Assessment of the Impact of Improvement Measures

on Air Quality: Case Study of Delhi

Santosh A. Jalihal1 and T. S. Reddy2
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Abstract: It is well known that the ambient air pollution attributable to road traffic depends on a number of factors such as the quality
of fuel used, engine technology, driving conditions, emission control devices, and meteorological conditions. In spite of the efforts to
control emissions from road traffic by way of stringent emission norms 共such as Euro-III and IV兲 for automobile engines and improved
fuel quality, the road traffic emissions form a significant proportion of urban air pollutants. This is primarily due to constant increase in
number of motor vehicles and their use in the urban areas. Recognizing this aspect and with a view to provide clean air, the Supreme
Court of India has issued an order in a public interest litigation matter, directing that public transport vehicles, namely intracity buses,
should be run on compressed natural gas 共CNG兲 in Delhi. The directive of the Supreme Court was implemented but along with it many
other actions/measures were also implemented by the concerned authorities. These measures included operation of taxis and auto
rickshaws on CNG, scrapping of all commercial vehicles including taxis aged 15 years and above, introduction of Euro-I emission norms
for private passenger cars, use of unleaded petrol, and premixing of 2T oil with petrol for two wheeler motor vehicles. The result of the
combined efforts is a perceivable change in the ambient air quality for the better. But questions and debates were frequent as to whether
the improved quality of air is mainly due to CNG and if so how much is to be attributed to CNG. To answer these questions a detailed
study was carried out to quantify the emissions and their reductions due to different measures. This paper presents an account of the study.
In this study the quantity of criteria pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter and hydrocarbons are
estimated on the basis of vehicle kilometers traveled by different vehicles in the city during the course of time when the improvement
measures were being effected on an incremental basis. The results of the study are discussed and the contribution of each of the measures
is estimated. The implemented improvement measures were extremely successful. The improvement was, as made out to be, not simply
because of CNG conversion of buses but due to the combined effect of many other steps like improved vehicle technologies and fuel
quality, phasing out the old diesel vehicles, conversion of auto rickshaws to CNG, etc. The results are of interest to both the analysts and
policy makers in appreciating the impact of each of the measures.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-947X共2006兲132:6共482兲
CE Database subject headings: Emissions; India; Traffic management; Natural gas; Vehicles; Air pollution; Environmental impacts.

Introduction The result of growing travel demand is multiplicity of transport

Urbanization is a worldwide phenomenon and India is no excep-
tion to this. But the urbanization in India is comparatively
moderate and as of 2004 the urban population stands at 28% of
the total population 共Census of India 2001兲. The disturbing aspect
of urbanization in India is the skewed distribution of the urban
population. More than one third of the urban population is living
in about 30 metropolitan cities, with a population of more
than 1 million in each. Thus the travel demands are heavily
concentrated in space making the transport systems inadequate.
1 a NGO approached the Supreme Court of India to pass necessary
Scientist and Group Leader, Traffic Engineering and Transportation
Planning, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi 110020, India
共corresponding author兲. E-mail: sjalihal@crridom.org
2
Director Grade Scientist and Area Coordinator, Traffic Engineering
and Transportation Planning, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
110020, India. E-mail: tsreddy@crridom.org
Note. Discussion open until November 1, 2006. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on April 17, 2003; approved on October 21, 2005. This
paper is part of the Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 132,
No. 6, June 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/2006/6-482–488/$25.00.
systems ranging from nonmotorized modes to the latest technol-
ogy in cars and buses. Consequently congestion, accidents, and
increasing levels of emissions from vehicles are contributing to
the deteriorating environment. The situation in cities has reached
a stage where the ambient air quality has perceivably deteriorated,
establishing the need for taking certain actions to control the
pollution levels. A number of nongovernmental organizations
共NGOs兲 such as The Energy Research Institute and Centre for
Science and Environment addressing the problems of increasing
air pollution in the cities have championed the campaign for clean
air. As a part of their crusade against rising levels of air pollution,
and suitable orders directing the local and state governments
to take such measures as identified by the court to minimize the
air pollution generated from transport systems. Following orders
of the court the local government of Delhi implemented the
following measures over a period of 6 years, i.e., from 1996 to
2002:
1. Improved vehicular technology and stringent emission norms
for vehicles;
2. Fuel quality improvements;
3. Phasing out of old vehicles, and
4. Introduction of cleaner fuel 关compressed natural gas 共CNG兲兴.

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 Each of these measures was targeted separately for each of Table 1. Emission Factors of Different Technologies and Fuel Types
the subsystems of transport. Specifics of these measures are 关adapted from CPC 共2000兲兴
elaborated on elsewhere in the paper. Understandably each of Emission factor 共g/km兲 Bharat Stage-II norms
these measures has contributed significantly to the reduction of
air pollutants coming from vehicle exhausts. However different Technology/fuel type CO HC+NOx PM
interest groups have perceived the contribution of these measures Car-petrol engine 2.200 0.50 —
differently and started a debate over it. In light of this it was Car-diesel engine 1.000 0.70 0.080
considered necessary to make an accurate comparative assess- Car/taxi-CNG 0.786 1.55+0.92 0.020
ment of the contribution of these measures. This paper presents an Auto rickshaw-CNG 0.100 2.07+0.25 0.020
account of these efforts and describes the methodology and
LCV-diesel engine
framework of analysis. It is the conviction of the writers that the
rw⬍1,250 kg 1.000 0.70 0.080
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methodology adopted could be expanded to suitably address the

1,250⬍rw⬍1,700 kg 1.250 1.00 0.120
policy measures relating to the employment of alternative fuels in
1,700 kg⬍rw 1.500 1.20 0.170
transport systems of other urban areas in India or elsewhere.
HCV-diesel engine 4.000 1.10+7.00 0.150
Bus-diesel 0.800 0.24+6.62 0.115
Bus-CNG 1.770 0.88+2.81 0.032
Motor Vehicular Emissions
Bus-CNG converted 3.470 3.03+8.95 0.032
Note: gm/kWh and rw⫽reference weight; LCV⫽light commercial
Emissions from motor vehicles with gasoline or diesel-powered vehicle; HCV⫽heavy commercial vehicle; and CNG⫽compressed
engines can be identified and categorized into three main types: natural gas.
the crankcase, the fuel system, and the exhaust emissions
共Horowitz 1982兲. Crankcase emissions account for roughly 20%
of the hydrocarbon 共HC兲 emissions of the uncontrolled vehicles Further, improved technology of vehicle engines and commens-
共Sherwood and Bowers 1970兲. In the new vehicles, this is pre- urate improvement in the fuel quality contribute to the reduction
vented by closing the crankcase vent and avoiding its exposure in pollutants coming out from tailpipes. In a nutshell the quality
to the ambient air. The locked up gases of the crankcase are of fuels and the technology of vehicles directly and significantly
recirculated to the intake manifold. Crankcase emissions from influence the emissions of air pollutants from tailpipes under
diesel vehicles are noted to be marginal. given conditions.
Exhaust emissions from road traffic contain the products of
fossil fuel combustion. These emissions consist mainly of water
vapor and CO2 emitted by the complete combustion of fossil fuel. Study Design
It is difficult to achieve complete oxidation in practice, so carbon
A study was designed and implemented in order to assess the
monoxide 共CO兲 and HC are emitted as products of incomplete
impact on air quality of the use of alternative fuels like CNG
combustion of fossil fuel. In addition, nitrogen in the air com-
and diesel/gasoline, in the public transport vehicles 关buses,
bines with oxygen in the combustion chamber and results in the
taxis, and auto rickshaws 共motorized three-wheeler passenger
oxides of nitrogen. The primary emission is nitric oxide, but this
vehicle兲兴 of Delhi. In this study, the quantities of major pollutants
is largely oxidized further to nitrogen dioxide when in contact
emitted under varying combinations of fuels were estimated.
with the atmosphere. Particulate matter 共PM兲, which consists of
The following sections describe the methodology adopted for
solid carbonaceous compounds, is also emitted from the exhaust
estimating the pollution loads in the city of Delhi under varying
pipe. CO, NOx, and HC are the only gaseous pollutants that occur
fuel combinations.
in significant quantities.

Study Area Characteristics

Vehicular Emissions and Impacts of Fuels
Vehicular emissions are influenced by a combination of param-
eters like vehicle technology, fuel quality, vehicle maintenance,
driving patterns, and traffic controls. Among vehicle characteris-
tics that affect emissions levels, engine type and size, vehicle age,
and maintenance are important. It was illustrated by Seshadri
and Harrison 共1993兲 that the quantity of emissions of different
pollutants varies significantly with the operating conditions.
For example, the CO and HC emissions are high in the idling
and deceleration modes when compared to the cruising mode.
Improved fuel and vehicle technology can decrease the pollutant
emissions and improve the air quality, under given meteorological
conditions. Table 1 gives the stipulated emission standards
for cars, light commercial vehicles 共LCVs兲, heavy commercial
vehicles 共HCVs兲, and buses employing different fuel types under
Indian conditions. It can be seen from the table that compressed
natural gas 共CNG兲 is cleaner than the conventional liquid fuels
共gasoline and diesel兲 as far as the particulate matter is concerned.
As per census of India, Delhi, the capital city of India had a
population of 12.7 million in 2001. Available data from transpor-
tation studies indicate that per capita vehicular trips in a day have
increased from 0.45 to 0.72 from 1969 to 1981 and further to 1.0
in 2001 共CRRI 1969,1992; DDA 1981兲. The travel needs in
Delhi are mainly met by road transport. The main modes of trans-
portation are buses, private vehicles 共cars and two wheelers兲 taxis,
auto rickshaws, and bicycles. Buses estimatedly cater to about
55% of the passenger trips and this is followed by cars, two
wheelers, auto rickshaws 共three wheelers兲, and taxis. The slow
moving vehicles like cycles and cycle rickshaws cater to about
5% of the total trips. The inadequacy of the public transport
system has resulted in the growth of personal vehicles. Delhi has
a total registered vehicles of more than 3.5 million with the
predominance of two wheelers and cars. The major arterial road
network of Delhi is comprised of ring and radial roads. A total of
about 25,000 km of roads is provided. Out of this about 1,100 km
have right-of-way 30 m and above 共master plan roads兲 while
another 1,000 km form major links. Among all the metropolitan

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Fig. 1. Locations of traffic surveys/counts in Delhi 关adapted from CRRI 共2002兲兴
cities in India, Delhi has the highest percentage of land 共about
20%兲 of the total area allocated to road network. The road net-
work is equipped with about 600 signalized junctions to control
the traffic operations and encourage smooth flow of traffic.
Traffic Studies
To estimate the loads of pollutants it is necessary to estimate the
vehicle kilometers traveled on Delhi roads. In order to accomplish
these estimates, extensive traffic studies were carried out on the
road network of Delhi. The traffic studies were designed and
conducted not only to quantify the traffic load by vehicle type
and fuel type on the road network but also to assess the vintage
and other characteristics of the vehicles and their pollution levels.
The studies and their methodology are briefly described below.
1. Midblock traffic counts: This survey was carried out to
obtain the volume of traffic during different hours of the day
at 42 count points. The data were analyzed to understand the
composition of traffic by vehicle type and fuel type.
2. Outer cordon traffic surveys: Classified traffic volume counts
along with road side interviews were conducted at ten
locations on the outer cordon line of Delhi. Counts were
made in February, 2002 for 24 h to assess the pattern of
external traffic.
3. Fuel station survey: A total of 30 three fuel stations out of
about 500 stations located in Delhi were selected to conduct
interviews of the drivers of vehicles visiting the fuel stations
for refueling. Care was taken to spread the survey stations
across Delhi to obtain a representative sample of Delhi’s
vehicle population.
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4. Intersection traffic counts: A total of 14 intersections were
selected for conducting traffic counts. The traffic volume
moving through the intersections was analyzed to understand
the composition of traffic by vehicle type and fuel type.
Traffic Load on Road Network
The classified traffic counts conducted at 42 midblock stations,
ten outer cordon stations, and 14 intersections 共shown in Fig. 1兲
provided the representative data of traffic flows on the road net-
work of Delhi. Employing these data, traffic flows were estimated
on the adjoining links in the neighborhood of the count points.
Thus the traffic flows along with composition were estimated for
each of the links of the primary road network. To validate the
traffic computed on neighboring links sample traffic counts were
made. The estimated traffic load along each of the links was trans-
lated into pictorial form using a digitized map of Delhi and GIS
Software, TRANSCAD, as presented in Fig. 2. From the figure it
can be seen that the radials and ring roads carry major portions of
traffic in Delhi. Using the link traffic loads and composition of
traffic by vehicle type, vehicle kilometers traveled on each of the
links were estimated. The total vehicle kilometers traveled by
each category of vehicles on the road network of Delhi are pre-
sented in Table 2. To validate the vehicle kilometers traveled,
comparison was made to estimates the vehicle-kilometers traveled
on the basis of responses obtained from the driver interviews at
the fuel stations, which are also presented in Table 2. It can be
seen that the estimated vehicle-kilometers of travel from roadside
counts and the fuel station interviews do not exactly match,
but they are generally fairly close. It can be inferred that the
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Fig. 2. Traffic flow pattern in Delhi 关adapted from CRRI 2002兲兴

maximum proportion of travel 共over 80%兲 is made by two wheel- characteristics of CO, HC, and NOx, the PM emissions are con-
ers and cars. This is followed by three wheelers corresponding to sistently lower in the case of CNG buses. This is one of the
about 12% of the total vehicle kilometers. Buses and goods ve- reasons for the debate that CNG buses are primarily responsible
hicles have almost equal shares of 3–4% each. for reductions in particulate matter in the ambient air of Delhi.
Therefore it was felt necessary to systematically analyze the im-
pacts of various steps on the emissions from the mobile sources
Automobile Pollution Load
comprising cars, auto rickshaws, two-wheelers, buses, trucks, and
The pollutants emitted by automobiles into the air of Delhi were light commercial vehicles separately. As such this exercise was
estimated on the basis of vehicle kilometers traveled by different carried out.
vehicles. For determining the quantity of pollution, the emission Employing these emission factors, the pollution loads for
factors 共CPCB 2000兲 were employed along with the appropriate CO, NOx, HC, and PM were estimated for the year 2002. The
deterioration factors 共CPCB 2000兲 to account for the age of the vintage of vehicles as observed at the fuel stations 共see Fig. 3兲
vehicles. Table 1 gives the emission factors for different types of was adopted to arrive at the emission factors and the resultant
vehicles used in India. The emission factors refer to grams/ pollution loads.
kilometer of pollutant emitted by a vehicle during mass emission
tests conducted under specified driving conditions known as the
Bharat Stage II norms. The Bharat Stage-II norms are similar to
the Euro-II norms used in Europe. These emissions represent a Table 2. Daily Traffic Load on Delhi Road Network 共2002兲
typical Indian urban driving cycle suitable for large urban areas.
These factors are developed by Indian Institute of Petroleum and Vehicle-km/day
Automobile Research Association of India. Roadside counts Fuel stations
Table 1 provides a comparison of CO, HC, NOx, and PM Vehicle
emissions from different vehicles with CNG and liquid petroleum type 共number兲 共percentages兲 共number兲 共percentages兲
products. It can be seen in Table 1 that the emissions of CO are Cars+taxis 30.689 共38.7兲 26.799 共34.9兲
less from cars driven with CNG. In the case of HC and NOx, the Two wheelers 33.823 共42.7兲 38.700 共50.5兲
cars run with CNG have higher emissions. The same is the Auto rickshaws 9.357 共11.8兲 5.779 共7.5兲
case for PM emissions from the CNG cars. In the case of buses
Goods/vehicles 2.514 共3.2兲 2.990 共3.9兲
CO and HC emissions are greater with CNG while NOx emissions
Buses 2.851 共3.6兲 2.428 共3.2兲
are lower with CNG buses. However in retrofitted 共converted兲
Total 79.234 共100.0兲 76.696 共100.0兲
buses the NOx emissions are higher. Contrary to the emission

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Fig. 3. Distribution of vehicles by age in Delhi
Impact of Improvement in Fuel Quality,
Engine Technology, and Alternative Fuels
As mentioned earlier the kinds of air pollutants and their quanti-
ties depend on a number of factors including the meteorological
conditions. To study the impacts of alternative fuels all other con-
ditions are assumed to be constant while the fuel use is only
changed to reflect the corresponding changes in technology of
engines. To draw comparisons, the possible scenarios for fuel use
and technological changes of vehicle engines employed in this
analysis are shown in Table 3.
The travel in 1996 and 1998 was computed by applying a
growth factor backward on the most recent 共2002兲 estimates of
vehicle kilometers of travel in Delhi, assuming a growth factor
of 2.5%/annum. For estimating pollutants 共CO, NOx, HC, and
PM兲 under the above scenarios, an interactive computer program
was written in C⫹⫹ language and input regarding the quantity
of travel and the shares of different types of vehicles and their
vintage along with corresponding emission factors were used. The
estimated pollution loads under different scenarios are presented
in Table 4.
The estimated pollution loads for the years 1996, 1998, and
2002 for the five policy scenarios are presented in Fig. 4. From
this figure, it can be seen that under Scenario 5 CO was reduced
486 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JUNE 2006
J. Transp. Eng. 2006.132:482-488.
共32%兲 compared to Scenario 1 from 619.1 to 421.8 t/day, while
PM was reduced 共50%兲 from 25.5 to 12.8 t/day in spite of the
growth of vehicular traffic.
If no steps were taken to control the emissions from auto-
mobiles from 1996 to 2002 共Scenario 4兲, the scene would have
been completely different in terms of air quality of Delhi. The air
pollution loads from automobiles would have been much higher
because the travel demands and corresponding vehicle kilometers
traveled increased from 67.3 to 79.2 million vehicle kilometers.
With the actions/steps implemented from 1996 to 2002, the grow-
ing trend of air pollution loads was not only arrested but also
brought down much below the levels of 1996.
The pollution loads shown in Fig. 4 include the changes that
were brought about in the pollution load of PM by the application
of various steps including introduction of CNG as fuel for buses
and IPT modes 共i.e., taxis and auto rickshaws兲. The separate
effects are presented in Table 5. Now the question arises as to
what is the contribution of CNG. To examine this, the total reduc-
tion in pollutants between Scenarios 4 and 5 was apportioned to
improvement in engine technology, fuel quality, and introduction
of CNG 共i.e., CNG buses and CNG taxis and auto rickshaws兲.
The result is presented in Fig. 5. From Fig. 4 and 5, it is seen
that the maximum reduction in vehicular PM loads 共i.e., 89%兲
is due to vehicle technology and fuel quality improvements.
 Table 3. Scenarios for Fuel Use and Technological Changes of Vehicle Engines
Scenario
number Description Remarks
1 This scenario estimates the pollution load as it existed in Pollution load is estimated using vehicle kilometers
1996, i.e., before implementing any improvement measures as traveled in 1996 and employing appropriate
共lead content in gasoline⫽0.15 g/L; diesel sulphur⫽0.5%; emission factors.
and gasoline benzene⫽5%兲.
2 In this scenario phasing out of old vehicles and fuel quality Pollution load is estimated using vehicle kilometers
and engine improvements as introduced in 1998 are as traveled in 1998 and employing appropriate
considered 共15-year-old commercial vehicles banned; emission factors.
unleaded gasoline, diesel sulphur⫽0.25%, and gasoline
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benzene⫽3%: emission norms for catalytic converter fitted

vehicles made stringent兲.
3 In this scenario fuel quality and engine improvements
introduced in 2000 and 2001 are considered 共diesel
sulphur⫽0.05% and gasoline benzene⫽1%; Euro-I
equivalent emission norms for all vehicles from April 2000
and Euro-II for cars from April 2001兲.
4 Business as usual: This is the “do nothing scenario.” There is
no change in vehicle technology and fuel quality from the
year 1996. Same as Scenario 1.
5 In this scenario fuel quality and engine improvements along
with alternate fuel in buses and auto rickshaws, taxis, is
considered.
Pollution load is estimated using vehicle kilometers
as traveled in 2002 and employing appropriate
emission factors.
Pollution load is estimated using vehicle kilometers
as traveled in 2002 but employing pre–1996
emission factors.
Pollution load is estimated using vehicle kilometers
as traveled in 2002 and employing appropriate
emission factors.

Table 4. Estimated Annual Pollution Load Under Different Scenarios in Delhi

Pollution load
共t/day兲
Scenario Vehicle
number Year 关kilometers traveled 共millions兲兴 CO NOx HC PM
1 1996 67.35 619.1 116.1 232.5 25.5
2 1998 71.31 575.0 115.1 229.2 22.2
3 2002 79.23 469.0 99.1 203.4 15.4
4 2002 79.23 728.4 136.5 273.5 30.0
5 2002 79.23 421.8 110.4 184.4 12.8

Fig. 4. Changing pollution loads of Delhi 共1996–2002兲

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 Table 5. Contribution of Different Factors in PM Reduction in Delhi to 89% reduction in PM load. Therefore, the writers suggest that
共2002兲 for further improvement of air quality in Delhi and other such
PM reduction metropolitan areas the improvement in engine technology and
fuel quality should be continued with more stringent norms along
Description 共t/day兲 共%兲 with continuation of CNG as alternate fuel for public transport
Improvement in fuel quality and vehicle technology 15.3 共88.7兲 vehicles.
Buses run on CNG 0.4 共2.4兲
Auto rickshaws and taxis run on CNG 1.5 共8.9兲 Notation
Total 17.2 共100兲
The following symbols are used in this paper:
CO ⫽ carbon monoxide;
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The reduction in pollution load of PM due to the introduction of

CNG buses is 2.4%, whereas CNG conversion of auto rickshaws
and taxis is around 9%.
Conclusions
In this study the impact of improvement in engine technology,
fuel quality vis-à-vis the use of alternative fuel 共i.e., CNG兲 in
public transport 共buses兲 and intermediate public transport 共auto
rickshaws and taxis兲 was explored. It was established that the
improvement in air quality in general and the reduction of PM
loads in particular is due to a combination of measures imple-
mented by the government over a period of 6 years and not
largely due to CNG. However, the use of alternate fuel, CNG,
contributed to the tune of 11% reduction in PM loads, while the
improvements in fuel quality and engine technology contributed
Fig. 5. Contributors to air quality improvements 共PM兲 in Delhi from
1996 to 2002
CO2 ⫽ carbon dioxide;
HC ⫽ hydrocarbons;
NOx ⫽ nitrogen oxides; and
PM ⫽ particulate matter.
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