeting in Boston in 1830 were:
To teach sounds before signs and to make the child learn to sing (and play]
before he learns the written notes or their names; to lead him to observe by
hearing and imitating sounds, their resemblances and differences, their
agreeable and disagreeable effect, instead of explaining these things to him—in
a word, to make active instead of passive in learning;... [and to give] the
principles and theory after the practice, and as induction from it.*
Three hundred years earlier, Comenius had exhorted that "the use of
instruments should be shown in practice and not by words; that is to say, by example
1Will S. Monroe. History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States

(Syracuse: C. W. Bardeen, 1907), p. 93.
rather than by precept."* Comenius described it as "sheer cruelty to force any one to
do what you wish, while he is ignorant what your wishes are."2
Limitations of the Studies
Although there are other strategies that could be employed when gestural
communication is insufficient, the only two alternatives considered in these studies are
verbal and modeling. For the purposes of these studies, verbal instruction consists of
verbal directions, explanations, and imagery, including metaphor and analogy.
Although it is accompanied by those nonverbal behaviors that accompany normal
human verbal interaction, this communication is predominantly verbal.
Modeling instruction consists of alternations of teacher modelings and
student imitations. The teacher uses a musical instrument to provide the model, and the
students respond on their instruments. This technique is used to demonstrate correct
and incorrect rhythm patterns, pitches, styles, articulation, and other elements of
musical performance. Minimal verbal direction (such as "play what I play," or "the
starting pitch is concert F"') is necessary, but the instruction is predominantly
nonverbal.
These studies are not intended to explore all possible aspects of instructional
effectiveness. For the purposes of these studies, instructional effectiveness is the
degree to which a teacher is able to effect development of students' musical skills
within the context of the teaching strategies described above.
Finally, the sample for the studies consists of voluntary subjects from four
middle school bands. It is reasonable to assume that the statistical results of the studies
*Johann Comenius, The Great Didactic, trans. M. W. Keatinge, Part II

(London: A 6cCBlack, Ltd,, 1907), pp. 194-202.
Îbid.
9
w ill be generalizable to the population they represent; however, it should be
remembered that the generalizability of any study dealing with human behavior is
questionable. There w ill be no statistical evidence that the results of these studies w ill
be generalizable to students of different schools, geographic locations, ages, or ability
levels.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OFTHE LITERATURE
The case has been made that gestures are the most common means of
communication for conductors, but that verbal communication and nonverbal
modeling communication are two reasonable alternatives when gestural
communication is insufficient. The purpose of the current studies is to determine
whether verbal behaviors or modeling behaviors are more closely related to
instructional effectiveness. Thus, this review w ill focus on how three topics relate to
the teaching and conducting process: ( 1) gestural communication, ( 2 ) verbal
communication, and ( 3 ) modeling communication.
Gestural Communication in Teaching and Conducting
The history of research on nonverbal communication began with the work
of Charles Darwin. His E x p r Mfth find.Animate established

facial and body movement patterns as a subject for serious scientific study in 1872.*
Studies that stem directly from an interest in nonverbal communication as it relates to
music teaching began to appear in the late 1960's. Ostling^ provides a summary of
nonverbal communication research that has implications for conductors of musical
ensembles. The summary, which includes a 93-entry bibliography, is extracted from
1Acton Ostling, Jr., "Research on Nonverbal Communication with

Implications for Conductors." journal of Band Research. 12 (Winter 1977), 29-43.
?Ibid.
10
11
two books published in 1972, Nonverbal Communication by Albert Mehrabian, and
Understanding Body Movement: An Annotated Bibliography by Martha Davis.
A dissertation by Barteel provides physical and philosophical bases for the
relationship between nonverbal gesture and musical phenomena by interfacing
writings of Rudolf Laban and Suzanne Longer. Laban proposed a theory of body
movement as communication in all of the movement arts. Langer's theory of music
describes an expressive line in which sonorous forms move through time to present a
semblance of the life of feeling through symbolic transformation. Although Bartee did
not attempt to link the two theories directly, he found that together they support a
definition of conducting as "the process of translating an aural image-formed in
response to the score—into body movement that directs players to produce sound."? The
author concluded that Laban's explorations of movement analysis and effort shape can
create a greater awareness of the possibility of consciously developing body movement
to convey the expressive line of a musical score through nonverbal gestural
communication. Poch3 has also studied the work of Rudolf Laban. He concludes that,
through applications of Laban's theory, students are able to perceive a tangible
relationship of nonverbal gesture to the music they are studying.
The relationship between nonverbal gesture and the music it represents has
thus been posited. Hundreds of observational systems have been created for the
1Neale King Bartee, "The Development of A Theoretical Position on

Conducting Using Principles of Body Movement As Explained By Rudolf Laban" (Ph. D.
dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977).
?Ibid.
3(Jail Poch, "Conducting: Movement Analysis Through Effort Shape," Choral

journal. 23 (November 1982) 21-22.
12
purpose of studying the teaching process. 1 These systems are usually based on an
analysis of verbal behaviors and interactions. However, the five studies discussed
below involve observational instruments developed for the classification of
conductors' nonverbal gestural communication behaviors.
Ervin? attempted to develop and assess a systematic method of observation
that would evaluate conductor effectiveness. Beginning with thirty-five potential
variables, Ervin studied videotapes of twenty-eight conductors. He derived a list of the
eleven most discriminating variables from the frequency of the thirty-five original
variables on the tapes. This list included two non-verbal gestural characteristics, eye
contact and expressive conducting gestures.
Roshong 3 developed an observational instrument to inventory nonverbal
communication of conductors to see if relationships exist between the observed
nonverbal behavior and the nature of the task being performed. Rehearsals of three
college band directors were videotaped and viewed by three observers who recorded
the subjects' nonverbal behavior on the observation form. Using two different
formulas, Roshong estimated inter-observer reliability at .79 and .77. Although
Roshong used a limited sample, he concluded that his instrument is a viable means for
the intended purpose. He noted some commonalities of nonverbal behaviors, such as
facial approval and forward movement during starting, stopping, and sustaining
1Phyllis E. Dorman, "A Review of Research on Observational Systems in the

Analysis of Music Teaching," Council for Research in Music Education, No. 57 (Winter
1978). p. 35
^Charles Lee Ervin, "Systematic Observation and Evaluation of Conductor

Effectiveness" (Ph. D. dissertation, West Virginia University, 1975).
3Jan Carl Roshong, "Exploratory Study of Nonverbal Communication

Behaviors of Instrumental Music Conductors" (Ph. D. dissertation, The Ohio State
University, 1978).
13
events, and facial disapproval, eye contact, and movement away from an ensemble
during instruction.
Yarbrough, Wapnick, and Kelly 1 compared the effect of two videotape
feedback techniques on beginning conductors. One group reviewed their videotapes
with an experienced conducting teacher. The other group viewed their videotapes
independently while completing behavioral observation forms and checklists. The
results that relate to verbal and nonverbal aspects of conductor effectiveness were
mixed. In a Mann Whitney U analysis of frequency of statements between the two
groups, the observation form group produced significantly more responses for body
movement and facial expression, but the instructor feedback group had a significantly
greater number of statements than did the observation form group for eye contact.
There was no significant difference in statements between the groups in verbal
content.
Berz? also developed an instrument designed to classify the observed
nonverbal communication of conductors. His sample consisted of fifteen conductors
representing a variety of performance settings. Development of the Music Conductor
Observation Instrument (MCOI) was completed through review of the videotapes of the
conductors' rehearsals, compilation of behaviors, and interviews with conductors and
music educators to evaluate the tentative instrument. After establishing the inter
observer reliability and conducting a field test with the instrument, it was concluded
*Cornelia Yarbrough, Joel Wapnick, and Roseanne Kelly. "Effect of

Videotape Feedback Techniques on Performance, Verbalization, and Attitude of
Beginning Conductors," Journal of Research in Music Education. 27 (Summer 1979),
103- 112.
2William Lee Berz, "The Developmentof An Observation Instrument

Designed to Classify Specific Nonverbal Communication Techniques Employed By
Conductors of Musical Ensembles" (Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1983).
14
that the MC01 was a viable means of classifying nonverbal communication behaviors of
conductors.
Grechesky* examined both verbal and nonverbal behaviors of eleven
randomly selected high school bands in Central Pennsylvania. Each band was
videotaped in rehearsal and performance of the same piece of music with the same
amount of rehearsal time. Audio tapes of each band's performance were evaluated by a
panel of judges that also judged representative audio tapes of each band playing other
repertoire. Conducting behaviors were observed and coded from the videotapes. These
observed verbal and nonverbal behaviors were the independent variables. Rank order
as a determinant of performance quality was the dependent variable. Eleven variahlos
were identified as having an effect on rank when subjected to correlation and
regression analysis. Of the eleven variables, eight were nonverbal. Among
Grechesky's findings were that some verbal explanation is necessary in a rehearsal
although verbal imagery has a much stronger impact on ranking. He also found that
the conductors of the more musical groups displayed significantly more body
movement. Finally, Grechesky found that the use of iconic behaviors had the most
powerful effect on ranking of any of the variables. Grechesky stated that his findings
indicate that conductors who develop and utilize nonverbal communication skills can
have a very positive effect on their groups' performances. According to Grechesky,
"conductors who can communicate their conception of the music through nonverbal
techniques are more effective than conductors who must talk about the mu sic."2
Grechesky also states that "the successful conductors kept more of their students
^Robert Nathan Grechesky, "An Analysis of Nonverbal and Verbal

Conducting Behaviors and Their Relationship to Expressive Musical Performance" (Ph.
D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1983).
2lbid., p. 133.
15
involved in the music making process for longer periods of time and at higher
intensity levels than the less successful conductors."!
Studies have shown that the use of nonverbal gestural communication to
symbolize musical events has a powerful positive effect on musical performance. The
above studies suggest that nonverbal gestural characteristics such as eye contact and
expressive gestures are important variables in conductor effectiveness. Commonalities
of nonverbal conducting behaviors include facial approval and forward movement
during starting, stopping, and sustaining events, and facial disapproval, eye contact,
and movement away from an ensemble during instruction. Prospective teachers can
improve their nonverbal gestural communication by studying videotapes of themselves
conducting, although some gestural variables appear to be evaluated more productively
with an instructor while others are evaluated more productively independent of an
instructor. Conductors who display significantly more body movement tend to produce
more musical groups, and their use of iconic behaviors has a strong effect on ensemble
performances.
Verbal Communication in Teaching and Conducting
One study of verbal communication in conducting and teaching raises
questions as to the value of the content of much verbal pedagogy. Hedberg^ used a
quasi-experimental design to determine the effect of different rehearsal methods for
common repertoire in control and treatment sections of a large non-audition
university choir. The treatment group experienced seven or eight verbal interjections
llbid., p. 154
^Floyd Carl Hedberg, "An Experimental Investigation of Two Choral

Rehearsal Methods: Their Effect on Music Attitude, Music Discrimination, Music
Achievement, and Music Performance" (Ed. D. dissertation, University of Northern
Colorado, 1975).
in each rehearsal. These interjections were facts or concepts concerning music
history, theory, and text-music relationships. The control group experienced the same
rehearsal procedures without the interjections. Hedberg found that attitude toward
music and aural discrimination were not significantly affected by the rehearsal
methods in either group from pretest to posttest. He also found that both groups made
significant gains on the Snider Kruth Music Achievement Test. Based on a statistical
analysis of twenty-two judges' ratings of the performances of the repertoire, Hedberg
proposed that the traditional method was more effective for performances of works by
Brahms and Butler, but that the experimental method was more effective for
Pachelbel's "Magnificat in C."
Observational systems were devised by researchers to define classroom
climate by analyzing verbal interaction between teacher and student beginning in the
1930's.l In the field of music, the development and use of observation instruments has
occurred prim arily since the 1970’s.2 Categories for nonverbal behaviors are
sometimes added when such systems are devised or adapted to analyze the process of
music teaching. The six studies discussed below involve observational instruments
developed prim arily for the classification of the to&cher-conductor's verbal
communication behaviors, although some of them also include limited attention to
nonverbal behaviors.
Hedrick^ designed an exploratory study to develop a verbal analysis system
for self-evaluation of preservice music teachers. A case study approach to a series of
1Dorman, p. 35.
2lbid.
3Gary Lee Hedrick, "The Development of A Verbal Analysis System for Self-
Evaluation of Preservice Music Teachers" (Ph. D. dissertation, Florida State University,
1976).
17
pilot studies involving sixty-five preservice teachers resulted in the Verbal Behavior
Analysis/Evaluation System for Preservice Music Teachers (VAST). Each preservice
teacher kept an on-going notebook containing a variety of data, such as self-coded
behavior, written objectives for self-improvement, and personal accounts of their
experience with VAST. Data from a VAST Attitude Inventory and taped interviews
showed that preservice teachers were strongly in favor of self-analysis and evaluation.
They found the process to be time-consuming but worthwhile. It is curious that
videotape equipment was not utilized for greater efficiency and results in this project.
Also, given the design of the project, it seems possible that preservice teachers felt
obligated to record a favorable opinion of their experiences.
Hicks 1 used an experimental design to determine the effects of interaction
analysis instruction on the verbal teaching behaviors and attitudes of university
conducting students. Although Hicks' total sample was similar in dogmatism (belief-
disbelief system) and education (attitude toward traditional and progressive educational
methods) in a pre- and posttest attitude scale measurement, Hicks found that
prospective teachers in the group receiving interaction analysis training were less
dogmatic in their thinking, used more indirect verbal behaviors (e.g., questions rather
than directions), and used a greater variety of verbal behaviors in their teaching than
those prospective teachers that did not receive such training.
Carpenter^ attempted to determine if the verbal behaviors of teacher-
conductors are predictive of judges' ratings of rehearsals. He used two observation
^Charles Eugene Hicks, "The Effect of Training in Interaction Analysis on

the Verbal Teaching Behaviors and Attitudes of Prospective School Instrumental Music
Education Students Studying Conducting' (Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State
University. 1976).
^Robert Alan Carpenter, "A Descriptive Analysis of Relationships Between

Verbal Behaviors of Teacher-Conductors and Ratings of Selected Junior High and
Senior High School Band Rehearsals" (Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1986).
forms, each with a separate set of judges. One was used to rate teacher-conductor
personal qualities, procedures and organization, pedagogy, and error detection skills in
rehearsals. The other was used to categorize teachers' specific verbal behaviors,
including specific or general approval and disapproval feedback to both social and
musical behavior, musical element attended to, and techniques used to initiate
behavior. Carpenter found that teachers were more disapproving than approving, and
more likely to attend to musical behaviors than social behaviors. He also found that the
type of musical element attended to was related to the ratings, although the frequency
of attending to various musical elements was not a factor. Finally, he found that
feedback behaviors were better predictors of ratings than initiating behaviors.
Erbes* developed an observation system for categorizing, analyzing, and
reporting the verbal interaction between conductors and students during the rehearsal
of large musical organizations. From the original twenty-six category system, the
Rehearsal Interaction Observation System (RIOS) was refined into eleven categories
through a series of pilot tests and modifications. A twelfth category was added to
account for nonverbal conductor behaviors that are extensions of teacher
demonstration, such as singing, whistling, clapping, tapping, or playing an
instrument. Erbes reported a .94 correlation between RIOS codings and the treatment of
corresponding typescripts using Withall's Climate Index, a technique for the
measurement of social-emotional climate in the classroom. He also reported a .83
correlation of RIOS codings of three rehearsals by the investigator and a trained
observer. Finally, Erbes reported a .61 correlation between codings of the investigator
and a group of students with three hours of RIOS training.
^Robert L. Erbes, “The Development of An Observational System for the

Analysis of Interaction in the Rehearsal of Musical Organizations" (Ed. D. dissertation,
University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 1972).
19
Pontious* developed a descriptive study of the rehearsals of five high school
band directors. He then made a time and frequency study of the conductors' verbal
interaction and used Erbes' RIOS instrument to determine the affect of the rehearsals.
He found that conductor talk occupied forty-two percent of active rehearsal time. He
also found that verbal explanation was the explicative technique most often used.
Thurman's research? confirms Pontious's findings. He analyzed videotapes
of the rehearsals of five choral conductors to determine, in frequency and time, the
extent to which various conducting behaviors were used in rehearsals. The study
involved conductors of five different levels of choirs ranging from high school to
professional, and the videotape sample consisted of only two rehearsals for each
conductor; thus the study is of descriptive value, but its reliability is questionable. The
analyses were derived from typescripts of each videotaped rehearsal. T h u rman found
that an average of 34 minutes of an 84 minute rehearsal, or 40.2 percent, was spent in
verbal behavior by the conductor. In contrast, an average of only 4 minutes, or .3
percent, was spent in conductor demonstration.
Naderi^ developed a format for the observation and study of four aspects of a
rehearsal; visual, verbal, use of time, and conductor's manner. Naderi had eleven
experienced professional musicians from a major symphony orchestra evaluate
rehearsal tapes of conductors Gunther Schuller, Sergiu Comissiona, and Jorge Mester.
1Melvin Floyd Pontious, "A Profile of Rehearsal Techniques and Interaction

of Selected Band Conductors" (Ed. D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Champaign-
Urbana, 1982).
?Virgil Leon Thurman, "A Frequency and Time Description of Selected

Rehearsal Behaviors Used by Five Choral Conductors (Ed. D. dissertation, University of
Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 1977).
3Zeinab Yakouboff Naderi, "An Analytical Study of Rehearsal Techniques of

Three Professional Orchestra Conductors" (Ed. D. dissertation, Columbia University
Teachers College, 1983).
20
Among his findings were that the musicians preferred verbal statements that take a
short time to deliver, and that the preferred use of time is characterized by spending
eighty percent of rehearsal time in playing. The internal validity of this study is
impressive due to the high caliber of the conductors and musicians who participated.
To summarize and synthesize the above studies as they relate to the
effectiveness of the conductor-teacher, it appears that verbal interjections in
rehearsals about historical, theoretical, or textual aspects of music do not increase the
effectiveness of a musical performance. Preservice teachers may benefit from self-
analysis and evaluation of their verbal behavior in teaching situations, and training in
interaction analysis can effect changes in a preservice teacher's effectiveness in the
music classroom.
The verbal behavior of inservice teachers tends to be more disapproving
than approving, and is more likely to address musical behaviors than social behaviors.
A teacher's ability to identify verbally musical elements for attention is related to a
school band's performance level, although the frequency of attending to various
musical elements is not related. Verbal feedback is a better predictor of a school band's
performance level than are verbal initiations.
Verbal explanation is the explicative technique most frequently used, and
approximately forty percent of rehearsal time consists of conductor talk. Yet,
professional musicians believe that eighty percent of rehearsal time should consist of
playing music, preferring verbal statements that are short and to the point. If the
proportion of eighty percent playing and twenty percent talking were to be adopted in
place of the forty percent talking that is status quo, effective nonverbal
communication would certainly take on great importance.
21
Modeling Communication in Teaching and Conducting
The final category of research reviewed is nonverbal modeling
communication. References can be found to the process of teacher demonstration and
pupil imitation in Aristotle, Comenius, Pestolozzi, Ausubel, and Bandura. 1 Little
research has been conducted studying the effects of modeling in the classroom.
Reiman listed nearly 200 competencies believed to be necessary for successful
instrumental music teaching. Seventy-five percent of these dealt directly with teacher
modeling.^ Parr constructed a similar list containing 464 competencies. Forty percent
of these involved teacher demonstrations.^
Two early modeling studies resulted from interest in how beginning
instrumentalists practice. Puopolo^ programmed each of ten weekly instrumental
music lessons on recorded tape for self-instruction. Each tape included a model
performance of all lesson material, a simple piano accompaniment for model
performances and student responses and reinforcements, and verbal instructions,
explanations, and counting of meter during model performances and student responses
and reinforcements. Fifty-two fifth-grade beginning trumpet and cornet students
were placed in experimental or control groups by random assignment. Each student in
the experimental group had twenty to twenty-five minutes of monitored, self-directed
ISang, "Effectiveness Research," p. 23.
ZCited in Sang, p. 24. See Melvyn Lewis Raiman, "The Identification and
Hierarchical Classification of Competencies and Objectives of Student Teaching in Music
Through A Partial Delphi Survey" (Ph. D. dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1975).
3lbid. See je rry Duane Parr, "Essential and Desirable Music and Music-
Teaching Competencies for First-Year Band Instructors in the Public Schools" (Ph. D.
dissertation, University of Iowa, 1976).
^Vito Puopolo, "The Development and Experimental Application of Self-

Instructional Practice Materials for Beginning Instrumentalists," journal of Research
in Music Education. 19 (Fall 1971)342-349.
22
practice in school each day. Students in the control group practiced under similar
conditions, but without the programmed practice tape. Using the Watkins-Farnum
Performance Scale as a posttest, Puopolo found a highly significant difference in
performance achievement in favor of programmed practice. Although Puopolo's study
was well executed, it is not known how the results would generalize to the more usual
case in which students practice at home. As an aside, a questionnaire administered to
subjects in the experimental group revealed that eighty percent of them would have
preferred more playing and less verbal explanation on the tapes.
Zurcherl studied the results of model-supported practice on six musical
performance variables: gross pitch discrimination, tempo stability, pitch matching,
fingering and slide position errors, rhythm errors, and time spent in practice. Forty-
three beginning brass students were randomly assigned to the experimental or control
groups for the first week of the six-week experiment. Subjects in the experimental
group received tapes with instructions, reminders, pulse provided by a metronome, and
model "play-along" performances of the lesson on the subject's own instrument. The
groups rotated treatments in each successive week in order to permit both weekly and
cumulative measurements of results. Cumulative scores indicated that model-
supportive practice is more effective than traditional practice for gross pitch
discrimination, pitch matching, rhythmic discrimination, and time spent in practice,
but not for tempo stability or fingering or slide position errors. Weekly scores were
not normally distributed, and in general did not draw out the differences found in the
cumulative analysis. Students practiced at home in this study, the practice being
monitored through daily parent-initialed practice records and reinforced with tokens
^William Zurcher, "The Effect of Model-Supportive Practice On Beginning

Brass Instrumentalists" in Research in Music Behavior: Modifying Music Behavior in
the Classroom, ed. Clifford Madsen, R. Douglass Greer, and Charles H. Madsen (New York:
Teachers College Press, 1975), pp. 131-138.
23
applicable toward a weekly package of M&M candy. Although Zurcher's findings are
supportive of modeling as a teaching tool, the study was weakened by the difficulties of
attempting to measure results both weekly and cumulatively.
Jetter* compared the achievement of high, middle, and low aptitude second
graders instructed by experienced music specialists, student teacher music specialists,
first-year music specialists, and experienced classroom teachers using Audio-Visual
Identification Instruction (A VII) model materials for three pitch tasks and three
timbre tasks. A prominent feature of the AVII model is the use of both appropriate and
inappropriate examples of an instance to help the learner acquire all of the critical
attributes of a concept. Jetter used fourteen intact second grade classes from eight
elementary schools, with two teachers for each teacher category listed above. Data was
collected for 203 subjects. Using Harrington's Primary Level Musical Aptitude Profile
and a criterion-referenced achievement test, Jetter found a significant variance for
teacher type (achievement gains for classes taught by first year music teachers were
significantly less) but no significant variances for student musical aptitude or for
musical task. Jetter concluded that the AVII model is effective for instruction of such
tasks, although she did not compare the AVII model to other instructional methods in
her study.
Baker? investigated the effect of appropriate and inappropriate in-class
song performance models on performance preference and on indications of "correct"
ljune Thomsen Jetter, "An Evaluation of the AVII Model: A Systematic

Approach to Aural-Visual Identification Instruction in Music for Young Children (Ph.
D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1973). A followup study on the effects of
several additional variables on AVII model instruction appears in Journal of Research
in Music Education. 26 (Summer 1978) 97-110.
?Dawn S. Baker, "The Effect of Appropriate and Inappropriate In-Class Song

Performance Models on Performance Preference of Third- and Fourth-Grade Students, "
lournal of Research in Music Education. 28 (Spring 1980) 3-17.
24
performance and individual performances of songs in class. Two concurrent
experiments were initiated involving 39 fourth-grade students and 36 third-grade
students. The fourth graders were assigned to groups randomly, but the third graders
remained in intact groups due to schedule inflexibility. The researcher taught seven
25- to 30-minute lessons on tempo and dynamics to each group over a four-week period.
The "A" ("appropriate") classes learned to sing three lullabies softly and slowly, and
three capstan chanties loudly and quickly. The "I" ("inappropriate") classes learned to
sing three lullabies loudly and quickly, and three capstan chanties softly and slowly. A
master tape was prepared of appropriate and inappropriate performances of all six
songs, all by the same unaccompanied performer. Each song was taught through the
use of tapes, while all other instructional devices were tightly controlled. Analysis of
pretest-posttest verbal and behavioral measures of performance preference showed
that the verbal preference responses (on a four-point like-dislike continuum) of
students with appropriate models were not significantly different than students with
inappropriate models. However, the behavioral measure, in which students used a
toggle switch to alternate between simultaneous appropriate and inappropriate taped
performances, showed that students given appropriate models spent significantly more
time listening to the appropriate performance than did students given inappropriate
models. It was concluded that performance preference was affected by in-class
performance models. When subjects described taped performances as "correct” or
"incorrect,” significant differences were found between the "A" groups and the "I"
groups, indicating that the way students perform a song in class affects the way they
think the songs should be performed. In individual performances, "A" subjects
performed lullabies significantly softer and chanties significantly louder than "I"
subjects. Tempo differences were also significant. Because the same songs were used
in both instruction and evaluation, it is not clear whether the concepts of tempo and
dynamics were generalized. Baker notes that "because learning takes place consistent
25
with the in-class performance model, the question of appropriateness of that model is
crucial." 1 But students in Baker's "A" groups may have been reacting to their
familiarity with a particular song as much as making music discriminations regarding
tempo and dynamics. Unfortunately, Baker did not lead her students to make
discriminations through the comparison of both appropriate and inappropriate models.
Wea\rer2 noted that the frequency and modes of student responses which
demonstrate musical learning in elementary instrumental music classes are unclear.
As a result of this observation, Weaver conducted an exploratory, descriptive study
consisting of observing and documenting behaviors in instrumental music classes in
two Michigan school districts. Behaviors were classified according to categories
delineated in Froseth and Delzeil's The Individualized Instructor Teaching Skills
Workbook. These categories included description, identification, imitation,
discrimination, association, analysis, generalization, and synthesis. Weaver described
imitation as "the execution of an act supposedly as a direct response to the perception of
another person performing the same act; it may be oral, kinesthetic, or
instrum ental."3 Weaver found that 22.65 percent of the overall total of behaviors
involved instrumental, kinesthetic, or oral forms of imitation. Weaver found that
instrumental imitation was most common, followed by kinesthetic imitation and then
by oral imitation. Of the eight categories for which behaviors were recorded, the
frequency of imitation was surpassed only by the frequency of verbal, rhythmic, and
melodic association. Weaver concluded that imitation, in company with discrimination
l Ibid., p. 14.
^Molly A. Weaver, "A Survey of Modes of Student Response Indicative of

Musical Learning in Elementary Instrumental Music" (M. M. thesis, The University of
Michigan, 1981).
3lbid., p. 10.
26
and association, should be an integral component of any beginning instrumental music
class. It should be noted that the school districts that Weaver observed do not
necessarily represent typical beginning instrumental music classes. Weaver did not
discuss characteristics of the classes or schools that she observed, nor did she discuss
the generalizability of her findings.
Rosenthal^ studied the effects of four different kinds of training tapes on
the violin performance of college woodwind and brass majors. To provide a model, she
employed a professional violinist to record an obscure 6tude. Rosenthal then prepared
and recorded a script that discussed appropriate tempo, style, rhythmic interpretations,
phrasing, and dynamics. She set up four experimental conditions to examine the effect
of aural models and verbal descriptions on musicians' ability to perform accurately a
relatively complex musical selection. Using 44 graduate and upper level undergraduate
students, Rosenthal randomly assigned each to one of four treatments: ( l ) a training
tape that consisted of an integration of the script with relevant performed examples
from the 6tude followed by a complete performance of the 6tude; (2) a training tape
with no verbal script but three complete performances of the 6tude; (3) a training tape
with verbal script with pauses for mental practice after each major point, verbal
review of the major points, but no modeled performance; and (4) no training tape.
Each experimental condition was approximately six and one-half minutes long, after
which subjects were allowed to practice for three minutes. Subjects in the control
group (no training tape) were simply given ten minutes to practice the 6tude, Then
each subject taped a performance of the 6tude. Reliability for evaluation was
established by having two independent observers determine the number of measures
iRoseanne Kelly Rosenthal, "The Relative Effects of Guided Model, Model

Only, Guide Only, and Practice Only Treatments on the Accuracy of Advanced
Instrumentalists' Musical Performance," journal of Research in Music Education. 32
(Winter 1984) 265-273.
27
played with correct notes, rhythm, tempo, dynamics, and phrasing/articulation in a
twenty percent sample of the tapes. Then one independent observer analyzed all of the
tapes for those variables. Significant differences were found among all groups for
notes, rhythms, dynamics, and tempo, but not for phrasing/articulation. The highest
scores were consistently attained by subjects in the model only group on all variables.
Thus Rosenthal makes a strong case for the effectiveness of modeling, at least in the
short term. Rosenthal remarked that the model with verbal guidance seemed to hinder
the subjects' musical performance compared to just the modeled performance. She also
noted that verbal instruction alone may be no more effective than independent
practice in helping subjects to perform accurately.
Sang* attempted to develop quantitative support for a theoretical model of
instructional effectiveness for beginning teachers in instrumental music education.
He incorporated three observable teaching skills as independent variables: modeling
skills, discrimination skills, and diagnostic skills. Sang's subjects were students in two
classes from two consecutive semesters of a university instrumental music methods
course. A panel of judges used an observational instrument designed for the study to
quantify observations from videotapes of these students teaching in a field situation.
Using a modified path analysis technique, Sang found that all three of the skills
contribute to variance in instructional effectiveness as depicted by his model.
Modeling skill was identified as the greatest single contributor to variance in
instructional effectiveness.
As a result of the latter finding, Sang constructed a second study to
investigate the inconsistency between modeling theory and the extreme quantity of
^Richard C. Sang, "Modified Path Analysis of A Skills-Based Instructional

Effectiveness Model for Beginning Teachers in Instrumental Music Education" (Ph. D.
dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1982).
28
verbalization found in actual classroom practice^. Nineteen teachers of first-year
instrumental music classes randomly selected ten to twelve students to participate in
the study with them. Each teacher was given a battery of tests to measure his or her
modeling skills, including performance exercises 1-5 of Form B of the Watkins-Farnum
Performance Scale. The results were evaluated by a panel of professional musicians.
After one year of instruction, the students performed the same exercises that the
teachers had recorded from the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale. The students'
taped performances were rated by the panel, and a mean performance score was
calculated for the students of each teacher. Through multiple regression Sang found
that there is a strong and significant relationship between teacher modeling and
student performance (R2 = .89, p <.001). Using a simple zero-order correlation, Sang
found a significant relationship between teachers' modeling abilities and the amount
of time spent modeling in the classroom (r = .74, p <.05). Sang concluded that a
teacher's ability to model in combination with the extent to which teacher
demonstrations occur in the classroom does have bearing upon student performance
levels.
The effectiveness of nonverbal gestural communication in instrumental
music classrooms has been established in earlier sections of this literature. Nonverbal
instruction is clearly preferable to verbal description and explanation in many
situations. It therefore seems logical to consider nonverbal modeling strategies and
devices as a potential substitute in instances where verbal description or explanation
might otherwise be used.
The studies by Puopolo, Zurcher, and Rosenthal clearly point toward the
effectiveness of providing a model in music instruction. Baker found that students'
^Richard C. Sang, "A Study of the Relationship Between Instrumental Music

Teachers' Modeling Skills and Pupil Performance Behaviors," Council for Research in
Music Education, No. 91 (Spring 1987), 155-9.
29
performance preference, sense of correctness, group performance, and individual
performance are all positively influenced by in-class performance models. Sang found
that modeling is the greatest contributor to variance in instructional effectiveness, and
that a positive relationship exists between teacher modeling and student performance.
But Sang also found a relationship between a teacher's ability to model and the time the
teacher spends modeling.
Modeling skills are directly related to many of the competencies necessary
to successful instrumental music teaching. The above body of research suggests that
modeling strategies should be an integral part of instrumental music instruction
because teachers who possess and use modeling skills have a positive influence on
students' development of musical skills. By implication, modeling strategies should be
prominent in music teacher training programs.
Whether or not, and to what degree, nonverbal modeling strategies and
devices are superior when compared to verbal instruction in the instrumental music
classroom remains to be studied.
CHAPTER III
METHOD OF PROCEDURE
The method of procedure consists of (1) a description of the subjects; (2) the
selection and construction of appropriate tests for measurement of the independent
variables; (3) the design of the studies; and (4) the procedure.
P^S<?r i pti9Q Pf th? Sv»frjg<?tS
The subjects were 132 middle school students from three middle schools in a
large suburban school district in Southeastern Michigan. The school district
encompasses an area of 34 square miles that includes a city of 10,000 and parts of five
surrounding townships in two counties J The school district consists of two high
schools, five middle schools, and twelve elementary schools, which had a district
enrollment of 15,949 students in 1987-88.2
The middle school level was selected for the studies because (1) it was
desirable to have subjects who were well past the beginning stages of skill
development; and (2) it was desirable to begin the studies during the fall term when
many high school ensembles are unavailable due to marching band season. One
unusual feature of the cooperating school district is that its ninth grade students may
Ipiymouth-Canton Community Schools: Welcome to Plvmouth-Canton

Community Schools. 1987.
2piymouth-Canton Community Schools: Fingertip Facts. 1987.

30
31
be housed in either a high school or middle school building, depending on which
middle school area a particular student resides in. As a result, ninth grade students
were not included in the studies.
The selection of the three middle schools included in the studies from the
five available in the school district was based on the band directors' and principals'
interest and willingness to support and participate. The studies utilized four
instrumental music classes within the three middle schools. Two of the classes, one in
each of two buildings, were taught by the author. The two remaining classes, both in
the same building, were taught by a teacher in the district who agreed to replicate the
author's study in his own school. The author had four and one-half years of public
school instrumental music teaching experience prior to the studies. The replicator had
ten years of public school instrumental music teaching experience prior to the studies.
The classes used in the studies were intact before the studies began. Students
were assigned to these classes according to the scheduling practices of their schools.
Due to a transitional period in the district's instrumental music program, beginning
instrumental music classes were not available to students in the two academic years
before the studies, but they were offered to all sixth and seventh grade students in the
academic year before the studies. Thus, all of the seventh and eighth grade classes
consisted of students who had played for one academic year and one marking period
prior to the beginning of the treatment period. The chronology of beginning
instrumental music in the cooperating school district from 1983 to 1988 is shown in
Table 1.
32
TABLE 1
CHRONOLOGY OFBEGINNING INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN

COOPERATING SCHOOLDISTRICT
FROM 1985 TO1988
Academic Year Description of Beginning Program
1985-1988 no beginning program
1986-1987 6th and 7th grade students started
1987-1988 6th grade students started; 7th and 8th grade students have
one year of playing experience
The bands in the schools in which the author taught were scheduled
according to the grade the students were in for the 1987-88 academic year; each school
had a seventh grade band and an eighth grade band, even though both bands consisted
of students with one year of playing experience. The bands in the school in which the
replicator taught were scheduled to produce three bands of mixed seventh and eighth
grade students. Students were assigned to bands so as to generate three groups of
approximately equal ability and instrumentation. As shown in Figure 1, the author
taught one class of eighth grade students from one building using verbal strategies and
one class of eighth grade students from another building using modeling strategies.
The replicator taught one class of seventh and eighth grade students using verbal
strategies and another class of seventh and eighth grade students from the same
building using modeling strategies. The ultimate selection of the two eighth grade
bands in the author's schools and the two seventh and eighth grade bands in the
33
replicator's school was made in order to make possible a daily schedule with which the
author could be present for all four classes.
CONDITION_______________ AUTHOR_______________ REPLICATOR_________
VERBAL (control) School 1—8th grade School 3—7th and 8th grade
MODELING (treatment) School 2—8th grade School 3—7th and 8th grade
Fig. 1. Diagram of Organization of Classes in Studies by Teacher and Treatment.
In regard to differences between the four groups in the studies, the
cooperating school district considers the socio-economic status (SES) of the author's two
schools to be essentially equal. The SES of the replicator's school is considered to be
different from the author's schools, but the SES of the two classes within the
replicator's school are roughly equivalent. Another potential confounding factor is
that one of the author's schools is the magnet school for the district's middle school
level Talented and Gifted (TAG) Program. Students are accepted into the TAG program
on the basis of teacher and parent recommendations as shown on the Renzulli-Hartman
Ratine Scale?, and three tests: (1) the Developing Cognitive Abilities Test1. (2) the
Structure of intellect Learning Abilities Test2, and (3) an intellectual aptitude test,
usually the Slosson 10 Test. Some of the students in one of the author's groups are in
the TAG Program, and although musical aptitude or ability are not considered in the
application process for the TAG Program, it is possible that differences between TAG
students and non-TAG students could have had an effect on the author's study. This
issue is dealt with in Chapter IV.
1John W Wick et al., Developing Cognitive Abilities Test (Iowa City, Iowa:
American Testronics, 1980).
2Mary Meeker and Robert Meeker, Structure Of Intellect Learning Abilities

Test (Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services, 1973).
34
After permission for the studies was granted by the University of Michigan
School of Education's Human Subjects Review Board and the cooperating school
district's Assistant Superintendent for Instruction, students were solicited for their
participation in the studies. A general explanation of the studies was given by the
author in each class, and an informed consent letter was sent home for students and
their parents to consider. Students who returned the completed form with parental
permission were included in the studies. A copy of the informed consent letter is in
Appendix A.
Description of Test Instruments
The studies employed four test instruments. Three of these were used to
measure pre-test to post-test gains in specific types of musical achievement. The
fourth was Gordon's Musical Aptitude Profile1 (MAP), which was used to analyze
differences in pre-test to post-test gains according to musical aptitude.
The first pretost-posttest measure used in the studies was the "MLR Test of
Kinesthetic Response to Rhythm in Music "2 ("TKRRM"). The “TKRRM" is an eleven-
item test designed to evaluate the student's ability to coordinate kinesthetic response
with recorded musical examples in duple, triple, and unusual meters in a variety of
tempos. The test includes two practice exercises at the beginning and four additional
practice exercises interspersed throughout. The subject's task for each test item is to
(1) listen to the rhythmic pattern of a woodblock that enters after a short introduction
in each example; and (2) imitate the rhythmic pattern in time with the music by
1Edwin E. Gordon, Musical Aptitude Profile (Manual) (Boston: Houghton-

M ifflin, 1965).
2James 0. Froseth, "The MLR Test of Kinesthetic Response to Rhythm in

Music," 3rd revision (unpublished research instrument).
35
striking a mallet on a woodblock until the music stops. The test, which takes
approximately twelve minutes to complete, is administered to each subject individually.
The validity of the "TKRRM" as a pretest-posttest measure of kinesthetic
response is demonstrated in Woods' observation that "Movement is regarded as an
essential component of the pedagogical processes inherent in the Orff-Schulwerk, the
Koddiy method, Dalcroze eurhythmies, Comprehensive Musicianship, and Music
Learning Theory as advocated by Edwin Gordon."! More specifically, Gordon states that
". . . kinetics. . . as a basic s k ill.. . must be developed as a readiness for, and in
conjunction with, the acquisition of an understanding of meter."2 Searle reported
reliability of the "TKRRM" as r - .99 in both pretests and posttests.3
The second pretest-posttest measure used in the studies was the
"Intermediate Ear-to-IIandTest" ( 'IETHT'). The "IETHT" was constructed by the author
from materials based on Froseth's Melodic Ear-to-Hand tape Level 1 of the MLR Aural
Skills Training Series.4 The "IETHT" consists of 30 recorded melodic patterns with
harmonic and rhythmic background. The patterns are organized in five sequences of
nine to eleven patterns each, with one practice sequence preceding the test. Each
pattern consists of three or four pitches presented over the course of four beats. The
subject's task, using his or her instrument, is to replicate each melodic pattern in the
*David G. Woods, "Movement and General Music: Perfect Partners," Music

Educators Tournal. 24:3 (November 1987), 35.
Êdwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music (Chicago: GIA Publications,

Inc., 1984), 190.
3Joseph Ward Searle, Jr., "An Investigation of Movement to Music and

Rhythmic Pattern Reading Flash-Slido Training in Fifth- and Sixth-Grade Music
Classes'" (Ph. D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1985), P- 65.
4James 0. Froseth, MLR Aural Skills Training Series (Chicago: GIA

Publications, Inc., 1985).
36
following four beats of harmonic and rhythmic background. The test, which takes
approximately eight minutes to complete, must also be administered individually.
The "IETHT" is based on the same premise as Froseth's "Test of Melodic Ear-to-
Hand Coordination," 1 namely that:
Melodic ear-to-hand coordination is the essential means employed to transfer

what is heard, recalled, or imagined to musical performance. Lack of ear-to-
hand coordination can restrict an instrumentalist to performance "by eye"...
Performing eye-to-han<i is, essentially, playing what is seen without hearing
what is seen.^
Froseth further states that "it has been established both empirically and
experimentally that ear-to-hand coordination can be improved with practice and
training." 3 Gordon supports the validity of using melodic patterns as a musical
training and testing ground when he states that "To develop a sense of tonality. . . a
student should receive formal instruction in hearing and performing melodic
patterns."* While Gordon does not advocate the use of harmonic and rhythmic
backgrounds when introducing melodic patterns, Froseth maintains that the melodic
patterns are best learned with the rhythmic and harmonic frameworks that provide
musical context.
Froseth's “Test of Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination" has been reported as
having a reliability of .98.5 However, due to the difference in difficulty level and
ljames 0. Froseth, "Test of Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination," unpublished

diagnostic test, 1982.
2James 0. Froseth, "A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship Between

Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Selected Indices of Musical Achievement at the
University of Michigan School of Music" (unpublished report, 1983), P 1.
3lbid„ p. 2
^Gordon, Learning Sequences, p. 30.
^Froseth, p. 4.
37
purpose between Froseth's "Test of Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination" and the "IETHT,"
a separate reliability study was initiated. Prior to the author's and replicator's studies,
a research assistant used a test-retest procedure on the replicator's seventh and eighth
grade band that was not selected for the studies. Thus, the sample of 20 in the
reliability study was essentially equivalent to the subjects in the author's and
replicator's studies. Allowing approximately two weeks between the test and retest for
each subject, a reliability coefficient of .83 was obtained. This reliability was
considered sufficient for the purposes of the author's and replicator's studies.
The third pretest-posttest measure used in the studies was the "Test of
Musical Discrimination" ("TMD"). The "TMD" was developed by Froseth to measure the
young instrumentalist's skill in discriminating aural musical phenomena.! The "TMD"
consists of two recorded subtests: Part 1—Rhythm; and Part 2--Melody. The Rhythm
subtest requires subjects to discriminate differences in tempo, melodic rhythm, accent,
pulse, and rhythmic nuance. The Melody subtest requires subjects to make
discriminations in tonality, melody, phrasing, tone quality, expressive nuance,
intonation, balance, and number of musical parts in an ensemble. Each subtest is
composed of 24 items with two practice items preceding. Each test item consists of three
musical examples which are presented and then repeated. The subject's task is to mark
on the answer sheet for each item whether:
» All the examples are exactly alike

e All the examples are different from one another
® The first example is different from the other two
« The second example is different from the other two
• The third example i3 different from the other two
! Judith Katherine Delzell, "An Investigation of Musical Discrimination

Training in Beginning Instr umental Music Classes" (Ph. D. dissertation, University of
Michigan, 1983), p. 29.
38
The test is administered in a group setting and takes approximately fifty minutes to
complete.
The ability to make music discriminations is fundamental to music learning.
Gagn6 asserts that "Acquiring discriminations is obviously an undertaking of great
importance in everyday life and in school learning" 1 and that:
The young child must learn at a very early age to distinguish among the parts of
his environment: colors, brightness, shapes, sizes, textures, distances.2
Gordon relates Gagn6's emphasis on the importance of discrimination learning to music
when he states that "discrimination learning is the basis for the development of
audiation skill."3 The split-half reliability for the "TMD" was found to be .84 in Delzell's
study of fifth-grade instrumental music students.* In an ancillary study, Delzell found
that pretesting had no significant effect on posttest scores.?
Design of the Studies
These studies use a pretest-posttest one-factor control-treatment group design
with concurrent replication. As shown in Table 2. the factor for the studies and their
replication is teaching method, and its corresponding levels are verbal instruction
^Robert M. Gagne, The Conditions of Learning. 2nd ed. (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970), p. 137.
2Ibid.
3Gordon. Learning Sequences, p. 21.
*DelzeU. p. 55.
?Delzell, p. 68.
39
TABLE2
ONE-FACTOR CONTROL-TREATMENT GROUP DESIGN

WITH CONCURRENT REPLICATION
Study by Author Study by Replicator
Al Verbal Al Verbal
Treatment Treatment
A2 Modeling A2 Modeling
Al: Control Group::
A2: Treatment Groups
or modeling instruction. In addition to the analysis derived through this design, judges
observed videotapes of a sample of classes from each group in order to categorize,
quantify, and verify content.
The potential for bias of the author or the replicator to skew the results of
the studies was minimized in four ways: (1) replication of the study: (2) random
selection of control and treatment groups; (3) videotape analysis by independent
judges to verify class content; (4) live performance by all groups during the course of
the studies. Increased means for all groups on the "IETHT" and the "TKRRM" indicate
that progress in these skills was made in all classes.
P m e to
The procedure consisted of (1) training the replicator; (2) pretesting; (3)
instruction; (4) posttesting; (3) evaluation; and (6) data analysis.
40
Training of. the Replicator
The training of the replicator occurred on a daily basis for a period of
approximately one month prior to the period of instruction. The replicator's combined
seventh-eighth grade band that was not involved in the studies was used as a training
laboratory. The training consisted of a series of tasks designed by the author to develop
specific skills necessary to teaching with verbal and modeling strategies. For verbal
teaching, these strategies consisted of:
® statements that lead students to music discriminations bv defining,

describing, identifying, or labeling;
» statements that lead students to musical inferences through analogy,

fantasy, imagery, or metaphor
• questions that lead students to music discriminations bv defining,

describing, identifying, or labeling; and
• questions that lead students to musical inferences through discovery.
For teaching by modeling, the strategies consisted of:
• rhythmic movement to music
• teacher demonstration-sludent response to short rhythmic patterns (using

instruments)
• teacher demonstration-student response to short rhythmic patterns using

neutral syllable (e.g., "bah") and rhythm syllables (using chanting voices)
« teacher demonstration-student response to flashcards containing short

rhythmic patterns (using chanting voices and instruments)
e teacher demonstration-student response to short melodic patterns (using

instruments)
• teacher demonstration-student response to short melodic patterns using

neutral syllable (e.g., "baum") and solfeg (using singing voices)
• teacher demonstration-student response to overhead transparency

projections of short melodic patterns using singing voices and
instruments
41
For the purpose of training the replicator, the modeling strategies were implemented
sequentially, using Gordon's "Skill Learning Sequence"* and Froseth's Comprehensive
Learning Sequence^ as models. The training of the replicator was considered to be
complete when he could utilize all of the above strategies with ease and comfort.
Px-gtesUflgJBmodurss
Pretesting of the subjects took place in the three weeks prior to instruction.
The "TKRRM" and the "IETHT" were given to subjects individually during their
instrumental music periods. Each student was tested in a reasonably quiet environment
situated away from the rehearsal room, such as a practice room or stage. The tests were
played on an AIWA double cassette deck model CA-W75 with two 120 mm woofers and two
20 mm tweeters. Students responded to the "TKRRM" with a woodblock and mallet
provided by the author. They responded to the "IETHT" using their own instrument. All
of the instructions for the "TKRRM" and the "IETHT" are contained on the tapes. The
only persons present for the individual testing were the subject and the author.
The MAP and the "TMD," which took a total of four class periods to complete,
were also administered to each of the four classes during their regular instrumental
music period. The MAP and the "TMD" were administered using the stereo systems in '
the three instrumental music classrooms used for the studies; these stereo systems were
of excellent quality, and essentially equivalent in quality. Students who were absent
for one or more days that the MAP was given were not given opportunities to complete
the portions they missed; Gordon explains appropriate scoring under these
*Gordon, p. 185.
2James 0. Froseth, The Comprehensive Music Learning Sequence (Chicago:

GIA Publications, Inc., 1984).
42
circumstances in the MAP manual.1 Only one student was absent for all three days of
the MAP test administration; that student's MAP score was entered as "missing data."
Students who were absent on the day the "TMD" was given took the test individually or
in small groups as soon as possible after their return to school. In this case, the test
was played over a Sony cassette tape deck model number CFS-3000.
Instructional Procedures
One flip of a coin was used to determine which of the author's two groups
would be taught with verbal strategies and which with modeling. Likewise, one flip of
a coin was used to determine which of the replicator's two groups would be taught with
verbal and modeling strategies. Instruction occurred for a period of forty-five days in
each class. The instruction took place during the second marking period, which took
place from early November through late January and was interrupted by breaks at
Thanksgiving and Christmas. Each class met daily, and each class period was fifty-five
minutes in length.
Materials for the studies included a method book and a repertoire of
compositions and arrangements for middle school band. Although the author and the
replicator used the same method book, they did not use the same repertoire. The
author s verbal and modeling ensembles studied the same repertoire, and the
replicator's verbal and modeling ensembles studied the same repertoire; but, because
the comparisons of interest for the studies were between the verbal and modeling
groups for the author and the replicator separately, it was not considered necessary to
use the same repertoire for both. All of the repertoire used in the studies was
representative of the same range of difficulty, namely grades II - III on a scale of I-V I.
^Gordon, MAP Manual, p. 32.
43
The method book used by the author and the replicator was Master Method Book II.1
The author's classes studied lessons 28 through 33. The replicator s classes studied
lessons 29 through 32,34, and 36. The repertoire studied by the author s classes is
shown in Table 3.
TABLE3
REPERTOIRE STUDIED IN AUTHOR'S CLASSES
Title Composer ^Publisher Year Published
A Christmas Sing-A-Long arr. Ployhar Belwin-Miils 1976
Theme from the Cosby Show Gardner and Cosby, William Allen 1980
arr. Taylor
Ding Dong M errily On High arr. Ployhar Belwin-Mills 1987
Espaha Chabrier, arr. Balent Carl Fischer 1987
Joyful and Triumphant arr. Balent Carl Fischer 1987
Tanglewood John Tatgenhorst Barnhouse 1972
The repertoire played by the replicator's classes is shown in Table 4.
^Charles S. Peters, Master Method. Book Two (Park Ridge, Illinois: Neil A Kjos
Music Co.. 1959.
44
TABLE 4
REPERTOIRE STUDIED IN REPLICATOR'S CLASSES
Title Composer Publisher Year Published
Christmas Kings Mediey arr. Balent Carl Fischer 1986
Kensington Overture Paul Whear Barnhouse 1964
Liberty March Folio Karl L. King Barnhouse 1965

1. New Frontiers
2. Big Four
The Magic of Christmas arr. Story Studio 224 1987
March of the Marionettes Gounod, arr. Balent Barnhouse 1986
Mediey: Michelle, Eleanor

Rigby, Yesterday arr. Balent Warner Bros. 1970
Overture in CMinor Eric (M erlin g Belwin-Mills 1969
Top Gun Anthem Faltermeyer, arr. Cook Columbia 1986
Each class period consisted of three parts: (1) a warm-up period; (2) work in
the method book; and (3) work on repertoire. Each class participated in one public
concert during the studies, and less time was spent in the method book during the two
weeks prior to each class's concert. The general purpose of rehearsals for both verbal
and modeling groups was to lead students to make as many increasingly complex music
discriminations as possible throughout the studies. This was accomplished using verbal
strategies for the verbal groups and modeling strategies in the modeling groups.
The warm-up period for the verbal groups consisted of playing scales and
arpeggios at a variety of tempos. Verbal diagnosis was used to cause students to attend
45
to correct pitches and fingerings, tone quality, intonation, and posture. Scales were
selected fo'r maintaining a reviewable routine and providing opportunities for
extension of range, and on the basis of their relationship with the material in the
method book and the repertoire. The verbal groups' warm-up period ranged in length
from seven to fourteen minutes.
The warm-up period for the modeling groups consisted of a series of melodic
echoes, in which the teacher would play patterns of three to five notes on his major
instrument which were immediately played back by the class. The echoes were selected
for the logic of their sequence, for extending aural imitation and discrimination skills,
and for their relationship with the material being studied in the method book and the
repertoire. The warm-up period for the modeling groups also included a rhythmic
movement sequence, in which the teacher would lead the students in a non-verbal
sequence of movement to recorded music. The meter, subdivision, and tempo of the
music used for movement was sometimes related to music in the method book or
repertoire, but music for movement was also selected to provide kinesthetic
experiences with a wide variety of tempos and meters that are not commonly
encountered in middle school band materials. The warm-up period for the modeling
groups also lasted from seven to fourteen minutes.
The verbal classes' work in the method book was primarily guided by verbal
description. Verbal descriptions of problems encountered in the method book were
embellished with clapping or chanting rhythms or singing melodies before playing
them. The chalk board was also used in conjunction with verbal description to show
correct and incorrect rhythms, melodic patterns, styles, and articulations.
The modeling classes' work in the method book was introduced and reviewed
through teacher modeling-student imitation. The teacher played a two-measure or
four-measure phrase on his major instrument, which the students immediately played
46
back to him on their instruments. Individual students or small groups of students were
sometimes used in place of the teacher as model. Rhythmic backgrounds from a Casio
MT-55 electronic keyboard connected to the schools' stereo systems were sometimes
used as accompaniment for this process, particularly to help correct rushing or
dragging. Groups of students were sometimes used to provide rhythmic backgrounds
by clapping while other students performed. Flashcards of rhythmic patterns were
sometimes used in order to teach unfamiliar or difficult patterns sequentially.
The verbal classes' work in the repertoire was also primarily accomplished
through verbal means. Problems were brought to the attention of the classes or
appropriate sections of the class through appropriate statements or questions. Those
strategies were again embellished with clapping or chanting rhythms, singing parts
before playing them, and illustrations on the chalk board.
The modeling classes' work in the repertoire was guided prim arily through
teacher modeling-student imitation. Remediation occurred when the teacher would
state where a problem was, who was involved in the problem, and how many measures
would be used to illuminate the problem and its solution; the teacher would then play a
short segment containing the problem and direct the students to imitate. The teacher
modeling-student imitation cycle would be used for both correct and incorrect
interpretations of the segment. Students would then be questioned as to which of the
cycles was correct. The Casio MT-55 electronic keyboard was sometimes used for
rhythmic and harmonic backgrounds, and flashcards of rhythmic patterns were also
sometimes used in order to teach unfamiliar or difficult patterns sequentially
A compîson of remedies applied for representative problems in verbal and
modeling classrooms is provided in Table 5.
47
TABLES
COMPARISON OF REMEDIES APPLIED FOR SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE PROBLEMS
IN VERBAL AND MODELING CLASSROOMS
Performance Possible Verbal Solution Possible Modeling Solution

Problem
incorrect teacher describes rhyth m ic teacher models and has students

performance problem and appropriate solution im itate and discrim inate between of
rhythm ic correct and incorrect rhythm ic
pattern patterns
arhythm lc teacher describes the difference teacher has students (1) move to
performance between duple and tr ip le meter rhythm ic background at appropriate
of tr ip le meter and m at as an analogy between tempo in tr ip le meter
the current piece and another and (2) im itate rhythm ic patterns to
that is in tr ip le meter rhythm ic background at
appropriate tempo in tr ip le
meter
unacceptable teacher calls attention to the teacher models and has students
tone q u a lity unacceptable tone q u a lity and im itate and discrim inate between
describes technique fo r playing acceptable and unacceptable tone
w ith acceptable tone q u a lity q u a lity
unacceptable teacher has students p lay a p itc h teacher provides a harmonic

intonation one at a tim e and te lls or asks them model fo r the students to f i t
what adjustments are necessary a p itc h into and has them
experiment w ith playing too high,
too low, and in tune w ith the
model
incorrect teacher describes the incorrect teacher models and has students
a rticu la tio n a rticu la tio n being performed im itate and d iscrim inate between
and the correct a rticu la tio n that correct and incorrect
should be performed a rticulations
inappropriate teacher points out the teacher models and has students
style inappropriate style, describes the im itate and discrim inate between
more appropriate style , and uses a appropriate and inappropriate
metaphor to c la r ify the styles
appropriate style
incorrect teacher points out the correct teacher models and has students
dynamic dynamic level, describes the im itate correct dynamic
incorrect dynamic level that was
performed, and uses verbal
imagery to put the correct
dynamic into context
48
Posttesting Procedures
Three posttests were administered by the author to each subject at the
conclusion of the treatment period. The "TMD" was given to each class on the day
following its forty-fifth day of treatment. The same rooms and stereo equipment were
used as in the pretest. The "IETHT" and the "TKRRM" posttests were administered on an
individual basis in the same rooms and using the same play-back equipment as in the
pretests. Students were generally posttested within two weeks of the end of the
treatment period. However, five students were posttested ten days later due to a mid
winter break that was preceded by a snow emergency day. The five students were from
three of the four classes in the studies.
Evaluation Procedures
Score sheets for the "TMD," "IETHT," and "TKRRM" pretests and posttests were
hand-scored by the author. The MAP score sheets were also haud scored by the author,
using the procedures described in the test manual. Composite standard scores were
derived from the seven sub-test scores using a short computer program written by the
author in BASIC and run on an Apple He computer. The program was based on the
computational formula given by Gordon in the test manual. The composite scores were
then converted to percentile ranks using the appropriate conversion table in the test
manual.
Each class was videotaped a minimum of thirteen and a maximum of twenty
times during the course of the experiment, depending on equipment availability. Five
of the videotaped sessions from each of the classes representing the complete duration
of the project were selected for review. (For instance, the first, fourth, seventh, tenth,
and thirteenth sessions were used for the class that had thirteen sessions videotaped.)
Each of the sessions was then analyzed for content by two judges using the observation
49
form in Appendix B. The judges were doctoral students in music education, each of
whom had several years of public school instrumental music teaching experience. The
judges determined what percentage of each class was made up of verbal, modeling, and
other activities in order to verify that the intent of the author and the replicator was
carried out. These percentages were derived from raw scores of observations that were
made every nine seconds throughout each session. An audio tape loop was utilized to
tell the judges when to look at the videotape and when to mark their observation forms.
The question arose as to whether sufficient inter-judge reliability would
result from having the judges make separate observations of the same videotapes.
Because the author was interested in an analysis of the general content of the classes
rather than a second-by-second accounting, consideration was given to allowing the
judges to observe the tapes separately. Thus the author undertook a pilot study in
which the judges made 703 observations (one every nine seconds) while watching
segments of two videotapes together, and 703 observations while watching different but
similar segments of two videotapes in different locations at different times. For the
first set of observations the judges were together as they watched the tapes and listened
to the audio loop; the second set of observations was done separately, it was
hypothesized that if the content of the videotapes was essentially the same that the
reliability should be similar regardless of whether the judges watched the tapes
separately or together. Findings are reported in Chapter IV.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were computed
for each variable by group. The chi-square statistic was used to determine whether
significant differences existed in distributions of categorical data, and analyses of
50
variance were computed for quantitative data to determine whether pretreatmeat
differences existed between groups.
The analysis of variance test was also applied to determine whether
significant differences existed between groups as a result of treatment. Due to the
presence of pretreatment differences, an analysis of covariance was computed in
conjunction with each posttreatment ANOVA. Covariates were selected on the basis of
pretest comparisons, and they were applied in all further covariate analyses to
maintain consistency between the author and replicator s studies.
The Pearson correlation matrix was used to compute test-retest and inter
judge reliabilities, and the binomial formula
P l-P 2
P l(l-P l) ♦ P2U-P 2 ) = Z
in which P is the percentage of time spent on verbal or modeling instructional
strategies in a control or treatment group, and N is the total number of observations for
a class, was used to determine whether significantly more time was spent on the
designated teaching strategy in each group.
In order to maintain the consistency of the intent of the design, analyses for
the author's classes and the replicator's classes were computed separately for all
procedures. The test-retest reliability for the "IETHT" was analyzed on a Macintosh Plus
with StatView version 1.0.1 Ail other data analyses were done on a Macintosh Plus
using SYSTATversion 3.1.2
I StatView. version 1.0 (Calabasas, California: BrainPower Inc., 1985).
^Wilkinson, Leland, SYSTAT:The System for Statistics, version 3.1 (Evanston,

Illinois: SYSTAT. Inc., 1987).
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES OF DATA FOR STUDIES
OF THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VERBAL AND MODELING STRATEGIES
This chapter presents analyses of data collected during the course of the
studies described in Chapter III. The chapter includes (1) comparison of subjects
according to gender, age, private lessons, and musical experience and Musical Aptitude
Profile standard score means and standard deviations; (2) inter-judge reliability and
content analysis of videotape observations; (3) comparison of pretest scores for the
"Intermediate Ear-to-Hand Test" ("IETHT"), "Test of Kinesthetic Response to Rhythm in
Music" ("TKRRM"), and "Test of Musical Discrimination" ("TMD"); and (4) posttreatment
comparisons for the "IETHT," "TKRRM," and "TMD." Results and analyses for the
author's classes and the replicator's classes are presented separately for each
comparison.
Intact groups were used for the studies. Of 180 students solicited for the
studies, 143 agreed to participate. Due to attrition,.the total number of subjects at the
conclusion of the studies was 132. Attrition occurred for a variety of reasons, including
failure to complete pretesting, band program attrition, and moving from the school
district. The number of subjects in each group differed because the studies utilized
intact groups from three schools.
Three subjects from the author's treatment group and one subject from the
author's control group were deleted from the studies for data analysis purposes because
they changed from one instrument to another just prior to the pretest. These subjects
were judged as having insufficient familiarity with their instruments to perform ear-
52
53
to-hand skills at the time of the pretest, and their scores were eliminated to avoid
artificially inflated posttest scores. None of the subjects in the author's control group
or the replicator's treatment group fit this circumstance. Thus, the total number of
subjects for data analysis is 128.
Comparability of Subjects' Gender. Ase, Private Lessons, and Musical Environment
A comparative summary of the gender of the author's control and treatment
groups is shown in Table 6. Females constitute 512 percent of the control group and
60.7 percent of the treatment group. A chi-square test indicates that the distribution of
males and females within the author's control and treatment groups is not significantly
different (chi-square - .63, p > .05).
TABLE 6
GENDER OF SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
Caalrol Treatment la ta l
Females 22 17 39
Males 21 11 32
Total 43 28 71
A comparative summary of the gender of the replicator's control and
treatment groups is shown in Table 7. Females constitute 54.2 percent of the control
group and 515 percent of the treatment group. A chi-square test indicates that the
distribution of males and females within the replicator's control and treatment groups
is not significantly different (chi-square - . 04, p >.05).
54
TABLE7
GENDER OF SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
Cflfltiy l Treatment Total
Females 13 17 30
Males 11 16 27
Total 24 33 57
Subjects' aês were recorded during the pretest period. Age differences
between the author's and replicator's groups occur because the author's groups contain
only eighth grade students, while the replicator's groups contain both seventh and
eighth grade students. A comparative summary of the age of the author's control and
treatment groups is shown in Table 8. Means and standard deviations for the age of the
author's control and treatment groups are shown in Table 9. The mean age of subjects
in the control group is 13 07 and the mean age of subjects in the treatment group is
13.00. An analysis of variance test for the mean age of the author's control and
treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F - .45, p >.05).
TABLE 8
AGES OFSUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
Control Treatment lo ia l
12 years 2 3 5
13 years 36 22 58
14 years 5 3 8
Total 43 28 71
55
TABLE9
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AGES OF AUTHOR’S

CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N-71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 0.08 0.45 .51

Error 69 0.19
Group N Mean SD
Control 43 1307 0.40

Treatment 28 1300 0.47
A comparative summary of the a&g. of the replicator's control and treatment
groups is shown in Table 10. Means and standard deviations for the age of the
replicator's control and treatment groups are shown in Table 11 The mean age of
subjects in the control group is 12.42 and the mean age of subjects in the treatment
group is 12.52. An analysis of variance test for the mean age of the replicator's control
and treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F - 37, p > .05).
TABLE 10
AGES OF SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
Control Treatment Total
11 years 1 1 2
12 years 12 15 27
13 years 11 16 27
14 years 0 1 1
Total 24 33 57
56
TABLE 11
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AGES OF REPLICATOR'S

CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N-57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 0.14 0.37 0.55

Error 55 0.37
Group N Mean SD
Control 24 12.42 0.58

Treatment 33 12.52 0.62
The measure of years of private lessons is the number of whole years that
any instrument was studied, including concurrent study (e.g., a year's concurrent
study of piano, clarinet, and violin by one subject represents three years of private
lessons.) A comparative summary of the number of years of private lessons taken in
the author's control and treatment groups is shown in Table 12. Means and standard
deviations for the number of years of private lessons taken in the author's control and
treatment groups are shown in Table 13 The mean number of years of private lessons
taken by subjects in the control group is 1.16 while the mean number of years of
private lessons taken by subjects in the treatment group is 2.36. An analysis of
variance test for the private lessons taken between the author's control and treatment
groups indicates that a significant difference exists (F -651. P < 05)
TABLE 12
AVERAGE YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS TAKEN BY SUBJECTS

IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
CojUrsl Treatment TsM

0 years 24 9 33
1 year 6 5 11
2 years 5 1 6
3 years 3 2 5
4 years 2 4 6
5 years 1 5 6
6 years 2 2 4
TABLE 13
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS

(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 24.19 6.51 .01*

Error 69 3.71
Group N Mean SD
Control 43 1.16 1.72

Treatment 28 2.36 2.26
*p<.05
A comparative summary of the number of years of private lessons taken in
the replicator's control and treatment groups is shown in Table 14. Means and standard
deviations for the average number of years of private lessons taken in the replicator's
58
control and treatment groups are shown in Table 15 The mean number of years of
private lessons taken by subjects in the control group is 2.33 while the mean number
of years of private lessons taken by subjects in the treatment group is 3.06. An
analysis of variance test for private lessons taken between the replicator's control and
treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F = .64, p > .03).
TABLE 14
AVERAGE YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS TAKEN BY SUBJECTS

IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
Control liM a s a l Total
0 years 6 11 17
1 year 9 5 14
2 years 0 4
3 years 3 2
4 years 2 3
5 years 1 1
6 years 0 2
7 years 1 4
8 years 1 1 2
9 years 1 1 2
17 years 0 1 1
39
TABLE 15
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS

(N=57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 7.35 .64 .43

Error 55 11.44
Group N Mean SD
Control 24 2.33 . 2.67

Treatment 33 306 382
The home musical environment index is based on the six questions shown in
Figure 2. Subjects were given one point for each affirmative response to a question in
the index so that the range of possible scores was zero to six.
Circle one response for each:
1. Is there a piano in your home? Y N
2. Is there a record player Y N

in your home?
3. Is there a cassette tape recorder Y N

in your home?
4. Is there a compact disc player Y N

in your home?
5. Does your mother play a Y N

musical instrument?
6. Does your father play a Y N

musical instrument?
Fig. 2 Home Music Environment Index
A comparative summary of the home musical environment index in the author's
control and treatment groups is shown in Table 16. Means and standard deviations for
the home musical environment index in the author's control and treatment groups are
shown in Table 17. The home musical environment index average for the control
group is 3 44, while the home musical environment index average for the treatment
group is 3 50. An analysis of variance test for the home musical environment index
between the author's control and treatment groups indicates no significant difference
(F = .05, p > 05). Further, a chi-square test was performed on the index levels in which
index levels 1-2 and 5-6 were consolidated due to the low number of subjects in each.
The chi-square test confirmed the analysis of variance results (chi-square = 1.31, p >
.05).
TABLE 16
HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX FOR SUBJECTS

Index le v e l .Cenlcsl Treatment Total
l l 0 1
2 8 5 13
3 14 8 22
4 13 12 25
5 5 2 7
6 2 1 3
61
TABLE 17
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX

FOR AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 0.06 . A* .83

Error 69 1.18
Group N Mean SD
Control 43 344 1.14

A comparative summary of the home musical environment of the replicator's control
and treatment groups is shown in Table 18. Means and standard deviations for the
home musical environment of the replicator's control and treatment groups are shown
in Table 19. The home musical environment index average for the control group is
3 42 while the home musical environment index average for the treatment group is
3 24. An analysis of variance test for the home musical environment index between
the replicator s control and treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F -
43, p > .05). Again, a chi-square test was performed on the index levels in which index
levels 1-2 and 5-6 were consolidated due to the low number of subjects in each. The chi-
square test confirmed the analysis of variance results (chi-square - 1.40. p > .05).
TABLE 18
HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX FOR SUBJECTS

Control Treatment lo la l
1 0 0 0
2 4 9 13
3 9 11 20
4 9 9 18
5 1 4 5
6 1 0 1
TABLE 19
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX

FOR REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N=57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 0.42 0.43 .51

Error 55 0.98
Group N Mean SD
Control 24 3.42 0.97

Treatment 33 3.24 1.00
63
Comparison of the Means and Standard Deviations of
MusicsLAptitude Profile Standard Scores
Means and standard deviations for the author's control and treatment
groups' performance on the Musical Aptitude Profile are shown in Table 20. The mean
for subjects in the control group is 49.91 while the mean for subjects in the treatment
group is 56.25. An analysis of variance test for the MAP rankings of the author's
control and treatment group shows that a significant difference exists between the two
groups (F » 15.06, p< .05).
TABLE20
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAE STANDARD SCORES

OF AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N-71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 682.28 1506 .000*

Error 69 4532
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 49.91 6.37

Treatment 28 56.25 7.26
*p<.01
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.
64
Means and standard deviations for the replicator's control and treatment
groups' performance on the MAP are shown in Table 21. The mean for subjects in the
control group is 53.46 while the mean for subjects in the treatment group is 53.75. One
case is missing because the student was absent during the administration of the test.
An analysis of variance test for the MAP rankings of the replicator's control and
treatment group shows that there is no significant difference (F = .03. p >.05)
TABLE 21
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAE STANDARD SCORES

OFREPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N-56)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 1.17 .03 .87

Error 54 40.11
Group N Mean S.D. .
Control 24 53.46 5.37

Comparison of Musical Aptitude Profile Standard Scores

for TAG and non-TAG Subjects in Author sTreatment Group
As noted in the "Description of the Students" subsection of Chapter III, the presence of
a Talented and Gifted (TAG) program in the school of the author's treatment group is a
potential confounding variable. In view of the significant difference between the
author s control and treatment groups' standard scores on the MAP (shown above in
Table 20) and pretest scores on the "TMD" (shown below in Table 29), an analysis of
variance test was performed on the author's treatment group to determine what
65
differences exist in the musical aptitude of the TAG and non-TAG sub-groups. Means
and standard deviations for the TAG and non-TAG sub-groups are shown in Table 22.
The mean for TAG subjects in the author s treatment group is 57.69 and the mean for
non-TAG subjects is 55-00. The analysis of variance test for the MAP scores within the
author s treatment group shows that there is no significant difference between TAG
and non-TAG subjects (F = .96, p >.05).
TABLE22
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAESTANDARD SCORES

OFTAG AND NON-TAG SUBJECTS WITHIN AUTHOR'S TREATMENT GROUP
(N-28)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 50.48 .96 34

Error 26 52.72
Group N Mean S.D.
TAG 13 57.69 7.42

Non-TAG 15 5500 7.12
Analysis of variance tests were also performed for the pretest scores of the
"IETHT," the "TKRRM," and the "TMD." No significant differences were found between
the TAG and non-TAG students on any of these tests (p >.05). It was thus determined to
give no further consideration to differentiation between TAG and non-TAG students in
the author's treatment group.
66
Content Analysis and Inter-iudae Reliability of Videotape Observations
The pilot study that was undertaken to determine what differences would
occur in inter-judge reliability when judges viewed the videotapes separately rather
than together revealed that the inter-judge reliability for the synchronized
observation was .98, and the reliability for the unsynchronized observation was .99.
Thus there was no reason to require the judges to make their observations for the
studies together or to build further synchronization into the observation system.
Five videotaped class periods of each group were then analyzed by two
judges to verify that verbal strategies were predominant in the control groups and
modeling strategies were predominant in the treatment groups. The inter-judge
reliability for this videotape analysis was .99. The percentage of time devoted to verbal
and modeling strategies in the author s control and treatment groups is shown in Table
23. The time devoted to verbal and modeling strategies in the replicator's groups is
shown in Table 24. The observation form, an explanation of its categories and complete
resu lts are in Appendices B, C, and D. It was determined that significantly more time
was spent on verbal teaching strategies in the author s and the replicator's control
groups, and significantly more time was spent on modeling teaching strategies in the
treatment groups. This finding confirms the content validity of the studies.
67
TABLE23
PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON VERBAL AND MODELING STRATEGIES

-V.giM Modeling1 Other2

Control 22.2 2.3 75.5
Treatment 9.3 46.0 44.7
TABLE 24
PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON VERBAL AND MODELING STRATEGIES

IN REPLICATOR S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
Verbal M eisling Other

Control 28.1 1.4 70.5
Treatment 15.0 25 4 59.6
Comparisons of the "IETHT." "TKRRM." and "TMD" Pretest Scores
groups' performance on the pretreatment "IETHT1are shown in Table 25. The mean for
subjects in the control group is 18.16 and the mean for subjects in the treatment group
is 19.25. An analysis of variance test for the author's control and treatment groups'
performance on the "IETHT" pretest indicates no significant difference (F - .15. p > 05).
1rhythmic movement and modeling were recorded as two separate kinds of

modeling by the judges but combined into one modeling category in the above tables
2 "other" includes directions, discipline, off-task time,

singing/chanting/clapping activities, and trials
68
TABLE 25
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "IETHT" PRETEST SCORES
OF AUTHOR'S CONTROL ANDTREATMENT GROUPS
(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 20.04 .15 .71

Error 69 138.57
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 18.16 10.19

Treatment 28 19.25 1388
69
groups' performance on the pretreatment "JEfHT’ are shown in Table 26. The mean for
is 23 67. An analysis of variance test for the pretest scores on the "IETHT" within the
replicator's control and treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F = .44, p
>.05).
TABLE26
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "IETHT" PRETEST SCORES

OF REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N-57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 42.55 .44 .51

Error 55 96.68
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 24 21.92 8.74

Treatment 33 2367 10.55
70
groups' performance on the pretreatment "TKRRM" are shown in Table 27. The mean
for subjects in the control group is 30.44 and the mean for subjects in the treatment
group is 32 .75. An analysis of variance test for the pretest scores on the "TKRRM"
within the author's rontrol and treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F
= 2.28, p >.05).
TABLE27
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" PRETEST SCORES

(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 90.34 2.28 .14

Error 69 39.68
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 30.44 6.13

Treatment 28 32.75 6.56
71
groups' performance on the pretreatment "TKRRM" are shown in Table 28. The mean
group is 31 36. An analysis of variance test for the pretest scores on the "TKRRM"
within the replicator's control and treatment groups indicates no significant
difference (F = .07, p >.05).
TABLE28
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" PRETEST SCORES

OFREPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N=57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 2.55 .07 .80

Error 55 39.27
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 24 3179 6.87

Treatment 33 3136 580
groups' performance on the pretreatment "TMD" are shown in Table 29. The mean for
is 34.30. An analysis of variance test for the pretest scores on the "TMD" within the
author's control and treatment groups indicates that a significant difference exists (F =
9.48, p<.05).
TABLE29
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" PRETEST SCORES

(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 512.97 9.48 .00*

Error 69 54.10
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 29.00 7.52

Treatment 28 34.50 7.10
*p<.01
73
groups' performance on the pretreatment "TMD" are shown in Table 30. The mean for
subjects in the control group is 31-58 and the mean for subjects in the treatment group
is 31-46. An analysis of variance test for the pretest scores on the "TMD" within the
replicator's control and treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F ».01, p
>.05).
TABLE30
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" PRETEST SCORES

(N=57) -
Source df MS F P
Method 1 0.23 .01 .94

Error 55 36.76
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 24 3158 4.92

Treatment 33 31.46 6.77
To summarize the pretreatment analysis, no significant differences were found in the
author's control and treatment groups for gender, age, home music environment, or
for the "IETHT" or "TKRRM." However, significant pretreatment differences were
found in favor of the author's modeling group on the MAP, the "TMD," and for years of
private lessons. None of the tests showed any significant pretreatment differences
between the replicator's control and treatment groups.
74
Comparison of "IETHT" Posttest Scores
groups' performance on the posttreatment "IETHT" are shown in Table 31- The mean
group is 31 89. An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "IETHT"
within the author's control and treatment groups indicates a statistically significant
difference (F = 11.41, p <.05). These results show that the use of teacher
demonstration-student imitation of melodic patterns leads to significantly increased
ear-to-hand skills.
An analysis of covariance was performed using the "IETHT" pretest scores,
MAP standard scores, and amount of private lessons as covariates. The results of this
test are shown in Table 32. Although the equal adjusted means are significant (p <.001)
and thus reinforce the conclusion that imitative activities with melodic patterns lead to
increased ear-to-hand skills, this analysis of covariance should be viewed
conservatively due to the failure of the test for equal slopes (p < .001),.
73
TABLE 31
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "IETHT" POSTTEST SCORES
(N=71)
Source df MS F p
Method 1 1492.41 11.41 .00*

Error 69 130.83
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 22.51 11.46

Treatment 28 3189 11.41
*p<01
TABLE32
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "IETHT" POSTTEST SCORES

(N=71)
Source df MS F p
Covariates 3 2329.20 75.36 0000

Equal Slopes 3 212.27 9.53 0000
Adjusted Means 1 388.70 12.58 .0007*
Error (for Adjusted Means) 66 22.27
Group N Mean Adjusted Mean
Control 43 22.51 2392

Treatment 28 31.89 29.73
*p<.01
groups' performance on the posttreatment"IETHT" are shown in Table 33. The mean
76
group is 30.79. An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "IETHT"
within the replicator's control and treatment groups indicates a significant difference
(F = 3 94, p = .05). The results for the replicator's groups further reinforce the
conclusion that imitative activities with melodic patterns significantly increase ear-to-
hand skills. The covariate adjustments, shown in Table 34, are congruent with this
finding. The finding that the ability to imitate melodic patterns can be improved
through modeling strategies is important because this ability is crucial and
fundamental to the development of independent musicianship and music literacy.
TABLE33
ANALYSIS OF VARI ANCE FOR "IETHT" POSHEST SCORES

(N-57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 358.51 394 .05*

Error 55 90.92
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 24 25.71 8.89

Treatment 33 30.79 9.97
*p<10
77
TABLE34
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "IETHT" POSHEST SCORES

(N=56)
Source df MS F P
Covariates 3 1239.20 49.27 .00
Equal Slopes 3 7.83 .30 .83
Adjusted Means 1 187.69 7.46 .009*
Error (for Adjusted Means) 51 2515
Control 24 25.71 26.48

Treatment 32 30.78 30.20
*p<01
Comparison qLITKIRRM'.1P-gsttost-S.corig
groups' performance on the posttreatment "TKRRM" are shown in Table 35 The mean
for subjects in the control group is 33 58 and the mean for subjects in the treatment
group is 42.46. An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "TKRRM"
within the author's control and treatment groups indicates a statistically significant
difference (F - 34.73, p <.05). This shows that modeling activities such as rhythmic
movement to music and the use of rhythmic backgrounds have a significant effect on
kinesthetic response. This finding is congruent with results of the analysis of
covariance shown in Table 36.
TABLE35
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES
(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 1338.06 34.73 .000*
Error 69 38.51
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 3358 6.11

Treatment 28 42.46 6.33
*p<01
TABLE36
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES

(N-71)
Source df MS F P
Covariates 3 66527 66.36 .0000
Equal Slopes 3 14.90 1.52 .2175
Adjusted Means 1 524.55 52.33 .0000*
Control 43 33.58 34.62

Treatment 28 42.46 40.89
*p<01
groups' performance on the posttreatment "TKRRM" are shown in Table 37. The mean
for subjects in the control group is 33-63 and the mean for subjects in the treatment
group is 39.76. An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "TKRRM"
within the replicator's control and treatment groups indicates a statistically significant
difference (F = 11.90, p <.05). These findings are congruent with the conclusion that
rhythmic modeling activities lead to improved kinesthetic response. The analysis of
covariance results, shown in Table 38, are also congruent with this conclusion. The
finding that kinesthetic response can be improved through rhythmic modeling
activities is important because kinesthetic response is a basic and necessary
prerequisite to the development of rhythmic skills and understandings.
TABLE37
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES

OF REPLICATOR’S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS
(N-57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 522.56 11.90 .001*
Error 55 43.92
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 24 3363 6.63

Treatment 33 39.76 6.62
*p<.01
TABLE 38
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "TKRRM" POSTTEST SCORES

(N=56)
Source df MS F P
Covariates 3 521.10 40.44 .0000

Equal Slopes 3 6.10 15 .9293
Adjusted Means 1 607.68 47.16 .0000*
Error (for Adjusted Moans) 51 12.89
Control 24 3363 33.55

Treatment 32 40.19 40.25
*p<.01
Comparison of "TMD" Posttest Scores
Means and standard deviations for the author s control and treatment
groups' performance on the posttreatment "TMD" are shown in Table 39. The mean for
is 37.32. An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "TMD" within the
author s control and treatment groups indicates a statistically significant difference (F
=>17.20, p < .05). However, the analysis of covariance in Table 40 shows that when
adjustments for the three covariates are taken into account, the results are not
statistically significant (F = 3.78, p >.05). Specifically, relationships between the "TMD"
pretest and MAP standard score covariates and the dependent variable suggest only a
marginal difference between the control group and treatment group posttest mean
scores. These findings do not indicate that modeling activities lead to increased general
music discrimination abilities as measured by the "TMD."
TABLE39
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTTEST SCORES

(N=71)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 979.61 17.20 .000*

Error 69 56.97
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 43 29.72 8.12

Treatment 28 37.32 6.57
*p<01
TABLE 40
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTIEST SCORES

(N-71)
Source df MS F P
Covariates 3 728.59 27.56 .0000

Equal Slopes 3 41.85 1.63 .1918
Adjusted Means 1 99.92 3.78 .0562
Error (for Adjusted Means) 66
Control 43 29.72 31.64

Treatment 28 37.32 34.37
groups' performance on the posttreatment "TMD" are shown in Table 41. The mean for
82
is 32.39. An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "TMD" within the
replicator's control and treatment groups indicates no significant difference (F »1.32,
p >.05). Although the results are not significant, in this case the control group scored
higher than the treatment group. This finding supports the conclusion that modeling
strategies were not statistically superior to verbal strategies in increasing subjects'
abilities to make general music discriminations as measured by the "TMD." The analysis
of covariance, shown in Table 42, confirms that conclusion (F * 3.62, p >. 05). These
results should not lead one to conclude that the ability to make general music
discriminations is unimportant or that modeling strategies are not useful in leading
students to music discriminations. Possible reasons for the findings are discussed in
Chapter V.
TABLE41
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTTEST SCORES

(N=57)
Source df MS F P
Method 1 79.88 1.32 .26
Error 55 60.72
Group N Mean S.D.
Control 24 34.79 7.02

Treatment 33 32.39 8.31
TABLE 42
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR "TMD" POSTTEST SCORES

(N-56)
Source df MS F P
Covariates 3 746.72 38.54 .0000
Equal Slopes 3 4.92 .24 .87
Adjusted Means i 70.22 3.62 .06
Control 24 34.79 34.91

Treatment 32 32.72 32.63
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Purpose of the Studies
The problem of the studies was to compare the effects of verbal instruction
and nonverbal teacher-student modeling on instructional effectiveness in
instrumental music ensembles. Thus, two methods of instruction were compared, a
verbal approach and a modeling (teacher demonstration-student imitation) approach.
The purpose was to determine if instrumental music students taught with modeling
strategies would develop better melodic ear-to-hand skills, kinesthetic response skills,
and general music discrimination skills than students taught with verbal strategies.
For the purposes of these studies, verbal instruction consisted of verbal
directions, explanations, and imagery, including metaphor and analogy. Although it
was accompanied by those nonverbal behaviors that accompany normal human verbal
interaction, this communication was predominantly verbal.
Modeling instruction consisted of alternations of teacher modelings and
student imitations. The teacher used a musical instrument to provide the model, and the
students responded on their instruments. This technique was used to demonstrate
correct and incorrect rhythm patterns, pitches, styles, articulation, and other elements
of musical performance. Minimal verbal direction (such as "play what I play," or "the
starting pitch is concert F" ) was necessary, but the instruction was predominantly
nonverbal.
84
85
Design of the Studies
These studies used a pretest-posttest one-factor control-treatment group
design with concurrent replication. As shown in Table 2 in Chapter III, the factor for
the studies and their replication is teaching method, and its corresponding levels are
verbal instruction or modeling in Auction. In addition to the analysis derived through
this design, judges observed videotapes of a sample of classes from each group in order
to categorize, quantify, and verify content.
The subjects were 128 middle school students from three middle schools in a
large suburban school district in Southeastern Michigan. As shown in Figure 1 in
Chapter III, the author taught one class of eighth grade students from one building
using verbal strategies and one class of eighth grade students from another building
using modeling strategies. The replicator taught one class of seventh and eighth grade
students using verbal strategies and another class of seventh and eighth grade students
from the same building using modeling strategies. These classes were intact before the
studies began.
In regard to differences between the four groups in the studies, the
cooperating school district considered the socio-economic status (SES) of the author s
two schools to be essentially equal. The SES of the replicator's school was considered to
be different from the author s schools, but the SES of the two classes within the
replicator s school were roughly equivalent. Another potential confounding factor
was that one of the author s schools was the magnet school for the district s middle
school level Talented and Gifted (TAG) Program. Some of the students in one of the
author's groups were in the TAG Program, and although musical aptitude or ability was
not considered in the application process for the TAG Program, it was possible that
differences between TAG students and non-TAG students could have had an effect on
the studies. This issue is reviewed in the "Discussion of the Results."
86
After permission for the studies was granted by the University of Michigan
School of Education's Human Subjects Review Board and the cooperating school
district's Assistant Superintendent for Instruction, students were solicited for their
participation in the studies. Students who returned a completed informed consent form
with parental permission were included in the studies. A copy of the informed consent
letter is in Appendix A.
The studies employed four test instruments. Three of these were used to ,
measure pretest to posttest gains in specific types of musical achievement. The fourth
was Gordon's Musical Aptitude Profile (MAP), which was used to analyze differences in
pretest to posttest gains according to musical aptitude.
The "MLR Test of Kinesthetic Response to Rhythm in Music "1 is an eleven-
item test designed to evaluate the student's ability to coordinate kinesthetic response
with recorded musical examples in duple, triple, and odd meters at a variety of tempos.
The test includes two practice exercises at the beginning and four additional practice
exercises interspersed throughout. The subject's task for each test item was to (1)
listen to the rhythmic pattern of a woodblock that enters after a short introduction in
each example; and (2) imitate the rhythmic pattern in time with the music by striking
a mallet on a woodblock until the music stops. The test, which takes approximately
twelve minutes to complete, was administered to each subject individually. Searle
reported reliability of the "TKRRM" as r = 99 in both pretests and posttests.2
^James 0. Froseth, "The MLR Test of Kinesthetic Response to Rhythm in

Music," 3rd revision (unpublished research instrument).
87
The "Intermediate Ear-to-Hand Test" ("IETHT") was constructed by the author
from materials based on Froseth's Melodic Ear-to-Hand tape Level 1 of the MLR Aural
Skills Training Series.1 The "IETHT" consists of 50 recorded melodic patterns with
harmonic and rhythmic background. The patterns are organized in five sequences of
nine to eleven patterns each, with one practice sequence preceding the test. Each
pattern consists of three or four pitches presented over the course of four beats. The
subject's task, using his or her instrument, was to replicate each melodic pattern in the
following four beats of harmonic and rhythmic background. The test, which takes
approximately eight minutes to complete, was also administered individually. A test-
retest pilot on the replicator's seventh-eighth grade band that was not used in the
studies yielded a reliability coefficient of .85.
The "Test of Musical Discrimination" ("TMD") measures young
instrumentalists' skill in discriminating aural musical phenomena. The "TMD" consists
of two recorded subtests: Part 1—Rhythm; and Part 2—Melody. The Rhythm subtest
requires subjects to discriminate differences in tempo, melodic rhythm, accent, pulse,
and rhythmic nuance. The Melody subtest requires subjects to make discriminations in
tonality, melody, phrasing, tone quality, expressive nuance, intonation, balance, and
number of musical parts in an ensemble. Each subtest is composed of 24 items with two
practice items preceding. Each test item consists of three musical examples which are
presented and then repeated. The subject's task was to mark on the answer sheet for
each item whether:
2Joseph Ward Searle, Jr., "An Investigation of Movement to Music and

Rhythmic Pattern Reading Flash-Slide Training in Fifth- and Sixth-Grade Music
Classes” (Ph. D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1985), p• 65.
1James O.Froseth. MLR Aural Skills Training Series (Chicago. GIA

Publications, Inc., 1985)
88
e All the examples are exactly alike
a All the examples are different from one another
o The first example is different from the other two
e The second example is different from the other two
9 The third example is different from the other two
The test was administered in a group setting and took approximately fifty minutes to
complete. A split-half reliability for the "TMD" was found to be .84 in Delzell's study of
fifth-grade instrumental music students.!
The procedure consisted of training the replicator, pretesting the subjects,
instruction, posttesting the subjects, and evaluation and data analysis. The training of
the replicator occurred on a daily basis for a period of approximately one month prior
to the period of instruction. The replicator's combined seventh-eighth grade band that
was not involved in the studies was used as a training laboratory. The training
consisted of a series of tasks designed by the author to develop specific skills necessary
to teaching with verbal and modeling strategies. The training of the replicator was
considered to be complete when he could utilize all of the strategies discussed in
Chapter I I I with ease and comfort.
Pretesting of the subjects took place in the three weeks prior to instruction.
The "TKRRM" and the "IETHT" were given to subjects individually during their
instrumental music period. The MAP and the “TMD," which took a total of four class
periods to complete, were administered to each of the four classes as a group during its
regular instrumental music period.
iDelzell, p. 55.
89
One flip of a coin was used to determine which of the author's two groups
would be taught with verbal strategies and which with modeling. Likewise, one flip of
a coin was used to determine which of the replicator's two groups would be taught with
verbal and modeling strategies. Instruction occurred for a period of forty-five days in
each class. The instruction took place during the second marking period, from early
November through late January and was interrupted by breaks at Thanksgiving and
Christmas. Each class met daily, and each class period was fifty-five minutes in length.
Materials for the studies included a method book and a repertoire of
compositions and arrangements for middle school band. The method book used by the
author and the replicator was Master Method Book II.* Although the author and the
replicator used the same method book, they did not use the same repertoire. The
author's verbal and modeling ensembles studied the same repertoire, and the
replicator's verbal and modeling ensembles studied the same repertoire; but, because
the comparisons of interest for the studies were between the verbal and modeling
groups for the author and the replicator separately, it was not considered necessary to
use the same repertoire for both. All of the repertoire used in the studies was
representative of the same range of difficulty, namely grades II - III on a scale of I-V I.
Each class period consisted of three parts: (1) a warm-up period; (2) work in
the method book; and (3) work on repertoire. Each class participated in one public
concert during the studies, and less time was spent in the method book during the two
weeks prior to each class's concert. The general purpose of rehearsals for both verbal
•Charles S. Peters, Master Method. Book Two (Park Ridge, Illinois: Neil A Kjos
Music Co., 1959).
90
and modeling groups was to lead students to make as many increasingly complex music
discriminations as possible throughout the studies. This was accomplished using verbal
strategies for the verbal groups and modeling strategies for the modeling groups.
The warm-up period for the verbal groups consisted of playing scales and
arpeggios at a variety of tempos. Verbal diagnosis was used to cause students to attend
to correct pitches and fingerings, tone quality, intonation, and posture. Scales were
selected for maintaining a reviewable routine and providing opportunities for
extension of range, and on the basis of their relationship with the material in the
method book and the repertoire. The verbal groups' warm-up period ranged in length
from seven to fourteen minutes.
The warm-up period for the modeling groups consisted of a series of melodic
echoes, in which the teacher would play patterns of three to five notes on his principal
instrument which were immediately played back by the class. Tho echoes were selected
for the logic of their sequence, for extending aural imitation and music discrimination
skills, and for their relationship with the material being studied in the method book
and the repertoire. The warm-up period for the modeling groups also included a
rhythmic movement sequence, in which the teacher would lead the students in a non
verbal sequence of rhythmic movement to recorded music. The meter, subdivision, and
tempo of the music used for movement was sometimes related to music in the method
book or repertoire, but music for movement was also selected to provide kinesthetic
experiences with a wide variety of tempos and meters that are not commonly
encountered in middle school band materials. The warm-up period for the modeling
groups also lasted from seven to fourteen minutes.
The verbal classes' work in the method book was primarily guided by verbal
description. Verbal descriptions of problems encountered in the method book were
embellished with clapping or chanting rhythms or singing melodies before playing
91
them. The chalk board was also used in conjunction with verbal description to show
correct and incorrect rhythms, melodic patterns, styles, and articulations.
The modeling classes' work in the method book was introduced and reviewed
through teacher modeling-student imitation. The teacher played a two-measure or
four-measure phrase on his principal instrument, which the students immediately
played back to him on their instruments. Individual students or small groups or
students were sometimes used in place of the teacher as model. Rhythmic backgrounds
from a Casio MT-55 electronic keyboard connected to the schools' stereo systems were
sometimes used as accompaniment for this process, particularly to help correct rushing
or dragging. Groups of students were sometimes used to provide rhythmic backgrounds
by clapping while other students performed. Flashcards of rhythmic patterns were
sometimes used in order to teach unfamiliar or difficult patterns sequentially.
The verbal classes' work in the repertoire was also prim arily accomplished
through verbal means. Problems were brought to the attention of the classes or
appropriate sections of the class through appropriate statements or questions. These
strategies were again embellished with clapping or chanting rhythms, singing parts
before playing them, and illustrating problems and solutions on the chalk board.
The modeling classes' work in the repertoire was guided prim arily through
teacher modeling-student imitation. Remediation occurred when the teacher would
state where a problem was, who was involved in the problem, and how many measures
would be used to illuminate the problem and its solution; the teacher would then play a
short segment containing the problem and direct the students to imitate. The teacher
modeling-student imitation cycle would be used for both correct and incorrect
interpretations of the segment. Students would then be questioned as to which of the
cycles was correct. The Casio MT-55 electronic keyboard was sometimes used for
rhythmic and harmonic backgrounds, and flashcards of rhythmic patterns were also
sometimes used in order to teach unfamiliar or difficult patterns sequentially. A
92
comparison of remedies applied for representative problems in verbal and modeling
classrooms is provided in Table 5 in Chapter III.
Three posttests were administered by the author to each subject at the
conclusion of the treatment period. The "TMD" was given to each class on the day
following its forty-fifth day of treatment. The "IETHT" and the "TKRRM" posttests were
administered on an individual basis. Students were generally posttested within two
weeks of the end of the treatment period, although five students were posttested ten
days later due to a mid-winter break that was preceded by a snow emergency day.
These five students were from three of the four classes in the studies.
Score sheets for the "TMD," "IETHT," and "TKRRM" pretests and posttests were
hand-scored by the author. The MAP score sheets were also hand-scored by the author,
using the procedures described in the test manual.
Each class was videotaped a minimum of thirteen and a maximum of twenty
times during the course of the experiment, depending on equipment availability. Five
of the videotaped sessions from each of the classes representing the complete duration
of the project were selected for review. Each of the sessions was then analyzed for
content by two judges using the observation form in Appendix B. The judges
determined what percentage of each class period was made up of verbal, modeling, and
other activities in order to verify that the intent of the author and the replicator was
carried out. These percentages were derived from raw scores of observations that were
made every nine seconds throughout each session. An audio tape loop was utilized to
tell the judges when to look at the videotape and when to mark their observation forms.
The potential for bias of the author or the replicator to skew the results of
the studies was minimized in four ways: (1) replication of the study; (2) random
selection of control and treatment groups; (3) videotape analysis by independent
judges to verify the content of a sample of class periods; (4) live performance by all
93
groups during the course of the studies. Increased means for ail groups on the "IETHT"
and the "TKRRM" indicate that progress in these skills was made in all classes.
It should be remembered that the generalizability of any study dealing with
human behavior is questionable. There is no statistical evidence that the results of
these studies are generalizable to students of different schools, geographic locations,
ages, or ability levels.
Discussion of the Results
All results and analyses for the author's classes and the replicator's classes
were presented separately for all comparisons. Chi square and analysis of variance
tests were performed for (1) the oretreatment comparability of subjects' gender, age,
years of private lessons, and home musical environment using information collected
from the subjects; (2) musical aptitude as measured by the MAP: and (3) pretest
abilities in music discrimination as measured by the "IETHT," "TKRRM," and "TMD."
These tests showed no significant differences in the author's control and treatment
groups for gender, age, home music environment, or for the "IETHT" or "TKRRM."
However, significant pretreatment differences were found in favor of the author's
modeling group on the MAP, the "TMD," and for years of private lessons. Adjustments
were made for these pretreatment differences by using these three variables as
covariates in posttreatment analyses of covariance. None of the pretreatment
measures showed any significant differences between the replicator's control and
treatment groups.
In view of the significant difference between the author's control and
treatment groups' standard scores on the MAP and pretest scores on the "TMD" an
analysis of variance test was performed on the author's treatment group to determine
what differences existed in the musical aptitude of the TAG and non-TAG sub-groups.
94
The analysis of variance test for the MAP scores within the author's treatment group
showed no significant difference between TAG and non-TAG subjects. Analysis of
variance tests were also performed for the pretest scores of the "IETHT," the "TKRRM,"
and the "TMD." No significant differences were found between the TAG and non-TAG
students on any of these tests.
Five videotaped class periods of each group were analyzed by two judges to
verify that verbal strategies were predominant in the control groups and modeling
strategies were predominant in the treatment groups. It was determined that
significantly more time was spent on verbal teaching strategies in the author's and the
replicator's control groups, and significantly more time was spent on modeling
teaching strategies in the treatment groups. The inter-judge reliability for the
videotape analysis was .99.
Analyses of oosttreatment tests were directed to the primary question of the
studies, namely: Does the use of modeling strategies yield greater instructional
effectiveness than the use of verbal strategies in instrumental music classrooms?
Specifically, it was hypothesized that (1) the use of the teacher demonstration-student
imitation cycle for melodic patterns would lead to greater instructional effectiveness as
measured by the "IETHT," (2) that experiences in rhythmic movement to music would
lead to greater instructional effectiveness as measured by the "TKRRM," and that (3)
modeling activities would lead to increased abilities in making general music
discriminations as measured by the "TMD."
An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "IETHT1within the
author's control and treatment groups indicated a statistically significant difference in
favor of the treatment group. These results show that the use of teacher
demonstration-student imitation of melodic patterns leads to significantly increased
ear-to-hand skills. An analysis of covariance was performed using the "IETHT" pretest
scores, MAP standard scores, and amount of private lessons as covariates. These
93
covariates were selected on the basis of pretest comparisons, and they were applied
consistently in further covariate analyses. Although the equal adjusted means are
significant and thus reinforce the conclusion that imitative activities with melodic
patterns lead to increased ear-to-hand skills, this analysis of covariance should be
viewed conservatively due to the failure of the test for equal slopes. However,
significant results in favor of the treatment group on an analysis of variance test for
the replicator's control and treatment group posttest scores on the "IETHT" strongly
support the conclusion that imitative activities with melodic patterns significantly
increase ear-to-hand skills. The covariate adjustments further enhance this finding.
An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "TKRRM" within
the author's control and treatment groups indicated a statistically significant
difference in favor of the treatment group. This result shows that modeling activities
such as rhythmic movement to music and the use of rhythmic backgrounds have a
significant effect on kinesthetic response. The same test for the replicator's control
and treatment groups also indicated a statistically significant difference in favor of the
treatment group. This finding was supported by the analysis of covariance tests for
both the author's and the replicator's groups. These findings strongly support the
conclusion that rhythmic modeling activities lead to improved kinesthetic response.
An analysis of variance test for the posttest scores on the "TMD" within the
author's control and treatment groups indicated a statistically significant difference.
However, the analysis of covariance showed that when adjustments for the three
covariates were taken into account, the results were M i statistically significant.
Specifically, relationships between the "TMD"pretest and MAP standard score
covariates and the dependent variable attenuated the significance of the difference
between the control group and treatment group posttest mean scores. These findings
indicate that modeling activities do not clearly lead to increased general music
discrimination abilities. In the case of the replicator's groups, neither the analysis of
%
variance nor the analysis of covariance test showed significant results between
treatments. These findings do not support the conclusion that modeling strategies are
statistically superior to verbal strategies in increasing subjects' abilities to make
general music discriminations as measured by the "TMD."
The ability to make music discriminations is fundamental to success in all of
the posttreatment tests. Although the results indicate that the use of modeling
strategies did not significantly contribute to the treatment group subjects' abilities to
make general music discriminations such as those contained on the "TMD," the
treatment groups clearly improved in making the specific music discriminations
required to improve significantly on the "IETHT" and the "TKRRM." Thus it is not a
question of whether subjects' abilities to make music discriminations improved, but
whether the subjects were able to generalize from classroom experiences to the tests.
In the case of the "IETHT," the treatment subjects demonstrated their ability
to generalize from the teacher demonstration-student imitation sequences of melodic
patterns in class to those on the test. On the "TKRRM" the treatment subjects
demonstrated their ability to generalize from rhythmic movement to music and from
rhythmic backgrounds used in class to the imitative tasks on the test. Although these
tests entailed relatively simple imitative tasks, these tasks are fundamental to
independent musicianship. Significant progress resulted from the use of modeling
strategies for both of these important abilities.
In the case of the "TMD," treatment subjects did not demonstrate the ability
to generalize from classroom modeling experiences to the discriminations addressed on
this test. Possible reasons are that (1) the wide variety of discriminations required on
the "TMD" was addressed in a less sequential, less concentrated and/or less recurrent
manner than those discriminations required for the "IETHT "and the "TKRRM"; (2) the
length of instruction was insufficient for the more general and varied aural
97
discriminations on the "TMD"; and (3) the test was not powerful enough to measure
gains in these abilities.
Cgflsingipns
Based on the design of the studies, the specific characteristics of the sample,
the measurement tools employed, and the time limitations of the studies, the following
conclusions may be drawn;
1. The use of teacher demonstration-student imitation cycles to teach melodic

patterns contributed significantly to the development of instrumental ear-to-
hand coordination skills.
2. Rhythmic modeling activities such as rhythmic movement to music and

the use of rhythmic backgrounds contributed significantly to the
development of kinesthetic response to music skills.
3. The use of modeling activities as a general teaching strategy for causing

music discriminations neither impeded nor contributed to the development of
abilities to make music discriminations in regard to tempo, melodic rhythm,
accent, pulse, tonality, melody, phrasing, tone quality, expressive nuance,
intonation, balance, or number of musical parts in an ensemble.
Im plications for Music Education
The results of these studies demonstrate that instrumental ear-to-hand
coordination and kinesthetic response skills can be developed and improved through
training and practice. This training and practice leads to the ability to make some of
the fundamental music discriminations necessary to independent musicianship.
Music discriminations are not effectively taught through verbal
description. The aural discrimination of melodic patterns is not facilitated by telling
students what pitches to play; kinesthetic response cannot be improved through
discussions of tempo, meter, and subdivision. These studies attempted to separate
98
modeling and verbal strategies for the research purpose of determining which is more
effective. The practical application is not that all verbal strategies should be replaced
with modeling strategies in instrumental music ensemble pedagogy, but that modeling
strategies should play a more prominent role than they commonly do in instrumental
music classes. It is necessary to provide a series of models, and opportunities to imitate
those models, in order to facilitate increased music discrimination abilities.
Although these skills are important, three factors stand in the way of
modeling in the instrumental music classroom. First, preservice and inservice
teachers should be trained in the skills necessary to act as a model. Training should
consist of the aural and visual discrimination and music performance skills necessary
to provide appropriate models. Training should also involve mastery of teacher
demonstration-student imitation cycles as an essential step in the process of making
pedagogical discriminations, diagnoses, and prescriptions. Teachers should learn to
make their prescriptions by model rather than by mouth.
Second, few instrumental music teachers consistently use instruments in
their teaching. For those teachers who regularly play their principal instrument
outside of their teaching activities, it is simply a matter of developing the discipline to
provide consistently for access to one's principal instrument at the teaching station.
Gaining proficiency in modeling for those teachers who no longer play their principal
instrument is a more serious problem because it not only entails regaining proficiency
at that principal instrument, but it raises the question as to whether the teacher who
no longer performs on his or her instrument has or has not retained the aural
discrimination abilities that were attained through training on that instrument.
In addition to becoming accustomed to the use of their principal instruments
for modeling, teachers can learn to use the classroom stereo system and electronic
keyboard for rhythmic movement and rhythmic and harmonic backgrounds. All
musical phenomena require discrimination for understanding; through the skilled use
99
of the principal instrument, the stereo system, and an electronic keyboard, models of
many musical phenomena can be produced. The use of such models in a teacher
demonstration-student imitation cycle constitutes substituting a musical experience for
what is otherwise usually verbal description. These studies make a case for the use of
modeling media not only for the imitation of melodic patterns and for rh yth m ic
movement, but for the demonstration of virtually any musical phenomenon that is
encountered in the instrumental music class.
Observations
The following observations were derived from the studies:
1. Although harmonic and rhythmic backgrounds were usually not included

when modeling melodic patterns in the modeling classes, harmonic and
rhythmic backgrounds were present on the "IETHT" tape. The harmonic
and rhythmic context provided by these backgrounds seemed to help students
perform with greater rhythmic precision and pitch accuracy. None of the
subjects seemed to be confused by the presence of the backgrounds. It
appears that students at this level of development are able to conserve the
melodic pattern within the presence of the background without difficulty.
2. It was observed by the author and the replicator that, during the warm-up
period, the modeling classes seemed to play with better intonation during the
modeling of melodic patterns than did the verbal classes during the playing
of scales. It appears that better intonation results as a by-product of the
discrimination skills required to imitate melodic patterns, at least in the
warm-up period.
3. It was discovered that modeling could be used to regain students' attention

with no verbal communication whatsoever after an off-task period once they
became accustomed to responding to a melodic pattern or to rhythmic
movement whenever given a model. Rather than a verbal request or demand
for quiet or attention, it became possible to get students' attention and an
immediate musical response to a melodic pattern or rhythmic background, or
music for movement.
4. The replicator reported a greater improvement in ensemble performance in

his modeling group than his verbal group during the course of the studies.
This observation was based on both groups' musical progress in rehearsals
and on the quality of both groups' performances that took place shortly after
the studies ended. The replicator attributed the change to the modeling
100
strategies.
5. The percentage of class time spent by the author and replicator in verbal and
modeling instructional strategies in the verbal classes was similar (22.2
percent verbal and 2.3 percent modeling for the author; 28.1 percent verbal
and 1.4 percent modeling for the replicator). However the percentage of
class time spent by the author and replicator in the modeling classes was
more different (9.3 percent verbal and 46 .0 percent modeling for the author;
15 0 percent verbal and 25 4 percent modeling for the replicator). It appears
that significant results can be achieved with as little as a two-to-one ratio of
time spent in modeling as opposed to verbal instructional strategies (as in
the case of the replicator).
6. The difference in the 44.7 percent of class time spent on instructional

strategies by the author and the 25.4 percent of class time spent on
instructional strategies by the replicator seemed to occur primarily because
of differences in solving problems encountered in the method book and
repertoire parts of the rehearsal. The author chose to use teacher
demonstration-student imitation cycles for remediation until a problem was
solved and then use a trial as a means of evaluation. The replicator tended to
alternate more between modelings and trials. The difference seems to be
more a matter of personal teaching style than one of effectiveness or
efficiency.
7. The use of modeling seems to decrease demonstrably verbal communication

in the classroom. The average amount of class time spent in all verbal
communication (not just instructional) was 36.6 percent in the author's
verbal class but only and 21.8 percent in his modeling class. The replicator
spent 39.9 percent of class time on verbal communication in his verbal class,
but only 29.2 percent in his modeling class.
Recommendations for Further Study
Recommendations for further research include the following;
1. A study is needed which focusses on a warm-up period of an instrumental

music rehearsal that is used for the modeling of rhythmic movement and
melodic patterns. This time could be used for traditional uses such as
development of tone quality and intonation, while simultaneously producing
opportunities for imitation and discrimination.
2. A study is needed to determine what relationships exist between the ability

to imitate melodic patterns aurally, the ability to read melodic patterns, and
the ability to read music in general.
3. A longitudinal study is needed to determine subjects' abilities to retain

improved ear-to-hand skills and kinesthetic response skills achieved
through modeling strategies.
101
4. A study is needed to determine whether improvement in kinesthetic
response generalizes to the accurate performance of rhythm patterns in
both aural and visual modes.
5. Studies are needed to determine what effect the modeling of musical

phenomena other than melodic patterns and rhythmic movement (e.g.,
tempo, melodic rhythm, accent, pulse, tonality, melody, phrasing, tone
quality, expressive nuance, intonation, balance, and number of musical parts
in an ensemble) have when applied in a sequential, concentrated and
recurrent manner.
6. Studies are needed to determine the effect of modeling for instrumental

music students at other levels of development.
APPENDICES
102
103
APPENDIX A
INFORMED CONSENT LETTER
104
THE U N IVER SITY OF MICHIGAN

SCHOOL OF MUSIC
ANN ARBOR, M IC H IG A N 4 0 1 0 9 -2 0 8 3
September 1987
Dear Parent
I am a doctoral student in Music Education at The University o! lichigan I am

interested in conducting a study at your child's middle school about how instrumental
music skills develop
Before I ask you to consider granting permission for your child to participate I
would first like to outline the procedures to be used and the potential benefits Each
child will be asked to take a musical aptitude test in October. This test takes three fifty-
minute periods to administer and will occur during your child's regular band period
Your child will also be asked to take a series of listening skill tests in October and again
in February These tests take one fifty-minute period of regular class time in group
process and an additional fifteen minutes for each individual student during his or her
regular band period
In terms of my interests the benefits of the study are related to the question of
whether verbal or nonverbal teaching techniques contribute more to a child's musical
development The practical benefits of the study are that the testing results will be of
use to your child's teacher in evaluating and planning for continued progress in your
child s instrumental music class
Two key points need to be mentioned First if your child participates, his or her
identity will be kept confidential Each child will be identified only by number for
purposes of analysis of test results Second, if you decide to grant permission and later
change your mind or if your child does not wish to continue with the testing, you may
withdraw your child from the study at any time with no penalty whatsoever
If you are willing to grant permission for your child to participate please print
your child's and your name, the school name, and sign and date the form If you have
any questions about the project, please feel free to call me at 761-5002 (home) or 764-
5429 (office) Thank you for your consideration
Sincerely.
Marc R Dickey
\
o
Print Child's name ure
Project Director s signature
Print Parent/ guardian name Print School name
Parent/Guardian signature Date
105
APPENDIX B
VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM
judge (c irc le one:) LB MD T a p e _____ Feel ______ Page
(F in a l ViOwv Ot< :09 IS .27 :ib :-i5 :0<4 :IS :27 :36___ A5 :09 :IS :27 :36 A5
V e rb a l In s tru c iio n
D ir e c |io o s ^
D jsr|p!i!ie_
C la s s ro c ra M a o a g e n e p l
Si ngj i>K/ Chan lin g /C lap p in R
T r ia ls
R h y lh mic Mvmt to Music
M o d e lin g w it h M e d ia
107
APPENDIX C
EXPLANATION OF CATEGORIES ON VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM
10S
EXPLANATION OFCATEGORIES ONVIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM
Verbal Instruction
• involves teaching a musical concept with verbal means
Directions
®verbal requests or demands that are not Verbal Instruction

(e.g. "begin at letter G")
Discipline
• verbal or nonverbal treatment to correct undesirable non-musical behavior
Classroom Management
« attendance, announcements, tympsni tuning, other off-task time
Singing/Chanting/Clapping
• Singing, Chanting, or Clapping activities that do not include a model or a

teacher demonstration-student imitation cycle
® count-offs introducing singing, chanting, or clapping should be marked in

the Singing/Chanting/Clapping category
Trials
• count-offs introducing atrial should be marked in the trial category
« trials may be with full ensemble, sections or small groups, or individuals
® trials may be conducted or non-conducted
o co-verbal activity in a conducting trial should continue to be marked as a

conducting trial
Rhythmic Movement to Music
® concurrent imitation of movement to recorded or live music
Modeling with Media
• modeling (teacher demonstration-student imitation) that involves teacher use

of maior instrument and/or harmonic background and/or rfaylhiaig,
backgmmd and/or flashcards
109
APPENDIX D
PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON EACH CATEGORY
ON VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM
PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON EACH CATEGORY

ON VIDEOTAPE OBSERVATION FORM
Singing/ Rhythmic
Verbal Classroom Chanting/ Movement
Instruction Directions Discipline Management Clapping Trials to Music Modeling
Author's Control 22.2 9.6 4.4 5.4 5.9 50.3 0.0 2.3
Author's Treatment 9.3 8.4 4.2 9.6 .4 22.2 6.0 40.1
Replicator's Control 28.1 11.5 .2 12.7 2.8 43.2 0.0 1.5
Replicator's Treatment 15.0 14.0 .2 13.0 .9 31.7 6.3 19.1

BIBLIOGRAPHY
111
112
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Berio, David K. The Process of Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 1960.
Comenius, Johann. The Great Didactic, trans. M. W. Keatinge, Part II. London: A 4cC .
Black, Ltd., 1907.
Gagn6, Robert M. The Conditions of Learning. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., 1970.
Gordon, Edwin E. Learning Sequences in Music. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1984.
Jones, Richard M. Fantasy and Feeling in Education. New York: New York University
Press, 1968.
Leach, Edmund. "The Influence of Cultural Context on Non-Verbal Communication in

Man." In Nonverbal Communication. Edited by R. A. Hinde. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1972.
Monroe, Will S. History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States. Syracuse. C.
W. Bardeen, 1907.
Wolfgang, Aaron. "State of the Art of Nonverbal Behavior in Intercultural

Counselling."In Nonverbal Behavior: Perspectives. Applications. Intercultural
Insights. Edited by Aaron Wolfgang. Lewiston, N. Y.: C. J. Hogrefe, Inc., 1984.
Articles
Baker, Dawn S. "The Effect of Appropriate and Inappropriate In-Class Song

Performance Models on Performance Preference of Third- and Fourth-Grade
Students." Journal of Research in Music Education, 28 (Spring 1980), 3-17.
Dorman, Phyllis E. "A Review of Research on Observational Systems in the Analysis of

Music Teaching." Council for Research in Music Education. No. 57 (Winter 1978),
35.
Erbes, Robert. "I Used to Direct My Rehearsals Like A Drill Sergeant. . . Until I Learned
About Interaction Analysis." Music Educators Iournal65 (October 1978), 50-3.
Hicks, Val. "Would You Enjoy One of Your Rehearsals?—Knowing the Four Functions of
Rehearsal Language WiU Lead to Better Communication and a Better
Performance." Music Educators Journal 62 (December 1975), 50.
113
Hughes, James R. "How Do You Behave? Your Nonverbal Actions Are Critical to Student
Motivation." Music.Educatora Tournal. 67 (January 1981), 52-3.
Julian, F. D. "Nonverbal Communication and the Conductor." The Instrumentalist. 35

(November 1980), 64-67.
Lyne, Gregory K. "Effective Bodily Communication: A Key to Expressive Conducting."

Choral journal, 20 (September 1979), 22-4.
Mehrabian, Albert. "Communication Without Words," Psychology Today 2 (September

1968), 53-55.
Ostliiig, Jr., Acten. "Research on Nonverbal Communication with Implications for

Conductors." Journal of Band Research. 12 (Winter 1977), 31.
Poch, Gail. "Conducting: Movement Analogues Through Effort Shape." Choral Journal.
23 (November 1982), 21-2.
Puopolo, Vito. "The Development and Experimental Application of Self-Instructional

Practice Materials for Beginning Instrumentalists." Tournal of Research in
Music Education. 19 (Fall 1971), 342-349.
Rosenthal. Roseanne Kelly. "The Relative Effects of Guided Model, Model Only, Guide
Only, and Practice Only Treatments on the Accuracy of Advanced
Instrumentalists' Musical Performance." Journal of Research in Music
Education. 32 (Winter 1984), 265-273.
Sang, Richard C. "Effectiveness Research and the Instrumental Music Educator."

Dialogue in Instrumental Music Education. 8 (Spring 1984), 23.
Sang, Richard C. "A Study of the Relationship Between Instrumental Music Teachers'
Modeling Skills and Pupil Performance Behaviors." Council for Research in
Music Education. No. 91 (Spring 1987), 155-9.
Taebel, Donald K., and Coker, Joan G. "Teaching Effectiveness in Elementary Classroom
Music: Relationships Among Competency Measures, Pupil Product Measures,
and Certain Attribute Variables." Journal of Research in Music Education. 28
(Winter 1980), 250-264.
Woods, David G. "Movement and General Music: Perfect Partners." Music Educators
Journal. 24:3 (November 1987), 35.
Yarbrough, Cornelia; Wapnick, Joel; and Kelly, Roseanne. "Effect of Videotape Feedback
Techniques on Performance, Verbalization, and Attitude of Beginning
Conductors.", 27 (Summer 1979), 103-112.
Zurcher. William. "The Effect of Model-Supportive Practice On Beginning Brass

Instrumentalists," pp. 131-138. In Research in Music Behavior: Modifying Music
Behavior in the Classroom. Edited by Clifford Madsen, R. Douglass Greer, and
Charles H. Madsen. New York: Teachers College Press, 1975.
114
Dissertations and Theses
Bartee, Neale King, "The Development of A Theoretical Position on Conducting Using

Principles of Body Movement As Explained By Rudolf Laban." Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977.
Berz, William Lee. "The Development of An Observation Instrument Designed to Classify

Specific Nonverbal Communication Techniques Employed By Conductors of
Musical Ensembles." Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1983.
Carpenter, Robert Alan. "A Descriptive Analysis of Relationships Between Verbal

Behaviors of Teacher-Conductors and Ratings of Selected Junior High and
Senior High School Band Rehearsals." Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University,
1986.
Delzell, Judith Katherine. "An Investigation of Musical Discrimination Training in

Beginning Instrumental Music Classes." Ph. D. dissertation, University of
Michigan,1983.
Erbes, Robert L. "The Development of An Observational System for the Analysis of

Interaction in the Rehearsal of Musical Organizations." Ed. D. dissertation,
University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 1972.
Ervin, Charles Lee. "Systematic Observation and Evaluation of Conductor Effectiveness."

Ph. D. dissertation, West Virginia University, 1975.
Grechesky, Robert Nathan. "An Analysis of Nonverbal and Verbal Conducting

Behaviors and Their Relationship to Expressive Musical Performance." Ph. D.
dissertation. University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1985.
Hedberg, Floyd Carl. "An Experimental Investigation of Two Choral Rehearsal Methods:
Their Effect on Music Attitude, Music Discrimination, Music Achievement, and
Music Performance." Ed. D. dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 1975.
Hedrick, Gary Lee. "The Development of A Verbal Analysis System for Self-Evaluation
of Preservice Music Teachers." Ph. D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1976.
Hicks, Charles Eugene "The Effect of Training in Interaction Analysis on the Verbal
Teaching Behaviors and Attitudes of Prospective School Instrumental Music
Education Students Studying Conducting." Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State
University, 1976.
Naderi, Zeinab Yakouboff. "An Analytical Study of Rehearsal Techniques of Three

Professional Orchestra Conductors." Ed. D. dissertation, Columbia University
Teachers College, 1985.
Parr, Jerry Duane. "Essential and Desirable Music and Music-Teaching Competencies
for First-Year Band Instructors in the Public Schools." Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Iowa, 1976.
Pontious, Melvin Floyd. "A Profile of Rehearsal Techniques and Interaction of Selected
Band Conductors." Ed. D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, 1982.
115
Raiman, Melvyn Lewis. "The Identification and Hierarchical Classification of
Competencies and Objectives of Student Teaching in Music Through A Partial
Delphi Survey." Ph. D. dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1975.
Roshong, Jan Carl. "Exploratory Study of Nonverbal Communication Behaviors of

Instrumental Music Conductors." Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1978.
Sang. Richard C. "Modified Path Analysis of A Skills-Based Instrumental Effectiveness

Model for Beginning Teachers in Instrumental Music Education." Ph. D.
dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1982.
Searie, Jr., Joseph Ward. "An Investigation of Movement to Music and Rhythmic
Pattern Reading Flash-Slide Training in Fifth- and Sixth-Grade Music Classes."
Ph. D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1985.
Thurman, Virgil Leon. "A Frequency and Time Description of Selected Rehearsal
Behaviors Used by Five Choral Conductors." Ed. D. dissertation, University of
Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, 1977.
Weaver, Molly A. "A Survey of Modes of Student Response Indicative of Musical

Learning in Elementary Instrumental Music." M. M. thesis, The University of
M ichigan,1981.
Methods, Tests, and Software
Froseth, James 0. The Comprehensive Music Learning Sequence. Chicago: GIA

Publications, Inc., 1984.
Froseth, James 0. MLR Aural Skills Training Series. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc.,
1985.
Froseth. James 0 "The MLR Test of Kinesthetic Response to Rhythm in Music," 3rd
revision. Unpublished research instrument.
Froseth, James 0. "Test of Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination." Unpublished diagnostic

test, 1982.
Gordon, Edwin E. Musical Aptitude Profile (Manual). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. 1965.
Meeker, Mary, and Meeker, Robert. Structure Of Intellect Learning Abilities Test. Los
Angeles: Western Psychological Services, 1975.
Peters, Charles S. Master Method. Book Two. Park Ridge, Illinois: Neil A Kjos Music Co.,
1959.
StatView. version 1.0. Calabasas, California: BrainPower In :., 1985.
Wick, John W„ etal. Developin g Cognitive Abilities Test. Iowa City, Iowa: American
Testronics, 1980.
116
Wilkinson, Leland. SYSTALThe System for Statistics, version 3.1. Evanston, Illinois:
SYSTAT, Inc., 1987.
Unpublished Materials
Froseth, James 0. "A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship Between Melodic Ear-to-
Hand Coordination and Selected Indices of Musical Achievement at the
University of Michigan School of Music." Unpublished report, 1983.
Froseth, James 0. "Some Thoughts on Teacher Training." Paper presented to the

Committee on Institutional Cooperation, Michigan State University, 1982.
Plymouth-Canton Community Schools. Welcome to Plymouth-Canton Community

Schools. Plymouth, Michigan: Plymouth-Canton Community Schools, 1987.
Plymouth-Canton Community Schools. Fingertip Facts. Plymouth. Michigan:

Plymouth-Canton Community Schools, 1987.

A - Comparison - of - The - Effects - of Conducting Gestures

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A - Comparison - of - The - Effects - of Conducting Gestures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INFORMATION TO USERS

The most advanced technology has been used to photo­

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re­

Photographs included in the original manuscript have

A com parison o f the effects of verbal instruction and nonverbal

Dickey, Marc Roland, Ph.D.

C opyright © 1988 by Dickey, Marc R oland. A ll rights reserved.

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

Professor James 0. Froseth, Chair

Microfilmed or bound copies of doctoral dissertations submitted

0 All Rights Reserved

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to

James 0. Froseth, for his wisdom, guidance, and encouragement

Don Smith, for his invaluable editing and moderating perspective

Tony Schork, for his statistical expertise and good humor

Michael Chiumento, for his willingness and courage in teaching,

Glen Adsit and Linda Mapes Calzone for their willingness to

Students and administration of the Central. Pioneer, and West Middle

Friends and colleagues, for the supportive, cooperative learning

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. iii

LIST OFTABLES .......................................................................................... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... ix

LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... x

I. THE PROBLEM OFTHE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF

Statement of the Problem ....................................... 5

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................... 10

III. ' METHOD OF PROCEDURE....................................................... 30

Description of the Subjects.................................... 30

Comparability of Subjects' Gender, Age, Private

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................ 84

Purpose of the Studies........................................... 84

APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 102

! • CHRONOLOGY OF BEGINNING INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN COOPERATING

2. ONE-FACTOR CONTROL-TREATMENT GROUP DESIGN

3. REPERTOIRE STUDIED IN AUTHOR'S CLASSES ................................................ 43

4. REPERTOIRE STUDIED IN REPLICATOR'S CLASSES .......................................... 44

5. COMPARISON OF REMEDIES APPLIED FOR SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE

6 . GENDER OF SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS . . . . 53

7. GENDER OF SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS . 54

8 . AGES OF SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS..............54

9. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AGES OF AUTHOR'S CONTROL AND

10. AGES OF SUBJECTS IN REPLICATOR S CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS . . . . 55

11. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AGES OF REPLICATOR'S CONTROL

12. AVERAGE YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS TAKEN BY SUBJECTS

13. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS

14. AVERAGE YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS TAKEN BY SUBJECTS

15. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR YEARS OF PRIVATE LESSONS

16. HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX FOR SUBJECTS IN AUTHOR'S

17. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX

19. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR HOME MUSIC ENVIRONMENT INDEX

20. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAESTANDARD SCORES

21. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAP STANDARD SCORES

22. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MAE STANDARD SCORES OF TAG

23. PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON VERBAL AND MODELING

24. PERCENTAGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME SPENT ON VERBAL AND MODELING

25. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR TETHT" PRETEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

26. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR 'IETHT" PRETEST SCORES OFREPLICATOR'S

27. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM'' PRETEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

28. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TKRRM'' PRETEST SCORES OF REPLICATOR'S

29. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" PRETEST SCORES OF AUTHOR'S

30. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR "TMD" PRETEST SCORES OF REPLICATOR'S

31 • ANALYSIS OFVARIANCE FOR "IETHT" POSTTEST SCORES OFAUTHOR'S

The most advanced technology has been used to photo

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re