Handout Liquid Penetrant Test Level II - Rev. 3 - 28 August 2009

TRAINING HAND OUT

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
General

Editor:
Wing Hendroprasetyo, M.Eng.
ASNT NDT Level III (ID No. 144934)
NDE CENTER
DEPARTMENT OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND SHIPBUILDING ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF MARINE TECHNOLOGY
SEPULUH NOPEMBER INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (ITS) – SURABAYA
Kampus ITS Keputih, Sukolilo
Surabaya 60111
Telp./Fax. 031 591 4533
Mobile 0816 542 8017

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Rev. 3, ‐ 28 August 2009
CONTENTS
page
CHAPTER ONE 5
Introduction 5
Basic Principles 7
The Nature of Discontinuity 8
Surface Conditioning 9
History 10
Commercially Available Liquid Penetrant Materials 11
Chapter One Review 15
CHAPTER TWO 16
Introduction 16
Surface Preparation 16
Detergent Cleaning 17
Vapor Degreasing 17
Steam Cleaning 17
Solvent Cleaning 17
Rust and Scale Remover 18
Paint Removal 18
Etching 18
Ultrasonic Cleaning 18
Mechanical Cleaning 18
Stationary Penetrant Test Equipment 20
Portable Penetrant Test Equipment 21
Black Light Equipment 22

Penetrant Material Combinations 23
Penetrant Testing Materials 24
Safety Precaution 26
Chapter Two Review 29
CHAPTER THREE 28
Introduction 28
Cleaning 28
Penetrant Application 29
Penetration (Dwell) Time 31
Penetrant Testing Processes 33
Leak-through Technique 37
Filtered Particle Technique 37
Fixing and Recording Indications 38
Chapter Three Review 39
CHAPTER FOUR 40
Introduction 40
Post-emulsifiable Penetrant (PE Penetrant) 40
Lipophilic Method 43
Hydrophilic Method 44
Developers Application 45
Dry Developers 45
Wet Developers 46
Guidelines to Choose Developer 48
Chapter Four Review 49

CHAPTER FIVE 50
Introduction 50
Inspection 50
Interpretation and Evaluation of Indications 50
Typical Indications in Penetrant Inspection 51
False Indications 51
Nonrelevant Indications 52
True Indications 52
Depth Determination of Penetrant Discontinuities 56
Post Cleaning 56
Quality Control of Penetrant Process Variables 56
Aluminum Test Block 56
Sensitivity Test 57
Meniscus Test 57
Ceramic Block Test 58
Water Content Test 58
Viscosity Test 58
Fluorescent Penetrant Fade Test 59
Water Washability Test 59
Developer Test 59
Portable Equipment 59
Lighting 60
Chapter Five Review 61

CHAPTER SIX 62
Introduction 62
Categories of Discontinuities 62
The Origins of Discontinuities 63
Casting Discontinuities 64
Processing Discontinuities 66
Working the Billet 66
Forging Discontinuities 68
Service Discontinuities 73
Chapter Six Review 75
CHAPTER SEVEN 76
Introduction 76
Identification and Comparison of Discontinuities 76
Training and Certification 77
Chapter Seven Review 79
CHAPTER EIGHT 80
Introduction 80
Controlling Liquid Penetrant Tests 80
Standards 80
Specifications 80
Written Practice 82
Sample Specification – Penetrant Testing Process 83
Chapter Eight Review 90
REFERENCES 93

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION PENDAHULUAN
Liquid penetrant testing is a nondestructive Pengujian cairan penetrant merupakan pengujian
means of locating surface discontinuities tanpa merusak untuk menemukan diskontinuitas
based on capillarity or capillary action. Capillary permukaan berdasarkan prinsip kapilaritas.
action is responsible for both penetrant entry Kapilaritas bertanggung jawab terhadap masuk
and exit from discontinuities. dan keluarnya cairan penetrant dari dan ke dalam
diskontinuitas.
In the liquid penetrant method, the liquid is Pada metoda cairan penetrant, cairan diaplikasikan
applied to the surface of the specimen and di atas permukaan spesimen dan diberikan waktu
sufficient time is allowed for penetration of yang cukup untuk menyusup ke dalam
surface discontinuities. If the discontinuity is diskontinuitas. Jika diskontinuitasnya kecil dan
small or narrow as in a crack or pinhole, sempit seperti pada retak atau lubang jarum,
capillary assist the penetration. kapilaritas membantu penetrasi.
After sufficient time has passed for the Setelah waktu mencukupi bagi penetrant untuk
penetrant to enter the discontinuity, the surface memasuki diskontinuitas, permukaan spesimen
of the part is cleaned. Capillary action is again kemudian dibersihkan. Gaya kapiler sekali lagi
employed to act as blotter to draw penetrant bekerja sebagai penghisap yang menarik
from the discontinuity. penetrant keluar dari dalam diskontinuitas.

Liquid penetrant inspection is a physical- Pemeriksaan penetrant merupakan proses fisika-
chemical process. Application and reaction of kimia. Aplikasi dan reaksi cairan penetrant (kimia)
the penetrant (chemical) is dependent upon the tergantung pada sifat artikel yang diuji dan
nature of the test article and the discontinuity it diskontinuitas yang terdapat padanya (fisika).
contains (physical).
The ability of penetrant to spread over a solid Kemampuan penetrant untuk menyebar di atas
surface is referred to as the wetting ability. The pemukaan benda padat disebut kemampu-
wetting ability and contact angle between solid- basahan (wetting ability). Wetting ability dan sudut
liquid are inversely proportional. The higher the kontak (contact angle) antara benda cair dan
wetting ability, the smaller the contact angle. padat adalah berbanding terbalik secara
The contact angle determines the wetting proporsional. Sudut kontak menentukan wetting
ability. ability.
Penetrating capability of a liquid penetrant is Kemampuan penyusupan cairan penetran
controlled by: dikendalikan oleh:
• Surface tension. • Tegangan permukaan.
• Contact angle. • Sudut kontak.

BASIC PRINCIPLES PRINSIP-PRINSIP DASAR
To insure visibility, the liquid penetrant contains Agar dapat terlihat, cairan penetrant diberi pewarna
either a colored dye easily seen in white light, merah yang dapat dilihat dengan cahaya biasa
or a fluorescent dye visible under black atau pewarna fluorescent yang dapat dilihat
(ultraviolet) light. dengan cahaya ultraviolet.
A penetrant examination consists of the Pengujian penetrant terdiri dari tahapan-tahapan
following basic steps, regardless of the material berikut tanpa mempertimbangkan material yang
tested: diuji:
• Step 1: The test object or spot is • Langkah 1: Pembersihan dan pengeringan
thoroughly cleaned and benda atau lokasi yang
dried. diperiksa.
• Step 2: The penetrant is applied. • Langkah 2: Aplikasi penetrant. Dibiarkan
Dwell time is allowed to beberapa lama agar menyusup
penetrate discontinuities. ke dalam diskontinuitas.
• Step 3: The excess surface • Langkah 3: Pembersihan penetrant sisa
penetrant is removed. di permukaan.
• Step 4: Developer is applied • Langkah 4: Aplikasi developer
• Step 5: Indications are evaluated • Langkah 5: Evaluasi indikasi, diterima
and accepted or rejected. atau ditolak.
• Step 6: After the penetrant test, the • Langkah 6: Pembersihan benda atau lokasi
test object or spot is setelah selesai diuji.
postcleaned.

THE NATURE OF DISCONTINUITY SIFAT DISCONTINUITAS
Discontinuities that are subsurface in one stage Diskontinuitas yang terletak dibawah permukaan
of production could be open to the surface at pada satu tahapan produksi dapat terbuka ke
another stage, such as after grinding or permukaan pada tahapan lainnya seperti akibat
machining. penggerindaan dan permesinan.
Nonmetallic inclusions and porosity in the ingot Inklusi nonlogam dan porositas dalam ingot dapat
may cause stringers, seams, forging laps, cold menyebabkan stringers, seams, lipatan tempa,
shuts, and the like as the billet or slabs is cold shuts, dan sejenisnya saat billet atau slab
processed in the manner shown below. diproses dengan cara seperti di bawah ini.

SURFACE CONDITIONING PENGKONDISIAN PERMUKAAN
Anything that could block the penetrant from Semua kotoran yang menghalangi penetrant untuk
entering the discontinuity must be removed. memasuki diskontinuitas harus dibersihkan.
A list of contaminants that must be removed Jenis kotoran yang harus dibersihkan meliputi
would include DIRT, GREASE, RUST, DEBU, GEMUK, KARAT, KERAK, ASAM,
SCALE, ACIDS, and even WATER. The bahkan AIR. Solvent yang digunakan untuk
cleaning solvent used must be volatile pembersih harus mudah menguap sehingga
(readily vaporized) so that it easily cepat keluar dari dalam dikontinuitas dan tidak
evaporates out of the discontinuity and does mengencerkan penetrant.
not dilute the penetrant.
Surface preparation by mechanical cleaning Pembersihan permukaan secara mekanis seperti
such as wire brushing, abrasive blasting, emery memakai sikat baja, abrasive blasting, kertas
cloths, and metal scraping are not generally gosok, dan alat sekrap umumnya tidak
recommended, but there are times when they direkomendasikan, namun ada kalanya cara-cara
must be used. tersebut harus digunakan.
When they are used, discontinuities that are Apabila digunakan cara-cara di atas, diskontinuitas
open to the surface may be closed as ilustrated yang membuka ke permukaan dapat tertutupi
below. seperti gambar di bawah ini.

HISTORY SEJARAH PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
Historically, penetrant inspection was called “oil Menurut sejarahnya, pemeriksaan penetrant
and whiting” method. The oil and whiting dulunya disebut metoda “minyak dan kapur”. Pada
method used in the railroad industry, i.e. awal tahun 1900an, metoda ini digunakan dalam
locomotive parts, etc. (axles, crank pins and industri perkeretaapian untuk memeriksa kompo-
couplers), in the early 1900s was the first nen lokomotip (batang torsi, batang penggerak,
recognized use of the principles of penetrants dan coupler, dll.), yang merupakan awal mula dike-
to detect cracks. nalnya prinsip penetrant untuk mendeteksi retak.
The oil and whiting method used dirty or dark- Metoda minyak dan kapur memakai minyak lumas
colored lubricating oil that was thinned with hitam yang diencerkan dengan minyak tanah,
kerosene followed by the application of a diikuti dengan aplikasi bubuk kapur di atasnya
whiting or chalk coating, which absorbed oil yang akan menyerap minyak dari dalam retak
from the cracks revealing their locations. sehingga dapat diketahui lokasinya.
By the 1940s, fluorescent or visible dye was Pada tahun 1940an, zat pewarna merah dan
added to the oil used to penetrate test objects. fluorescent dicampurkan ke dalam oli yang
digunakan untuk pemeriksaan.
Following is stages of oil and whiting method. Berikut adalah tahapan metoda pengujian minyak
dan kapur.
Experience showed that temperature and soak Pengalaman mengajarkan pentingnya mempertim-
time were important. bangkan suhu dan waktu celup.
This started the practice of written instructions Hal tersebut memicu diterapkannya penggunaan
to provide standard, uniform results. The use of instruksi tertulis agar hasil pengujian menjadi
written procedures has evolved, giving the standard dan seragam. Pemakaian prosedur
ability for design engineers and manufacturers tertulis diharapkan menjadikan pemeriksaan
to get the same high standard results from any penetrant akan memberikan hasil dengan standard
properly trained and certified liquid penetrant tinggi jika dikerjakan oleh teknisi yang terlatih.
testing technician.

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE LIQUID MATERIAL CAIRAN PENETRANT YANG
PENETRANT MATERIALS TERSEDIA DI PASARAN
The liquid penetrants used in nondestructive Cairan penetrant yang dipakai di dalam NDT dapat
testing can be categorized by the type of dye dikagorikan berdasarkan jenis zat pewarna yang
they contain. ditambahkan.
1. Visible dye penetrants contain a colored 1. Visible dye penetrants mengandung zat
(usually red) dye. pewarna merah.
2. Fluorescent penetrants contain a 2. Fluorescent penetrants mengandung zat
fluorescent dye pewarna fluorescent (hijau-kuning).
3. Dual sensitivity penetrants contain a 3. Dual sensitivity penetrants, mengandung
combination of visible and fluorescent kombinasi kedua zat pewarna, visible dan
dyes. fluorescent.
Penetrants can be further categorized by the Penetrant dikelompokkan lebih lanjut berdasarkan
processes used to remove the excess proses pembersihan sisa penetrant dari permu-
penetrant from the specimen. kaan spesimen.
1. Water-washable penetrants, are either 1. Water-washable penetrants, mengandung zat
self-emulsifying or removable with plain pengemulsi atau dapat dibilas dengan air.
water.
2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants require a 2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants, memerlukan
separate emulsifier to make the penetrant pengemulsi terpisah untuk menjadikan
water washable. penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air.
3. Solvent-removable penetrants must be 3. Solvent removable penerants, harus
removed with a solvent which is typical dibersihkan dengan solvent khusus jika
when using visible dye in pressurized menggunakan penetrant visible dalam
spray cans. kaleng bertekanan.
The basic liquid penetrant classification system Sistem klasifikasi cairan penetrant dapat dilihat
is shown in Table 1.1. dalam Tabel 1.1.
Table 1.1. Basic liquid penetrant classification system.

The flowchart below illustrates the processing Diagram alir berikut memperlihatkan urutan proses
sequence with visible and fluorescent dengan penetran visible dan fluorescent.
penetrants.

Dual sensitivity penetrants would follow a Dual sensitivity penetrants mengikuti urutan proses
processing sequence similar to that shown yang diperlihatkan diagram alir di bawah ini.
below.
The selection of the best process depends Pemilihan proses terbaik ditentukan oleh:
upon:
1. Sensitivity required. 1. Sensitivitas yang disyaratkan.
2. Number of articles to be tested. 2. Jumlah artikel yang diuji.
3. Surface condition of part being 3. Kondisi permukaan komponen yang
inspected. diperiksa.
4. Configuration of test specimen. 4. Konfigurasi benda uji.
5. Availability of water, electricity, 5. Ketersediaan air, listrik, udara bertekanan,
compressed air, suitable testing area, lokasi pengujian yang sesuai, dll.
etc.

Penetrant testing is succesfully used on most Pengujian penetrant secara memuaskan dapat
any materials, including metallic and diplikasikan pada kebanyakan material, termasuk
nonmetallic objects. material logam dan nonlogam.
Metallic materials include aluminum, magne- Material logam termasuk aluminium, magnesium,
sium, titanium, cast iron, stainless steel, titanium, besi cor, stainless steel, produk serbuk
powdered metal products, copper, brass, and logam, paduan tembaga, kuningan, perunggu,
bronze, as well as most other common alloys. juga paduan-paduan lainnya.
Nonmetallic materials include ceramics, plastic, Material nonlogam termasuk keramik, plastik,
molded rubber, composites, and glass. karet, komposit, dan kaca.
Penetrant testing is limited by its inability to test Pengujian penetrant tidak dapat diaplikasikan
materials with discontinuities that are NOT untuk menemukan diskontinuitas yang TIDAK
OPEN to the surface or having extremely MEMBUKA ke permukaan dan permukaan material
porous surface. yang berpori.
List below indicates the penetrant systems, Daftar berikut menunjukkan tingkat sensitivitas
ranging from the most sensitive and expensive sistem penetrant, dari mulai yang paling senfitif
to the least one. dan paling mahal.
1. Post-emulsified – fluorescent. 1. Post-emulsified – fluorescent.
2. Solvent-removable – fluorescent. 2. Solvent-removable – fluorescent.
3. Water-washable – fluorescent. 3. Water-washable – fluorescent.
4. Post-emulsified – visible. 4. Post-emulsified – visible.
5. Solvent-removable – visible. 5. Solvent-removable – visible.
6. Water-washable – visible. 6. Water-washable – visible.

CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW
_______ 1. Nonmetallic inclusions and porosity in the steel ingot are commonly found
using liquid penetrant inspection techniques.
_______ 2. Type II penetrants, according to our test, are those containing a fluorescent
dye.
_______ 3. Because of the capillary action of penetrants, this process of inspection

works well on parts with very porous surfaces.
_______ 4. When doing a liquid penetrant test, the configuration of the specimen has
little effect on the effectiveness of the test.
_______ 5. Liquid penetrant inspection can be used only on metals such as aluminum
and steel.
_______ 6. The penetrant inspection method is used only on the finished product.
_______ 7. Oil and whiting are the names of the two men who invented the penetrant
test method.
_______ 8. The first important step in penetrant testing is surface preparation.
_______ 9. One of the most common contaminants in the penetrant method is water.
_______ 10. The most common method of surface preparation for penetrant testing is
sandblasting.
_______ 11. Chemical etching Is sometimes used to remove smeared metal from a
surface to open discontinuilies.
_______ 12. Some subsurface defects can be tested with the highly sensitive Type II
penetrants.
_______ 13. Blow holes and gas porosity may be detected with the penetrant method.
_______ 14. Solvent cleaning is a common method of surface cleaning parts before
penetrant testing.
_______ 15. The one major limitation to penetrant testing is that the part must be
metallic.
_______ 16. Grease and rust would usually be considered a contaminant on the surface
of a test piece.
_______ 17. To locate a defect with penetrant testing, the defect must be open to the
surface.
_______ 18. It is considered advantageous for a liquid penetrant material to have low
tension and high capillarity.

CHAPTER TWO
This chapter discusses the equipment and Bab ini mendiskusikan peralatan dan bahan yang
material required to perform the various diperlukan untuk melakukan pengujian penetrant
penetrant test and the required PRE and POST serta pembersihan material SEBELUM dan
test cleaning. SESUDAH pengujian.
SURFACE PREPARATION PENYIAPAN PERMUKAAN
As discussed in Chapter 1, there are SIX basic Telah disampaikan dalam Bab 1 bahwa ada ENAM
steps required for a penetrant test. Surface langkah dasar pengujian penetrant. Penyiapan
preparation is entered on the flow diagram permukaan dimasukkan sebagai langkah pertama
below as step one. dalam diagram alir berikut.
Surface preparation, including proper cleaning Pembersihan permukaan sangat penting dalam
is essential to liquid penetrant testing for TWO pengujian cairan penetrant karena DUA alasan:
reasons:
1. If the specimen is not physically and 1. Jika spesimen tidak bersih secara fisika dan
chemically clean and dry, penetrant kimia, pengujian penetrant menjadi tidak
testing may be ineffective. efektip.
2. If all tracess of penetrant materials are 2. Jika semua bekas material penetrant tidak
not removed after the test, they may have dibersihkan setelah pengujian, maka akan
a harmful effect on the specimen after the merusak spesimen setelah benda tersebut
test object is placed in service (chlorine terpasang (klorin dan sulfur dapat merusak
and sulfur may affect some alloys). beberapa jenis paduan).
Selection of the cleaning process breaks down Pemilihan proses pembersihan ditentukan oleh
to the following basic factors. faktor berikut.
• Type of contaminant. • Jenis kotoran yang dibersihkan.
• Composition of the base material. • Komposisi logam induk.
• Degree of cleanliness required. • Tingkat kebersihan yang disyaratkan.
• Availability of cleaning equipment. • Ketersediaan peralatan pembersih.
• Cost and time factors. • Faktor-faktor biaya dan waktu.
Unless the cleaning methods and chemicals Jika kompatibilitas antara metoda pembersihan,
are known to be compatible with the penetrant, cairan pembersih dan penetrant tidak diketahui,
a final cleaning should be done with the solvent pembersihan akhir sebaiknya dilakukan dengan
recommended by the manufacturer. solvent yang direkomendasikan oleh pabrik
penetrant.

DETERGENT CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN DETERJEN
Immersion tanks and detergent solution may Tangki perendam dan larutan deterjen dapat
be used as an effective method for removing dipakai sebagai metoda yang efektip untuk
surface soils, particularly when employed as a membersihkan kotoran permukaan, utamanya jika
hot tank process. memakai proses tangki panas.
However, since the solutions used may be Namun demikian mengingat larutan yang dipakai
either acidic or alkaline in nature, precautions dapat bersifat asam atau basa, harus diperhatikan
must be taken to ensure that the selected agar deterjen yang dipilih tidak mengakibatkan
detergent is noncorrosive to the article being korosi terhadap benda yang dibersihkan.
cleaned.
When thoroughly rinsed and dried, detergent Bila dibilas dengan bersih dan dikeringkan,
cleaning leaves a test surface that is physically pembersih deterjen menghasilkan permukaan
and chemically clean. yang bersih secara fisika dan kimia.
VAPOR DEGREASING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN UAP SOLVENT
Vapor degreasing is effective in the removal of Uap solvent efektif untuk membersihkan minyak,
oil, grease, and similar organic contaminants. gemuk, dan kontaminan organik sejenisnya.
This method does not remove solid contami- Metoda ini tidak menghilangkan kontaminan padat
nants such as varnish, paint, scale, or oxide. seperti pernis, cat, kerak, dan oksida.
However, this method is considered as the Namun demikian, metoda ini dianggap sebagai
most effective means of precleaning a test cara yang paling efektip untuk membersihkan
item prior to a penetrant test benda sebelum diuji penetrant.
Safety and environmental concerns have Masalah keselamatan dan lingkungan telah
virtually eliminated vapor degreasing. The chlo- melarang penggunaan metoda ini. Chlorinated
rinated solvents employed (methyl chloroform), solvent yang dipakai (methyl chloroform), jika
if acidic, can be harmful to certain materials bersifat asam dapat merusak material seperti
such as nickel, stainless steel, and titanium. nickel, stainless steel, dan titanium.
STEAM CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN UAP AIR
Steam cleaning is an excellent method of Pembersihan dengan uap air merupakan cara
cleaning large articles, or portions of large yang unggul untuk membersihkan benda beruku-
articles that cannot be washed with detergents. ran besar yang tidak dapat dicuci dengan deterjen.
It removes inorganic soils as well as many Cara ini menghilangkan kotoran organik dan
organic contaminants, but it may not reach to inorganik, namun tidak dapat mencapai dasar
the bottom of deep discontinuities. A follow-up diskontinuitas yang dalam. Pencelupan ke dalam
solvent soak is often recommended. solvent setelahnya seringkali direkomendasikan.
SOLVENT CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN SOLVENT
Solvent cleaning may use immersion tank, or Cara ini dilakukan dengan pencelupan,
the solvent may be sprayed, brushed, or wiped penyemprotan, penyikatan, atau pengusapan.
on and wiped off. Solvent cleaning is the Pembersihan dengan solvent merupakan proses
process most commonly used for spot yang umum digunakan untuk pemeriksaan
inspections. setempat.
Solvent cleaners should only be used to Solvent pembersih hanya untuk menghilangkan
remove organic contaminants, and are not kotoran organik dan tidak diremomendasikan
recommended for removing rust and scale, untuk menghilangkan karat dan kerak, flux
welding flux or spatter. Typical solvents are pengelasan, atau percikan las. Cairan solvent
kerosene, paint thinner, alcohol, benzol, and contohnya minyak tanah, thinner cat, alkohol,
trichloroethylene. benzol, dan trichloroethylene.

RUST AND SURFACE SCALE REMOVER PENGHILANG KARAT DAN KERAK PERMUKAAN
Rust removers (descaling solutions, either Penghilang karat dan kerak (larutan penghilang
alkaline or acid), pickling solutions (acid), and kerak, basa atau asam), larutan pickling (asam),
sometimes wire brushing are used to remove dan kadang kala sikat baja digunakan untuk
rust and surface scale. Wire brushing is menghilangkan karat dan kerak permukaan.
accomplished with a minimum of pressure to Penyikatan dilakukan dengan tekanan rendah
avoid closing surface discontinuities or filing untuk mencegah penutupan atau pengisian
them with smeared metal. diskontinuitas permukaan oleh gram.
PAINT REMOVAL PENGHILANG CAT
Dissolving type hot tank paint strippers and Pengelupas cat dan pelepas ikatan memakai
bond release or solvent paint strippers may be tangki pelarut panas atau solvent pengelupas cat
used to remove paint in precleaning. dapat dipakai untuk menghilangkan cat saat
pembersihan awal.
ETCHING ETSA
Etching is normally required on soft metallic Etsa biasanya disyaratkan pada material logam
materials (such as aluminum and magnesium), lunak (seperti aluminium dan magnesium), material
materials that tend to smear (such as titanium), yang cenderung teroksidasi (seperti titanium), dan
and materials which have been mechanically material yang telah diproses secara mekanis
process-ed by machining, grinding, or similar melalui permesinan, penggerindaan atau sejenis-
procedure. Etching is accomplished with either nya. Etsa dilakukan dengan larutan asam atau
an acid or an alkaline solution to open up basa untuk membuka bekas gerinda dan
grinding burrs and remove metal from surface menghilangkan gram dari permukaan diskonti-
discontinuities. nuitas.
ULTRASONIC CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN ULTRASONIK
Ultrasonic cleaning equipment is useful in the Peralatan ultrasonik dipakai untuk membersihkan
cleaning of large quantities of small test benda berukuran kecil yang jumlahnya banyak.
objects. Ultrasonic cleaning is often combined Pembersihan ultrasonik seringkali memakai bak
with a solvent or detergent bath to improve berisi cairan solvent atau deterjen untuk mening-
cleaning efficiency and reduce cleaning time. katkan efisiensi pembersihan dan menghemat
waktu.
The method works best with water and deter- Campuran air dan deterjen merupakan yang
gent cleaning when contaminants to be terbaik untuk membersihkan kontaminan inorganik,
removed are inorganic, and with solvents when sementara cairan solvent untuk membersihkan
contaminants are organic. kontaminan organik.
MECHANICAL CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN SECARA MEKANIS
Cleaning processes that are not generally Proses pembersihan yang umumnya tidak direko-
recommended include abrasive blasting (shot, mendasikan adalah abrasive blasting (pelor, pasir,
sand, grit, or pressure), liquid honing, emery atau tekanan), cairan pengasah, ampelas, sikat
cloth, wire brushes, and metal scrapers, but baja dan penyekrapan. Namun ada kalanya cara-
there are times when they must be used. cara tersebut harus dilakukan.
These processes tend to close discontinuities Proses ini cenderung menutup diskontinuitas
by peening or cold working the surface of the dengan cara pemukulan atau pengerjaan dingin
specimen. pada permukaan spesimen.

When mechanical cleaning must be used, Saat pembersihan mekanis harus dilakukan,
closed discontinuities can be reopened with a diskontinuitas yang menutup dapat dibuka kembali
chemical etch that removes a very slight dengan pengetsaan yang akan menghilangkan
amount of material from the surface. lapisan tipis material dari permukaan.
Table 2.1. Mechanical cleaning processes.
Table 2.2. Chemical cleaning processes.

STATIONARY PENETRANT TEST PERALATAN PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
EQUIPMENT STASIONER
Stationary equipment is that equipment which Peralatan stasioner maksudnya adalah peralatan
is normally located in one place. The equip- yang letaknya menetap di satu lokasi. Peralatan
ment varies in size and is largely dependent tersebut ukurannya bervariasi yang bergantung
upon the size and type of the test specimen. pada ukuran dan jenis spesimen uji.
Depending on the type and process used, a Tergantung pada jenis dan proses yang diguna-
stationary system could include the following: kan, sistem stasioner terdiri dari bagian-bagian:
1. Precleaning Station (usually remote from 1. Tempat pembersihan awal (jauh dari lokasi
penetrant test station) pengujian)
2. Penetrant Station (tank) 2. Tangki berisi cairan penetrant
3. Drain Station (used with penetrant tank) 3. Tempat pengering (digunakan bareng
dengan tangki penetrant)
4. Emulsifier Station (tank) 4. Tangki berisi cairan pengemulsi
5. Rinse Station (tank) 5. Tangki pembilasan
6. Developer Station (tank, dust chamber, 6. Lokasi developer (tangki, dust chamber, atau
or spray equipment) peralatan penyemprot)
7. Dryer Station (usually an oven type) 7. Tempat pengeringan (berupa oven)
•
8. Inspection Station (enclosed booth or 8. Tempat pemeriksaan (bilik tertutup atau meja
• table with lighting facilities) dengan lampu penerangan)
9.• Postcleaning Station (usually remote from 9. Tempat pembersihan akhir (jauh dari lokasi
penetrant test station) pengujian)
•

PORTABLE PENETRANT TEST PERALATAN PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
EQUIPMENT PORTABEL
Both visible and fluorescent dye penetrants are Baik penetrant visible maupun fluorescent tersedia
available in kits which can be used at a remote dalam bentuk paket yang dapat dipakai memeriksa
location, or when testing a small portion of a di lokasi terbuka, atau saat menguji bagian dari
large article. The liquids are usually supplied in benda berukuran besar. Keduanya dikemas dalam
pressurized (aerosol) spray cans. bentuk kaleng semprot bertekanan.
A visible dye kit usually consists of: Paket penetrant visible terdiri dari:
• Solvent cleaner or penetrant remover. • Kaleng berisi solvent pembersih.
• Visible dye penetrant. • Kaleng berisi penetrant.
• Nonaqueous wet developer. • Kaleng berisi nonaqueous wet developer.
• Wiping cloths and brush. • Kain lap dan kuas.
A fluorescent dye kit usually contains the Paket penetrant fluorescent biasanya terdiri dari:
following:
• Solvent cleaner or penetrant remover. • Kaleng berisi solvent pembersih.
• Fluorescent dye penetrant. • Kaleng berisi penetrant fluorescent.
• Nonaqueous wet developer. • Kaleng berisi nonaqueous wet developer
• Wiping cloths and brush. • Kain lap dan kuas.
• Portable black light and transformer. • Lampu ultraviolet dan trafonya.
• Hood to provide darkened area for • Tudung kain hitam untuk melakukan
viewing indications. pemeriksaan.

BLACK LIGHT EQUIPMENT LAMPU ULTRAVIOLET
Black light equipment is required in fluorescent Lampu ultraviolet diperlukan pada pengujian
penetrant testing since it supplies light of the penetrant fluorescent karena menghasilkan cahaya
correct wavelengths that fall between visible dengan panjang gelombang 365 nm (3650
and ultraviolet, i.e. 365 nm (3650 angstroms) angstroms) yang mengakibatkan material fluores-
to cause fluorescent materials to fluoresce. cent berpendar.
For correct test results, the lamp should Agar hasil pengujiannya akurat, lampu tersebut
produce an intensity of at least 1000 μW/cm2 harus menghasilkan intensitas cahaya minimum
(microwatts per square centi-meter) at the test 1000 μW/cm2 pada permukaan benda yang
surface. diperiksa.
Fluorescent penetrant dyes are usually in the Zat pewarna fluorescent memiliki panjang gelom-
range of 475 nm to 575 nm, which is in the bang antara 475 nm sampai 575 nm, dapat terlihat
visible spectrum of green to yellow. dengan spektrum warna hijau sampai kuning.
The deep red-purple filter is designed to pass Filter berwarna merah-keunguan dirancang hanya
only those wavelengths of light that will activate untuk dilalui cahaya dengan panjang gelombang
the fluorescent material. Provided that the filter tertentu yang akan mengaktifkan material fluores-
is not broken or cracked, there is no danger of cent. Asalkan filternya tidak pecah atau retak,
injury to the human eye. It is suggested that the lampu ultraviolet tidak membahayakan mata. Disa-
filter be checked prior to each use. rankan agar filter diperiksa tiap kali akan dipakai.
At least 5 minutes of warm up is required to Minimum 5 menit disyaratkan untuk pemanasan
reach the required arc temperature when using jika memakai lampu mercury. Setelah dinyalakan,
mercury arc lamp. Once turned on, the lamp is lampu tersebut sebaiknya dibiarkan menyala
usually left on during the entire test or work selama pemeriksaan berlangsung karena sering
period, since switching the lamp on and off mematinyalakan lampu akan memperpendek usia
shortens bulb life. If the black light is switched pakai. Jika dimatikan, lampu ultraviolet perlu waktu
off, it may take up to 10 minutes for the bulb to 10 menit untuk pendinginan yang cukup sebelum
cool sufficiently to reestablish an arc. bisa menyala lagi.

PENETRANT MATERIAL COMBINATIONS KOMBINASI MATERIAL PENETRANT
Penetrant testing materials can be used in a Material untuk pengujian penetrant dapat dipakai
variety of combinations. Most materials are dalam berbagai kombinasi. Kebanyakan material
available in either pressurized spray cans or in tersedia dalam kaleng bertekanan atau cairan
bulk quantities. berkuantitas besar.
The flow chart below illustrates the different Diagram alir di bawah ini memperlihatkan kombi-
material combinations. However, care should nasi material penetrant yang berbeda. Namun
always be taken to assure that manufacturers demikian perlu diperhatikan agar selalu mengikuti
specifications or company procedures are spesifikasi pabrik pembuat atau prosedur
closely followed. perusahaan.
Among the combinations, DRY DEVELOPER Diantara kombinasi tersebut, DEVELOPER KERING
should not be used with VISIBLE DYE sebaiknya tidak dipakai dengan VISIBLE DYE
PENETRANT because of the poor contrast PENETRANT karena kontras yang jelek antara
provided by the thin coating of very fine lapisan tipis serbuk developer dengan cairan
powder. penetrant yang berwarna merah.
The most sensitive developer-penetrant Kombinasi developer-penetrant yang paling
combination: nonaqueous-fluorescent. sensitip: nonaqueous-fluorescent.
The least sensitive developer-penetrant combi- Kombinasi developer-penetrant yang paling tidak
nation: water suspended-visible. sensitip: water suspended-visible.

PENETRANT TESTING MATERIALS MATERIAL UNTUK PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
Penetrant materials are often restricted to Material penetrant seringkali dibatasi dalam
specific groups. The established groups of kelompok-kelompok khusus. Kelompok material
penetrant materials will use the following in a tersebut menggunakan kombinasi di bawah ini
variety of combinations to obtain the best untuk memperoleh hasil terbaik.
results.
1. Water-washable penetrants – contain an 1. Water-washable penetrant – mengandung
emulsifying agent which makes them zat pengemulsi yang membuatnya mudah
easily removable by a water rinse or dibersihkan dengan bilasan air. Material
wash. This penetrant material can be penetrant ini dapat dibeli dalam bentuk
obtained with either a visible or visible atau fluorescent.
fluorescent dye.
2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants – are highly 2. Post-emulsifiable penetrant – memiliki
penetrating, oily visible or fluorescent kemampuan penetrasi yang bagus, berupa
penetrants which are not soluble in water. minyak fluorescent atau visible yang tidak
These penetrants must be treated with an larut dalam air. Emulsifier harus diaplikasikan
emulsifier before they can be removed by pada permukaan penetrant agar dapat
a water rinse or wash. dibilas dengan air.
3. Solvent-removable penetrants – are oily 3. Solvent-removable penetrant – berupa
penetrants that do not contain an minyak penetrant yang tidak mengandung
emulsifying agent and are removable zat pengemulsi, dan hanya bisa dibersihkan
only by solvents specifically designed for dengan solvent yang khusus digunakan
that purpose. untuk tujuan tersebut.
4. Emulsifier – when applied to a penetrant- 4. Zat Pengemulsi – jika diaplikasikan pada
coated specimen make the resultant lapisan penetrant di permukaan spesimen
mixture removable by water rinse or menghasilkan campuran yang dapat dibilas
wash. Emulsifiers have low penetrant dengan air. Emulsifier memiliki sifat penetrasi
characteristics and do not remove yang buruk sehingga tidak menghilangkan
indications from the specimen surface. indikasi dari permukaan benda uji.
5. Removers (solvent) – are designed to be 5. Remover (solvent) – didisain untuk
used in conjunction with specific digunakan bersama dengan jenis penetrant
penetrants. Typical removers are khusus. Remover tertentu dijual dalam
available in bulk or pressurizes spray jumlah besar atau dalam kaleng semprot
containers. bertekanan.
6. Dry developers – are a fluffy, absorbent 6. Developer kering – serbuk penyerap, halus,
white powder that is used in both berwarna putih yang dipakai bersama
fluorescent and visible dye penetrant dengan pengujian penetrant visible dan
tests. It functions to draw the penetrant fluorescent. Fungsinya adalah untuk menarik
inside discontinuities to the surface thus penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas sehingga
making them visible. tampak di permukaan.
7. Wet developers – function similarly to dry 7. Developer basah – fungsinya mirip dengan
developers except that they are a mixture developer kering, hanya saja merupakan
of a developing powder and water. campuran serbuk developer dengan air.
8. Nonaqueous wet developers – differ from 8. Nonaqueous wet developer – berbeda
wet developers in that the developer dengan developer basah, dimana serbuk
powder is mixed with a rapid-drying liquid developer dicampur dengan cairan solvent
solvent. yang mudah menguap.
1. Liquid oxygen (LOX) compatible materials – must be used when articles

inspected are subjected to contact with either liquid or gaseous oxygen.

9. Liquid oxygen (LOX) compatible 9. Material yang kompatibel dengan oksigen
materials – must be used when articles cair (LOX) – harus digunakan saat benda
inspected are subjected to contact with yang diperiksa bersinggungan dengan
either liquid or gaseous oxygen. These oksigen cair atau gas oksigen. Material jenis
materials are specifically designed to be ini khusus didisain menjadi mulia saat
inert when in the presence of LOX. terkena oksigen cair.
During manufacture and testing of the Selama pembuatan dan pengujian artikel,
article, special care is taken not to perhatian khusus harus diberikan untuk tidak
contaminate the article with combustible mengotori artikel tersebut dengan material
materials. yang mudah terbakar.
By itself, liquid oxygen is nonexplosive, Berdasar sifatnya, oksigen cair tidak mudah
but whenever it comes in contact with a meledak, namun saat terkena kontak dengan
combustible material, a spontaneous material yang mudah terbakar, ledakan
explosive situation occur where the spontan dapat terjadi akibat adanya percikan
slightest spark could set off a violent api yang kecil saja.
reaction.
10. Low sulfur and low chlorine – When small 10. Kadar sulfur dan klorin yang rendah – Korosi
quantities of sulfur and chlorine are akan terjadi apabila sejumlah kecil sulfur dan
ionized and come into contact with klorine terionisasi dan bereaksi dengan
austenitic stainless steels, high nickel austenitic stainless steel, paduan nickel
alloys, cobalt alloys and titanium alloys, kadar tinggi, paduan cobalt, dan paduan
corrosion may result. titanium.
This corrosiveness is accelerated when Laju korosi akan dipercepat saat paduan
the alloys are used at elevated tempe- tersebut digunakan pada suhu tinggi
ratures and/or under residual stress dan/atau terkena tegangan sisa hingga
resulting in intergranular corrosion, terjadi korosi batas butir, penggetasan
hydrogen embrittlement and stress hidrogen, dan korosi tegangan.
corrosion.
Sulfur and chlorine are not essential to Sulfur dan klorin bukan merupakan unsur
penetrant systems but they do exist in penting dalam sistem penetrant, namun
trace amounts in the raw materials. mereka dalam jumlah kecil terdapat dalam
bahan baku penetrant.
Nuclear and boiler codes specify from Codes untuk nuklir dan boiler menyebutkan
0.5% to 1% by weight as the maximums. batas maksimum sebesar 0.5% hingga 1%
berat.

SAFETY PRECAUTION MASALAH KESELAMATAN KERJA
In general, the materials used in penetrant Pada umumnya material yang dipakai dalam
inspection can be flammable and can cause pemeriksaan penetrant mudah terbakar dan dapat
skin irritations. menyebabkan iritasi kulit.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION – The ultraviolet RADIASI SINAR ULTRAVIOLET – spektrum sinar
spectrum of light rays generated from the ultraviolet yang dihasilkan oleh lampu mercury
mercury arc lamp can cause sunburn and dapat mengakibatkan kulit terbakar dan melukai
may be injurious to the eyes. However, if the mata. Namun demikian jika filter lampu
proper filter for fluorescent dye inspection is digunakan dengan benar, sinar yang merugikan
used, the harmful rays will be filtered out. dapat disaring.
Personnel who use ultraviolet lights to Personil yang menggunakan lampu ultraviolet
perform penetrant tests with fluorescent untuk melakukan pengujian dengan penetrant
penetrant that glows in the green-yellow berwarna hijau-kuning sebaiknya memakai kaca
range should consider wearing yellow mata pelindung warna kuning untuk
glasses to block ultraviolet light from their menghalangi masuknya cahaya ultraviolet ke
eyes. dalam mata.
FIRE – many penetrant materials are KEBAKARAN – kebanyakan material penetrant
flammable. Occupational Safety and Health mudah terbakar. Peraturan OSHA mensyaratkan
Administration (OSHA) regulations requires bahwa material penetrant yang digunakan
that penetrant materials used in open tanks dalam tangki terbuka memiliki titik nyala lebih
have a flashpoint of greater than 93°C. The dari 93°C. Makin tinggi titik nyala suatu material,
higher the flashpoint of a material, the less makin rendah bahaya kebakaran yang
fire hazard it presents. ditimbulkannya.
SKIN IRRITATION – skin irritation can be IRITASI KULIT – iritasi kulit dapat dihindari
avoided by preventing unnecessary contact dengan mencegah kontak yang tidak perlu dan
and by the use of gloves, aprons, and dengan pemakaian sarung tangan, baju
protective hand creams. pelindung, dan krim pelindung tangan.
AIR POLLUTION – the developing powders POLUSI UDARA – serbuk developer tidak
are considered nontoxic but excessive beracun, namun menghirupnya secara
inhalation must be avoided. Exhaust fans berlebihan harus dihindari. Kipas penghisap
should be installed in any confined area udara sebaiknya dipasang pada daerah tertutup
where dry developers or vapors from dimana terdapat serbuk developer atau uap
penetrants are present. penetrant.
PENETRANT MATERIAL DISPOSAL - PEMBUANGAN MATERIAL PENETRANT –
Penetrant waste should be collected and Buangan penetrant harus dikumpulkan dan
treated. This can be very expensive; the best diolah. Hal ini bisa sangat mahal; cara terbaik
way to reduce this cost is to control the untuk menghemat biaya yaitu dengan mengen-
amount of penetrant materials used. dalikan jumlah material penetrant yang dipakai.



CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW
_______ 1. Wire brushing Is a common and acceptable method of surface cleaning a
test part that is to be penetrant inspected.
_______ 2. A good exhaust system is recommended when working with cleaning

solvents.
_______ 3. Vapor degreasing is often used to remove oxidation, rust, and scale before
a part is penetrant inspected.
_______ 4. Parts that have been painted usually cannot be inspected with penetrants
because suitable paint removing techniques have not been developed.
_______ 5. Detergent cleaning is acceptable for postcleaning but should never be used
for precleaning because it may affect the emulsifier during the penetrant
test.
_______ 6. Etching is often effective in precleaning a part that has been machined to a
specific tolerance by surface grinding.
_______ 7. Only visible dye penetrants are available in portable kits because
fluorescent dyes will not function in pressurized spray cans.
_______ 8. Dry developers are usually only used with visible dye penetrants.
_______ 9. Emulsifiers and solvents are both commonly used in penetrant testing as
postcleaners.
_______ 10. Wet developers should never be used when they will come into contact with
gaseous or liquid oxygen because of the results caused by oxygen and
water mixing.
_______ 11. Emulsifiers must have high penetrating characteristics to emulsify

penetrants that lie in fillets and corners.
_______ 12. The black light used in fluorescent penetrant inspection is not hazardous to
the human eyes if the correct filter is in place and not broken or cracked.
_______ 13. Penetrant materials are often placed in groupings that will assure a valid test
with materials that are compatible with each other.
_______ 14. Nonaqueous developer refers to a powder that is applied dry.
_______ 15. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are usually soluble in water after the application
of an emulsifier.
_______ 16. Water-washable penetrants are cornmonly used with either a visible or
fluorescent dye.
_______ 17. Flashpoint refers to the lowest temperature at which vapors will ignite when
exposed to flame.

CHAPTER THREE
This chapter discusses penetrant application. Bab ini mendiskusikan aplikasi penetrant. Seperti
As discussed in Chapter 2, surface cleaning is dibahas dalam Bab 2, pembersihan permukaan
the first step prior to the penetrant application. adalah tahap pertama sebelum aplikasi penetrant.
CLEANING PEMBERSIHAN
The effectiveness of liquid penetrant testing is Efektifitas pengujian cairan penetrant bergantung
based upon the ability of the penetrant to enter pada kemampuan penetrant untuk menyusup ke
surface discontinuities. All paint, carbon, oil, dalam cacat permukaan. Semua cat, karbon, oli,
varnish, oxide, plating, water, dirt, and similr pernis, oksida, lapisan, air, kotoran dan cat
coating must be removed before application of sejenisnya harus dihilangkan sebelum aplikasi
penetrant. penetrant.
Liquid penetrant placed on the surface of a Cairan penetrant di atas permukaan benda uji tidak
specimen does not merely seep into semata-mata meresap ke dalam diskontinuitas.
discontinuities. It is pulled into them by capillary Penetrant tertarik ke dalamnya oleh gaya kapiler.
action. This is the reason one can cover the Inilah mengapa permukaan bagian bawah dari
under surface of an item with a penetrant and suatu benda masih dapat diperiksa dengan
still have a valid test. penetrant dan memperoleh hasil yang valid.
The following are typical cleaning methods Berikut adalah metoda pembersihan permukaan
discussed earlier. seperti didiskusikan sebelumnya:
1. Detergent cleaning 1. Pembersihan dengan deterjen
2. Vapor degreasing 2. Pembersihan dengan uap solvent
3. Steam cleaning 3. Pembersihan dengan uap air
4. Solvent cleaning 4. Pembersihan dengan solvent
5. Rust and surface scale remover 5. Penghilang karat dan kerak permukaan
6. Paint removal 6. Penghilang cat
7. Etching 7. Etsa
8. Ultrasonic cleaning 8. Pembersihan ultrasonik
9. Mechanical cleaning 9. Pembersihan secara mekanis

PENETRANT APPLICATION APLIKASI PENETRANT
Since penetrant application is step two in the Aplikasi penetrant merupakan tahapan kedua
process, let’s add it to the flow diagram. dalam proses pemeriksaan.
Almost any liquid could be considered a Hampir semua cairan dapat dianggap sebagai
penetrant, but modern penetrants must have: penetrant, namun penetrant moderen harus
memiliki:
1. The ability to hold a dye material in 1. Kemampuan menahan zat pewarna dalam
suspension. suspensi.
2. The ability to spread the dye evenly over 2. Kemampuan menyebarkan pewarna secara
the surface. merata di atas permukaan benda.
3. The ability to carry the dye into any 3. Kemampuan membawa pewarna ke dalam
discontinuity open to the surface. diskontinuitas yang terbuka ke permukaan
4. The ability to bring up the dye as it is 4. Kemampuan membawa kembali pewarna ke
“coaxed” back to the surface. permukaan.
5. The ability, when desired, to be easily 5. Kemampuan, jika diinginkan, untuk dibersih-
removed. kan dengan mudah.
There are two types of dye used in modern Ada dua jenis zat pewarna yang digunakan dalam
penetrants: penetrant moderen:
1. Visible or color contrast – a brightly 1. Visible atau color contrast – pewarna merah
colored dye that is highly visible under yang tampak jelas di bawah kondisi
normal lighting conditions. pencahayaan normal.
2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast – an 2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast – pewarna
almost colorless dye which emits visible yang akan memancarkan cahaya tampak
ligh rays when viewed under black light. apabila dilihat dengan lampu ultraviolet.
A dye with dual sensitivity, or dual-mode, or Pewarna dengan sensitivitas ganda atau mode
dual-response contains a combination of ganda atau respon ganda mengandung kombinasi
visible and fluorescent dyes. pewarna visible dan fluorescent.
The visible color is generally a bright red and Pewarna visible umumnya merah menyala dan
the fluorescent color a bronze-orange or pewarna fluorescent berwarna kuning-perunggu
blue-green. atau biru-hijau.
The combination permits penetrant tests to Kombinasi ini memungkinkan pengujian
be made under visible light and question- penetrant dilakukan di bawah cahaya biasa dan
able indications to be resolved under black indikasi yang meragukan diperiksa di bawah
light; hence the term dual response. cahaya ultraviolet.

Penetrants, either fluorescent or visible can be Penetrant, baik fluorescent maupun visible dapat
applied by any one of the following means: diaplikasikan dengan salah satu dari cara berikut:
1. Spraying – usually using a conventional 1. Penyemprotan – biasanya menggunakan alat
low pressure spray guns or from penyemprot bertekanan rendah atau dari
pressurized spray cans. kaleng semprot bertekanan.
2. Brushing or swabbing – usually applied 2. Kuas atau kain – bisasanya diaplikasikan
with rags, cotton waste, or brushes, when dengan kain lap, kapas, atau kuas, apabila
testing a small, specific area of the menguji sebagian kecil/lokasi dari suatu
specimen. benda.
3. Dipping or immersion – the article is 3. Pencelupan – benda uji dibenamkan ke
generally lowered into a tank of dalam tangki penetrant, lalu diangkat dan
penetrant, then raised and allowed to ditiriskan. Metoda ini tidak cocok untuk
drain. This method is impractical when benda berukuran besar dan merupakan
dealing with large articles, and is wasteful pemborosan apabila hanya daerah kecil saja
when only small areas of a large yang diuji.
specimen are to be tested.
4. Flowing or drain-dwell – the penetrant is 4. Penuangan – penetrant dituangkan di atas
simply poured over the surface and permukaan benda dan setelah itu ditiriskan.
allowing it to drain.
The terminology used in penetrant application Istilah yang digunakan dalam aplikasi penetrant
is listed in Table 3.1. dapat dilihat dalam Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Liquid penetrant application terminology.

PENETRATION (DWELL) TIME WAKTU PENETRASI (WAKTU DIAM)
The period of time during which the penetrant Jangka waktu dimana penetrant berada di atas
is permitted to remain on the specimen is a permukaan benda uji merupakan bagian
vital part of the test. This time, known as dwell terpenting dari pengujian. Jangka waktu ini dikenal
time, is directly related to the size and shape of sebagai waktu diam, yang berhubungan langsung
the discontinuities anticipated since the dengan ukuran dan bentuk diskontinuitas yang
dimensions of the discontinuities determine the dicari mengingat ukuran diskontinuitas menentu-
rapidity with which penetration occurs. kan kecepatan terjadinya penetrasi.
Tight, crack-like discontinuities may require in Diskontinuitas yang rapat, seperti retakan
excess of 30 minutes for penetration to an memerlukan waktu penetrasi lebih dari 30 menit
extent that an adequate indication can be untuk terbentuknya indikasi. Diskontinuitas
expected. Gross discontinuities may be berukuran besar memerlukan waktu penetrasi
suitably penetrated in 3 to 5 minutes. antara 3 sampai 5 menit.
The temperature of the specimen and Suhu benda uji dan suhu cairan penetrant dapat
temperature of the penetrant can affect the mempengaruhi waktu diam yang disyaratkan.
required dwell time.
Warming the specimen accelerates Menghangatkan benda uji mempercepat
penetration and shortens dwell time. penetrasi dan mempersingkat waktu diam.
However, care should be taken not to Namun demikian perlu diperhatikan agar tidak
overheat the specimen since too much heat berlebihan memanaskan spesimen karena suhu
may cause evaporation of the penetrant yang terlalu tinggi menyebabkan penguapan
from the discontinuity, and thereby reduce penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas, yang
sensitivity. akhirnya akan mengurangi sensitivitas.
Dwell times are based on the assumption Waktu diam didasarkan pada asumsi bahwa
that the penetrant will remain wet on the part penetrant tetap dalam kondisi basah pada
surface. Additional penetrant may be permukaan benda. Penambahan penetrant
applied during dwell time. selama waktu diam diperbolehkan.
In each instance, dwell time is determined by Pada tiap kasus, waktu diam ditentukan oleh jenis
the anticipated discontinuities and the diskontinuitas yang hendak dicari dan
penetrant manufacturer’s recommendations. rekomendasi dari pabrik pembuat penetrant.
Typical minimum penetration times are shown Waktu penetrasi minimum untuk kasus tertentu
in Table 3.2. diperlihatkan dalam Tabel 3.2.

Table 3.2. Typical minimum penetration time.

PENETRANT TESTING PROCESSES PROSES PENGUJIAN PENETRANT
We previously mentioned the two types of Telah disebutkan sebelumnya ada dua jenis
penetrants: visible and fluorescent. For both penetrant: visible dan fluorescent. Kedua jenis
categories, there is a further breakdown. penetrant tersebut dapat dirinci menjadi:
1. Water-washable (visible or fluorescent). 1. Water-washable (visible atau fluorescent).
2. Post-emulsifiable (visible or fluorescent). 2. Post-emulsifiable (visible atau fluorescent).
3. Solvent-removable (visible or fluorescent). 3. Solvent-removable (visible atau fluorescent).
Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants) Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants)
WW penetrants have a built-in emulsifier, or WW penetrant mengandung zat pengemulsi, atau
what-so-called “self-emulsifying” penetrants. dinamakan penetrant “self-emulsifying”. Penetrant
The penetrant is soluble in water and is easily ini larut dalam air dan mudah dibersihkan dengan
removed by a water rinse. bilasan air.
Care must be taken to insure that the spray Harus diperhatikan agar volume dan kekuatan
volume and force does not wash penetrant out semprot tidak sampai membasuh penetrant dari
of the discontinuity. A solid stream of water is dalam diskontinuitas. Aliran air yang pejal tidak
not desirable. A coarse droplet size provides diinginkan. Air dalam bentuk percikan kasar
optimal removal. Water pressure should not menghasilkan pembersihan yang optimal. Tekanan
exceed 40 psi. air tidak boleh melebihi 40 psi.
The recommended temperature range for water Suhu air pembilas yang direkomendasikan sebesar
rinse is 10oC - 38oC. Water temperatures above 10oC - 38oC. Suhu air melebihi 38oC tidak direko-
38oC are not recommended because this may mendasikan karena dapat mempercepat pengua-
speed up the evaporation of the penetrant. pan penetrant.
At angles of 80-90 degree, the spray droplets Pada sudut 80-90 derajat, titik-titik air akan
will rebound into oncoming spray, which diverts memantul kembali dan menabrak titik air yang
the droplets and reduce velocity. Generally, an datang sehingga mengurangi kecepatan. Sudut
angle of 45-75 degree is most effective. semprot yang paling efektif adalah 45-75 derajat.
The sketch below represents the steps in a Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan langkah-
water-washable penetrant test. langkah pengujian water-washable penetrant.

Water-washable penetrants are usually Water-washable penetrant biasanya digunakan
preferred for use on articles with a rough untuk memeriksa benda yang permukaannya kasar
surface or if they contain threads or keyways. atau benda yang ada ulir atau alurnya.
The built-in emulsifier provides the best Emulsifier yang ada di dalamnya mengakibatkan
penetrant removal from blind holes and other penetrant mudah dihilangkan dari lubang buntu
hard-to-reach locations, but has the dan lokasi yang sulit dijangkau, namun memiliki
disadvantage of poor reliability in detecting kelemahan dalam mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang
wide or shallow discontinuities. lebar dan dangkal.
Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants) Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

The penetrants employed in the PE process Penetrant yang dipakai pada proses PE tidak
DO NOT contain an emulsifying agent. The mengandung zat pengemulsi. Penetrant ini tidak
penetrant is NOT soluble in water. larut dalam air.
PE penetrants require a two-step removal PE penetrant memerlukan dua langkah proses
process. Excess penetrant is removed by pembersihan. Sisa penetrant dibersihkan dengan
applying a separate emulsifier to make the aplikasi emulsifier secara terpisah sehingga
penetrant water-washable. The emulsifier is penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air. Emulsifier
usually applied by dipping/immersion, biasanya diaplikasikan dengan pencelupan,
spraying, or flowing. The amount of dwell time penyemprotan, atau penuangan. Lamanya waktu
in the emulsifier is in the range of one to four diam untuk emulsifier adalah satu sampai empat
minutes in accordance with manufacturer menit mengacu pada rekomendasi pabrik
recommendations and the type of defects pembuat dan jenis cacat yang dicari.
expected.
The resultant penetrant-emulsifier mixture is Hasil campuran antara penetrant dan emulsifier
removed by water rinse. selanjutnya dapat dibilas dengan air.
Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants) Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants)
The solvent removable method employs post- Metoda solvent removable menggunakan
emulsification-type penetrant. But instead of penetrant jenis post-emulsification. Solvent
using an emulsifier and water wash, excess digunakan untuk menghilangkan pentrant sisa
penetrant is removed by a solvent. yang ada di permukaan benda.
SR penetrants have the advantage of portability SR penetrant menguntungkan dari segi portabilitas
and can be used outdoors without using heavy dan dapat digunakan di luar tanpa menggunakan
complex equipment. peralatan yang berat dan rumit.
They are excellent for many maintenance Cara ini sangat memuaskan untuk pemeriksaan
inspection and for checking portions of larger pemeliharaan dan untuk memeriksa bagian dari
structure. suatu struktur yang besar.

Penetrant is often applied from a pressurized Penetrant seringkali diaplikasikan dari kaleng
spray can which makes the system very semprot bertekanan yang membuat sistem ini
portable. sangat portabel.
After the specified dwell time, the excess Setelah waktu diam terpenuhi, penetrant sisa pada
penetrant is first removed by wiping with mulanya diseka dengan lap penyerap dan
absorbent towels and then cleaned with towels kemudian dibersihkan dengan lap yang dibasahi
dampened with solvent. dengan solvent.
Solvent is NEVER applied directly to the JANGAN PERNAH menyemprotkan solvent secara
specimen as it might wash out or dilute the langsung ke permukaan benda karena akan
penetrant in the discontinuity. melenyapkan penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas.
Table 3.3 lists the preferred processes for Tabel 3.3 memperlihatkan macam-macam proses
various penetrant test problems. pengujian penetrant dan kegunaannya.
Table 3.3. Process selection guide.

1. Water-washable
2. Post-emulsifiable
3. Solvent-removable

LEAK-THROUGH TECHNIQUE TEKNIK PEREMBESAN BOCORAN
The leak-through technique is well suited for Teknik perembesan bocoran sangat sesuai untuk
finding leaks in such articles as tanks, piping, mendeteksi kebocoran pada tangki, pipa, tube,
tubing and hollow castings. There is no dan cor-coran berongga. Tidak ada informasi lain
knowledge concerning other quality characte- yang diperoleh mengenai karakteristik kualitas
ristics of the specimen is obtained. benda.
The sketch below illustrates the liquid penetrant Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan pengujian
leak-through test as used on a large plate kebocoran dengan penetrant untuk memeriksa
section. bagian dari suatu pelat.
FILTERED PARTICLE TECHNIQUE TEKNIK PARTIKEL TERSARING

Filtered particle testing uses small particles Teknik ini menggunakan partikel berukuran kecil
suspended in the penetrant liquid. In most yang tersuspensi dalam cairan penetrant. Partikel
instances these particles are fluorescent. yang dipakai biasanya fluorescent.
The size of the suspended particles varies and Ukuran partikel yang tersuspensi bervariasi,
depends upon the porous nature of the tergantung pada kondisi pori-pori permukaan
inspection surface. benda yang diperiksa.
When testing a porous surface with filtered Saat menguji permukaan berpori dengan cara ini,
particles, all of the liquid penetrant will be semua cairan penetrant akan diserap. Tidak ada
absorbed. There will be no “excess” requiring langkah pembersihan penetrant sisa pada teknik
removal. Where a discontinuity (such as a ini. Pada tempat dimana terdapat diskontinuitas
crack) is present, the increased area created (seperti retak), penambahan luasan akibat retak
by a crack (its walls, etc.) will cause more of the (dinding retak, dll.) akan mengakibatkan penetrant
penetrant to be absorbed there than elsewhere. lebih banyak terserap di daerah tersebut.
The crack will “filter” the penetrant, leaving the Retak akan “menyaring” penetrant, meninggalkan
fluorescent particles on the surface. Since more jejak partikel fluorescent pada permukaan. Karena
penetrant will be absorbed there, a greater lebih banyak penetrant terserap di sana,
buildup of particles will be found at the site of pengumpulan partikel lebih banyak terjadi di
the crack. This particel buildup provides an daerah retak. Pengumpulan partikel ini menun-
indication of discontinuities open to the jukkan adanya diskontinuitas yang membuka ke
surface. permukaan.

FIXING AND RECORDING INDICATIONS PEMELIHARAAN DAN PEREKAMAN INDIKASI
Fixing and recording indications can be carried Pemeliharaan dan perekaman indikasi dapat
out by: dilakukan dengan:
1. Photographs – digital photography 1. Fotografi – foto digital merupakan cara
provide excellent permanent records. In terbaik untuk merekam indikasi. Disamping
addition to photographs, video cassette itu video kaset dan kamera CCTV juga dapat
recorders (VCRs) and closed-circuit digunakan untuk merekam indikasi.
television cameras (CCTVs) are used to
record indications.
2. Special wax and plastic film developers 2. Lilin khusus dan lapisan plastik developers
have been developed to absorb and fix dikembangkan untuk menyerap dan
the penetrant indication to form a mengawetkan indikasi penetrant dan
permanent record. membentuk rekaman permanen.
a. Strippable lacquers are sprayed in a. Lapisan lak disemprotkan beberapa lapis
several coats over the indication and di atas indikasi, dan setelah kering dapat
when dry can be “lifted” to provide a dikelupas untuk menghasilkan rekaman
permanent record. permanen.
b. Special “fixers” are sprayed over the b. Fixer khusus disemprotkan di atas indikasi
indication and when dry are lifted with dan setelah kering diangkat dengan pita
transparent tape. transparan (isolasi).

CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW
_______ 1. A dual sensitivity penetrant contains a special dye that is visible in white light
and will fluoresce without the use of a black light.
_______ 2. A part being penetrant inspected must stay immersed in the penetrant tank
for the entire specified dwell time.
_______ 3. The liquid penetrant leak-through test refers to the ability of a penetrant to
spread through the dry developer evenly.
_______ 4. Visible dye penetrants are usually considered to be less sensitive than
fluorescent penetrants.
_______ 5. Water-washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier that permits good

results in penetrant removal from parts suspected of having wide or shallow
discontinjuities.
_______ 6. Solvent-removable penetrants are available in both visible and fluorescent

dye.
_______ 7. Excess post-emulsifiable penetrant is commonly removed by spraying the

surface of the part with cleaner (solvent) and then wiping with a lint-free
towel.
_______ 8. Water washable penetrant systems are usually very portable because the
materials are commonly used in pressurized spray cans.
_______ 9. Warming the specimen to temperatures up to about 20o C tends to

accelerate penetration and shortens dwell time.
_______ 10. For the dwell time to be accurate, the surface of the specimen must stay
wet with penetrant for the entire time specified.
_______ 11. The typipal dwell time for most penetrant Inspections is about 20-30
minutes.
_________________________ 12. List two (2) of the commonly used methods of applying
_________________________ penetrants to a specimen that is to be inspected.
_________________________ 13. List four (4) of the commonly used methods of

_________________________ precleaning the specimen before penetrant inspection.
_________________________
_________________________
_______ 14. If you were asked to examine 200 steel bolts, each 3/8 x 3 inches with
rolled threads, which penetrant method would you choose?
(a) Post-emulsification (b) Water-washable
_______ 15. The filtered particle method of penetrant inspection used extra fine
fluorescent particles that will not pass through a #120 sieve.

CHAPTER FOUR
This chapter discusses emulsification, Bab ini mendiskusikan proses emulsifikasi,
penetrant removal, and developer application. pembersihan penetrant, dan aplikasi developer.
POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE

PENETRANT) PENETRANT)
This type of penetrant emulsification is Emulsifikasi penetrant jenis ini dilakukan dengan
accomplished by dipping, spraying, or flowing, pencelupan, penyemprotan atau penuangan,
but NEVER by brushing. Brushing makes namun TIDAK BOLEH diaplikasikan dengan kuas.
emulsification more difficult to control, besides Aplikasi dengan kuas menyulitkan pengontrolan
the bristle of the brush may enter the emulsifikasi, disamping bulu-bulu kuas bisa masuk
discontinuity. ke dalam diskontinuitas.

The skecth below represents the steps in a Gambar berikut menunjukkan langkah-langkah
post-emulsifiable penetrant test. pengujian post-emulsifiable penetrant.

The length of time the emulsifier is left to dwell Jangka waktu emulsifier dibiarkan di atas
before commencing the penetrant removal permukaan benda sebelum dilakukan pembersi-
cycle is determined by the emulsifier used and han penetrant ditentukan oleh jenis emulsifier dan
the type of discontinuities suspected. diskontinuitas yang dicari.
If too short an emulsification time is used, not Jika waktu emulsifikasi terlalu singkat, tidak semua
all penetrant will be removed, which will cloud penetrant akan tersapu, yang nantinya akan
over discontinuities. menghalangi munculnya diskontinuitas.
If too long a time is used, penetrant within the Jika waktu emulsifikasi terlalu panjang, penetrant di
discontinuities will also become water soluble dalam diskontinuitas akan bereaksi dengan
and be washed away with excess penetrant. emulsifier dan akan tersapu oleh air.
The PE penetrant makes the water wash less PE penetrant membuat pembilasan dengan air
critical. menjadi tidak terlalu kritis.
The sketches below compare the effects of Gambar di bawah ini membandingkan antara
water-washable and post emulsification pemakaian WW dan PE penetrants.
penetrants.

There are two types of emulsifiers used in the Terdapat dua jenis emulsifier yang digunakan
removal process — LIPOPHILIC (Method B) dalam proses pembersihan – LIPOPHILIC (Metoda
and HYDROPHILIC (Method D). B) dan HYDROPHILIC (Metoda D).
Lipophilic and hydrophilic processes have Proses lipophylic dan hydrophilic memiliki
completely different mechanisms in converting mekanisme yang sangat berbeda dalam merubah
the oil based penetrant into a mixture that can penetrant berbahan dasar menjadi campuran yang
be washed. bisa dibilas dengan air.
LIPOPHILIC METHOD METODA LIPOPHILIC
Lipophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion to Emulsifier lipophilic diaplikasikan dengan cara
prevent mechanically mixing emulsifier into the pencelupan untuk mencegah bercampurnya emul-
penetrant. In some automatic installations, the sifier dengan penetrant. Pada instalasi otomatis,
emulsifier is applied as a fog or mist. emulsifier diaplikasikan secara pengkabutan.
The mechanism of lipophilic emulsification is by Mekanisme emulsifikasi lipophilic adalah dengan
DIFFUSION. Molecules of emulsifier enter into cara DIFUSI. Molekul emulsifier memasuki lapisan
the penetrant layer while at the same time penetrant, sementara pada saat yang bersamaan
molecules of penetrant enter the emulsifier molekul penetrant memasuki lapisan emulsifier.
layer. The rate of diffusion increases with Laju difusi akan bertambah dengan peningkatan
increased concentration and higher konsentrasi dan penambahan suhu.
temperatures.
The three properties of lipophilic emulsifiers Tiga sifat emulsifier lipophilic yang mengontrol
that control the washing characteristics are karakteristik pembilasan adalah aktivitas,
activity, viscosity and water tolerance. kekentalan, dan toleransi terhadap air.
If a penetrant is highly resistant to water, an Jika suatu penetrant memiliki ketahanan tinggi
emulsifier with a high activity is needed. High terhadap air, maka diperlukan emulsifier dengan
viscosity emulsifiers diffuse more slowly than aktivitas yang tinggi. Emulsifier dengan kekentalan
low viscosity emulsifiers. Lipophilic emulsifier tinggi berdifusi lebih lambat ketimbang emulsifier
should tolerate 5% water by weight without yang encer. Lipophilic emulsifier harus mampu
gelling, separating or coagulating and still be mentolerir 5% air tanpa mengalami penggumpalan
capable of passing the penetrant removability atau pembekuan dan mampu lulus uji pember-
test. sihan penetrant.
Method B emulsifiers are supplied in the ready- Emulsifier metoda B dijual dalam bentuk siap pakai
to-use form and do not require further mixing. dan tidak memerlukan pencampuran lagi.

HYDROPHILIC METHOD METODA HYDROPHILIC
Hydrophilic emulsifier is a water based solution Emulsifier hydrophilic adalah larutan antara air dan
and is a mixture of chemicals called zat kimia yang disebut surfactant. Dijual di pasaran
surfactants. They are supplied as a concentrate dalam bentuk konsentrat dan harus dicampur dulu
and are mixed with water either before or dengan air sebelum atau selama proses
during the removal process. The concentrate is pembersihan. Konsentrat disyaratkan mengan-
required to contain a maximum of 5% water. dung air maksimum sebesar 5%.
Hydrophilic emulsifier works based on the Emulsifier hydrophilic bekerja berdasar pada
principle to peel the penetrant away or by prinsip pengelupasan lapisan penetrant, atau
dissolving droplets so they do not redeposit on dengan melarutkan penetrant sehingga tidak
the surface. terdeposit kembali ke permukaan.
Because post-emulsifiable penetrant is Karena post-emulsifiable penetrant tidak
incompatible with water, prerinsing before kompatibel dengan air, direkomendasikan untuk
application of emulsifier is recommended. melakukan pembilasan awal sebelum aplikasi
Prerinsing removes 60-80% of the surface layer emulsifier. Pembilasan awal menghilangkan 60-
of penetrant, which greatly reduces 80% lapisan penetrant di permukaan, sehingga
contamination of the emulsifier. It also provides banyak mengurangi terjadinya kontaminasi pada
an even layer of surface penetrant. emulsifier. Pembilasan awal juga menghasilkan
lapisan penetrant permukaan yang rata.
Hydrophilic emulsifier is applied either by Emulsifier hydrophilic diaplikasikan dengan cara
immersion or spraying. pencelupan atau penyemprotan.
Immediately following the emulsification, a Segera setelah proses emulsifikasi, disyaratkan
fresh water rinse of the entire part is required. untuk membilas seluruh bagian benda uji dengan
This stops the action of any emulsifier air bersih. Langkah ini akan menghentikan aksi
remaining on the part. emulsifikasi yang masih tersisa di permukaan
benda.

DEVELOPERS APPLICATION APLIKASI DEVELOPER
Some indications may be visible prior to the Beberapa indikasi bisa saja nampak sebelum
application of a developer, but this step will developer diaplikasikan, namun langkah ini akan
ensure that ALL discontinuities are visible to the memastikan bahwa SEMUA diskontinuitas akan
naked eye. tampak oleh mata telanjang.
Developing is accomplished when a highly Proses developing dilakukan dengan mengapli-

absorbent powder is applied to the item being kasikan serbuk berdaya serap tinggi ke permukaan
tested after excess penetrant is removed. benda uji setelah sisa penetrant dibersihkan.
The penetrant is actually drawn out of the Penetrant akan tertarik keluar dari diskontinuitas
discontinuity by the strong capillary action of akibat gaya kapiler yang kuat dari serbuk
the developer. developer.
As shown above, the image of the discontinuity Seperti diperlihatkan dalam gambar di atas, citra
in the developer will actually be larger than the diskontinuitas pada developer tampak lebih luas
actual size of the discontinuity. ketimbang ukuran diskontinuitas sebenarnya.
There are two common types of developers in Ada dua jenis developer yang dipakai saat ini –
use today – dry and wet. Both use a white kering dan basah. Keduanya memakai serbuk
powder and the primary difference is in the putih dan perbedaan utamanya terletak pada
method of application. metoda aplikasinya.
DRY DEVELOPERS DEVELOPER KERING
Dry developer is supplied as a fine-grained Developer kering dijual dalam bentuk butiran halus,
fluffy white powder. serbuk putih lembut.
Methods of application include the use of low Aplikasi dilakukan dengan dengan alat penyemprot
air pressure, such as that from a rubber bertekanan rendah. Kadangkala dipakai juga kuas
squeeze bulb or a spray gun. A soft brush may halus; atau karena bentuknya yang sangat halus,
sometimes be used; or, since the developer is benda uji dapat dibenamkan ke dalam tangki
a very fine powder, articles may be simply developer, diangkat, dan sisa developer di
dipped in the developer, raised, and the permukaan dihilangkan dengan cara meniup,
excess powder removed by gently blowing, menggoyang-goyang, atau mengetuk-ketuk benda
shaking, or tapping the article. uji.

It is very necessary to have a dry surface prior Permukaan benda uji harus benar-benar kering
to application of a dry powder. sebelum serbuk developer diaplikasikan.
A wet surface would result in an uneven layer of Permukaan yang basah menghasilkan lapisan
powder or, even worse, too thick a powder yang tidak merata, bahkan bisa terjadi peggum-
buildup. Discontinuity indications would be palan serbuk. Indikasi diskontinuitas akan
obscured. terhalangi.
Dry developer is usually used with fluorescent Developer kering biasanya dipakai bersama
penetrant. dengan penetrant fluorescent.
WET DEVELOPERS DEVELOPER BASAH
Non-aqueous wet developer is held in Non-aqueous wet developer terikat dalam suatu
suspension in a solvent base and is usually suspensi solvent dan dikemas dalam kaleng
supplied in pressurized cans. Evaporation of semprot bertekanan. Penguapan solvent
the solvent carrier helps draw penetrant from membantu menarik penetrant dari dalam
discontinuities. diskontinuitas.
Nonaqueous wet developer is most often Nonaqueous wet developer paling sering diguna-
employed with solvent-removable penetrants kan bersama solvent-removable penetrant dan
and less often with water-washable or post- jarang dipakai bersama water-washable atau post-
emulsifiable penetrants. emulsifiable penetrants.
The nonaqueous wet developer is THE MOST Nonaqueous wet merupakan jenis developer yang
SENSITIVE of all the developers in detecting PALING SENSITIP dalam mendeteksi diskonti-
fine discontinuities. nuitas halus.
The best results are obtained when developer Hasil terbaik diperoleh apabila developer diaplika-
is applied as a thin and even film. sikan dalam bentuk lapisan tipis dan rata.
Like dry developer, nonaqueous developer is Seperti halnya developer kering, nonaquous
applied ONLY to dry test surfaces. developer HANYA diaplikasikan pada permukaan
yang benar-benar kering.

Water-base wet developer Water-base wet developer
In water-base wet developer, the powder is Pada water-base wet developer, serbuk developer
mixed with water. dicampur dengan air.
The developer comprises of two types: water- Developer ini terdiri dari dua jenis: water-
suspended and water-soluble developers. suspended dan water-soluble developers.
1. In water-suspended developer, the 1. Pada water-suspended developer, partikel
developer particles are held in suspen- serbuk developer terikat dalam suspensi
sion in water and require continuous dengan air dan perlu diaduk terus-menerus
agitation to keep them in suspension. agar tidak mengendap.
2. In water-soluble developer, the developer 2. Pada water-soluble developer, serbuk
powder is dissolved in water and forms a developer larut dalam air dan membentuk
solution. Once mixed, they remain mixed. suatu larutan yang tidak perlu diaduk lagi.
Water-soluble developer provides the Water-soluble developer menghasilkan
greater sensitivity in detecting fine sensitivitas yang lebih baik untuk mendeteksi
discontinuities. diskontinuitas halus.
Water-suspended and water-soluble develo- Water-suspended dan water-soluble developers
pers are generally used with water-washable or umumnya digunakan dengan water-washable atau
post-emulsifiable penetrants and rarely with post-emulsifiable penetrants, dan jarang dengan
solvent-removable penetrants. They are applied solvent-removable penetrant. Mereka diaplikasikan
while the test article is still wet from the water saat permukaan benda uji masih dalam kondisi
wash. basah setelah pembilasan.
Methods of application include the following: Metoda aplikasi water-base wet developer:
• Dipping (or immersing) • Pencelupan
• Pouring (or flowing) • Penuangan
• Spraying • Penyemprotan
A short time is allowed for the water to Beberapa saat diperlukan bagi air untuk menguap,
evaporate, leaving a thin layer of white powder. meninggalkan lapisan tipis serbuk putih. Proses
The evaporation process is often hurried by the penguapan seringkali dipercepat dengan
use of a recirculating hot-air dryer after the menggunakan oven setelah aplikasi developer.
developer has been applied. If an oven is used, Jika digunakan oven untuk pengeringan, suhunya
the temperature should not exceed about tidak boleh melebihi 100oC karena akan
100oC as this could evaporate penetrant in the menguapkan penetrant di dalam diskontinuitas.
discontinuity.
Water soluble developer is not recommended Water soluble developer tidak direkomendasikan
to be used with water washable penetrant. untuk dipakai dengan water washable penetrant.

GUIDELINES TO CHOOSE DEVELOPER PEDOMAN PEMILIHAN DEVELOPER
Now you might ask: What governs the choice Sekarang anda mungkin bertanya: Apakah yang
of developer for a given situation? Here are menentukan pemilihan developer untuk situasi
some guidelines. tertentu? Berikut beberapa pedomannya.
Water-Base Wet Developer Applications Aplikasi Water-Base Wet Developer
• On very smooth surfaces where a dry • Pada permukaan sangat halus dimana
developer will not adhere. developer kering tidak bisa menempel.
• When testing large numbers of small, • Saat memeriksa sejumlah besar artikel
irregularly-shaped articles (production berukuran kecil dan bentuknya tidak teratur
testing). (pengujian untuk produksi).
• When wide, shallow discontinuities are • Saat mencari diskontinuitas yang lebar dan
sought, wet developer tends to leave a dangkal, developer basah cenderung
more even film of developer than does menghasilkan lapisan developer yang lebih
dry developer. rata ketimbang developer kering.
Nonaqueous Wet Developer Applications Aplikasi Nonaqueous Wet Developer
• Applications on spot checks or when • Aplikasi untuk pemeriksaan setempat atau
conducting tests in the field. untuk pengujian di lapangan.
• On vertical surfaces, a uniform film of • Pada permukaan vertikal, lapisan developer
developer is more easily obtained. yang merata lebih mudah diperoleh.
• When greatest sensitivity is needed in • Apabila diinginkan sensitivitas terbaik untuk
revealing difficult-to-detect indications. mencari diskontinuitas yang sulit terdeteksi.
Dry Developer Applications Aplikasi Developer Kering
• On rough surfaces, dry developer gives • Pada permukaan kasar, developer kering
far better results than wet developer. memberikan hasil yang lebih baik
dibandingkan developer basah.
• On sharp fillets, holes, and threaded • Pada sudut-sudut tajam, lubang, artikel
articles where wet developers tend to berulir dimana developer basah cenderung
leave too much developer. meninggalkan lapisan yang terlalu tebal.
• On very large articles where it might be • Pada artikel berukuran besar dimana
difficult to apply wet developer. kesulitan mengaplikasikan developer basah.
Again, these are only guidelines. There will be Sekali lagi perlu disampaikan bahwa ini hanya
exceptions. Some specifications permit the use sekedar pedoman. Beberapa spesifikasi mungkin
of only one type of developer and, as hanya mengijinkan penggunaan satu jenis
mentioned earlier, there are some applications developer saja, dan seperti telah disebutkan
that do not require the use of a developer since sebelumnya, bahwa ada beberapa aplikasi yang
the penetrant alone provides sufficient tidak mensyaratkan penggunaan developer karena
discontinuity indications through self- penetrant sendiri sudah menghasilkan indikasi
development. diskontinuitas yang mencukupi melalui mekanisme
self-development.

CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW
_______ 1. When using a post-emulsified penetrant, if too long a time is used for
emulsification, penetrant within the discontinuities will be washed away with
the excess penetrant.
_______ 2. During the rinse cycle an emulsifier is added to a solvent-removable

penetrant to make it water soluble.
_______ 3. Water washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier.
_______ 4. Post-emulsification penetrants are commonly available in both visible and

fluorescent dyes.
_______ 5. Post-emulsification penetrants usually require a two-step penetrant removal

process.
_______ 6. The penetrant removal process with water washable penetrants is very
critical because of the danger of over-wash.
_______ 7. Solvent-removable penetrants are commonly used because they will

withstand a very forceful water wash without the danger of over-wash.
_______ 8. An advantage of the solvent –removable penetrant is that the excess

penetrant is easily removed by dipping the part in a tank of solvent solution.
_______ 9. Wet developers are usually chosen over a dry developer for use on a
smooth surface.
_______ 10. A major advantage of the dry developer over wet is that it will not leave the
same amount of excess build-up in threads and fillets.
_______ 11. The emulsification time required to detect wide or shallow discontinuities is
usually longer than for finding narrow and deep discontinuities.
_______ 12. To avoid over-wash when using water washable penetrants, the water
spray nozzle is usually held at a 90° angle to the surface.
_______ 13. When using a water-washable penetrant, the part must be completely dried
in an oven (not in excess of 225° F) before the wet developer can be
applied.
_______ 14. A major advantage of a nonaqueous developer is that it can be applied to a

part that is heated above 225° F without evaporation on the developer
vehicle.
_______ 15. Solvent-removable fluorescent penetrants require the use of a rather time-
consuming method of excess penetrant removal.
_______ 16. Post-emulsifiable visible dye penetrants commonly use both wet and dry
developers.

CHAPTER FIVE
This chapter discusses the final step in the Bab ini mendiskusikan langkah akhir dalam proses
penetrant process inspection, evaluation, pemeriksaan penetrant, evaluasi, pembersihan
postcleaning, and material control. akhir, dan pengendalian material.
INSPECTION PEMERIKSAAN
Proper lighting should be the first consideration Pencahayaan yang tepat harus dijadikan pertim-
in the inspection of an article. bangan pertama dalam pemeriksaan benda uji.
1. If a fluorescent dye penetrant is used, a 1. Jika dipakai fluorescent dye penetrant maka
room or booth with dim light and a black diperlukan ruangan gelap dan lampu
light with proper intensity are required. ultraviolet dengan intensitas yang memadai.
2. If a visible dye penetrant is used, 2. Jika dipakai visible dye penetrant, diperlukan
adequate normal lighting is necessary. penerangan dengan cahaya biasa.
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF INTERPRETASI DAN EVALUASI INDIKASI
INDICATIONS
The terms “interpretation” and “evaluation” are Istilah “interpretasi” dan “evaluasi” seringkali mem-
often confused by testing personnel. Actually, bingungkan personel NDT. Sesungguhnya kedua
the terms refer to two entirely different steps in istilah tersebut mengacu pada dua langkah yang
testing process. sama sekali berbeda dalam proses pengujian.
After an indication is located, it is interpreted. Setelah indikasi diketahui lokasinya, selanjutnya
During the interpretation, the cause of the diinterpretasi. Selama interpretasi, penyebab dan
bleedout and the severity of the indication must pengaruh indikasi terhadap artikel harus diten-
be determined. It is at this phase that the tukan. Pada tahap ini indikasi tersebut
indication is classified as false, nonrelevant or diklasifikasikan sebagai palsu, tidak relevan atau
relevant. relevan.
Evaluation follows interpretation. If during the Evaluasi mengikuti interpretasi. Jika selama tahap
evaluation phase it is determined that the evaluasi ditentukan bahwa diskontinuitas memba-
discontinuity interferes with the serviceability of hayakan pemakaian komponen, atau tidak meme-
the part or it does not meet the acceptance and nuhi kriteria penerimaan dan penolakan, diskon-
rejection criteria, the discontinuity is then tinuitas tersebut selanjutnya diklasifikasikan
classified as a DEFECT. sebagai CACAT.

TYPICAL INDICATIONS IN PENETRANT JENIS INDIKASI PADA PEMERIKSAAN
INSPECTION PENETRANT
All indications found with the liquid penetrant Semua indikasi yang ditemukan dalam pengujian
method will be open-surface discontinuities, penetrant adalah diskontinuitas permukaan,
but the indications may or may not affect the namun indikasi tersebut mungkin saja atau tidak,
usefulness of the article. mempengaruhi kegunaan benda uji.
FALSE INDICATIONS INDIKASI PALSU
The most common sources of false indications Penyebab indikasi palsu yang paling umum adalah
are poor washing, poor processing conditions, pembersihan yang buruk, kondisi pemrosesan
lack of cleanliness in the inspection booth or yang buruk, bilik pemeriksaan yang kurang bersih,
other aspects of the penetrant process. atau aspek lain dari proses penetrant.
The operator can easily tell when a good rinse Operator dapat dengan mudah mengatakan jika
is obtained by using a black light during and pembilasan sudah dilakukan dengan benar
after the fluorescent pentrant removal process. dengan memakai lampu ultraviolet selama dan
setelah proses pembersihan penetran fluorescent.
To avoid false indications, care should be taken Untuk menghindari indikasi palsu, harus diperhati-
so that no outside contamination such as the kan agar tidak ada kontaminasi dari luar seperti
following occurs: berikut ini:
1. Penetrant on operator’s hand. 1. Jejak penetran di tangan operator.
2. Contamination of wet or dry developer. 2. Kontaminasi developer basah atau kering.
3. Penetrant transfered to clean specimen 3. Penetran yang berpindah dari indikasi lain ke
from other indications. spesimen yang bersih.
4. Penetrant spots on the inspection table. 4. Jejak penetran di meja pemeriksaan.

NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS INDIKASI NONRELEVANT
Nonrelevant indications are caused by surface Indikasi nonrelevant disebabkan karena ketidak-
irregularities or part configuration that in most teraturan permukaan atau konfigurasi benda yang
cases are there by design. pada kebanyakan kasus akibat disain.
They are caused by some features of assembly Indikasi nonrelevant disebabkan karena adanya
such as articles that are press-fitted, keyed, press-fitted, alur, splined, atau kelingan. Termasuk
splined, or riveted. Nonrelevant indications juga dalam indikasi nonrelevant adalah kerak lepas
could also include loose scale or rough surface dan pemukaan kasar pada benda tempa, benda
on a forging, casting, or welding. cor dan pengelasan.
Nonrelevant indications are considered not Indikasi nonrelevant dianggap tidak menggangu
detrimental to the serviceability of the part. pemakaian komponen.
As with false indications the inspector must Sama halnya dengan indikasi palsu, inspektor
carefully examine these indications to ensure harus memeriksa indikasi ini dengan hati-hati untuk
that they do not mask a relevant indication. memastikan agar jangan sampai menutupi indikasi
relevant.
TRUE INDICATIONS INDIKASI SEJATI
True indications are those caused by surface Indikasi sejati disebabkan karena diskontinuitas
discontinuities that have been interpreted as permukaan yang telah diinterpretasikan bukan
not being false or nonrelevant. sebagai indikasi palsu atau nonrelevant.
True indications are subject to evaluation as to Indikasi sejati harus dievaluasi penyebab sampai
the cause and the effect they will have on the pada pengaruh yang ditimbulkannya pada usia
service life of the article. pakai komponen.
It is important to note that all relevant Penting dicatat bahwa semua indikasi relevant
indications are discontinuities, but not all adalah diskontinuitas, namun tidak semua
discontinuities are defects. diskontinuitas adalah cacat.
True indications could be divided into SIX basic Indikasi sejati dibagi menjadi ENAM katagori
categories. utama:
1. Continuous Line 1. Garis Menerus
These indications are caused by cracks, Indikasi ini disebabkan karena retak, cold
cold shuts, forging laps, scratches, or die shuts, lipatan temp, goresan, atau tanda
marks. cetakan.
Cracks usually appear as jagged lines; Retakan biasanya tampak sebagai garis
cold shuts as smooth, narrow, straight bergerigi; cold shut sebagai garis lurus,
lines; and forging laps as smooth, wavy rapat, halus; lipatan tempa sebagai garis
lines. berombak yang halus.
Scratches and die marks appear in a Goresan dan tanda cetakan kelihatan
variety of linear patterns but are readily sebagai pola lurus yang bervariasi, namun
recognizable when all penetrant traces mudah dikenali setelah jejak penetrant
are removed, since the bottom of the dibersihkan, karena dasar diskontinuitas ini
discontinuity is usually visible. biasanya tampak.
2. Intermitten Line 2. Garis Putus-putus
These indications could be caused by Indikasi ini disebabkan karena diskontinuitas
any of the discontinuities mentioned memerus dimana ada bagiannya yang
above provided they were very tight or tertutup rapat akibat terkena pukulan,
where the part had been peened, permesinan, atau penggerindaan.
machined, or ground.

3. Round 3. Bundaran
Rounded indications usually are caused Indikasi berbentuk bundar biasanya disebab-
by porosity. Deep cracks may also kan karena porosity. Retak dalam juga bisa
appear as rounded indications, since kelihatan sebagai indikasi bundar karena
they trap a large amount of penetrant that banyaknya penetrant yang terperangkap di
spreads when the developer is applied. dalamnya yang menyebar saat developer
diaplikasikan.
Any rounded indication that appears Sembarang indikasi bundar yang muncul
singularly in an isolated position usually sendirian pada posisi menyendiri biasanya
indicates a discontinuity of depth that menunjukkan indikasi yang dalam dan belum
may or may not be round. tentu bentuk aslinya bundar.
4. Small Dots 4. Bintik-bintik Kecil
Tiny round indications caused by the Indikasi bundar kecil-kecil disebabkan kare-
porous nature of the specimen, coarse na sifat permukaan spesimen yang berpori,
grain structure, or microshrinkage. butiran kasar, atau penyusutan mikro.
5. Diffuse or weak 5. Tersebar atau Samar
These indications are difficult to interpret Indikasi ini sulit diinterpretasi dan seringkali
and often the part must be cleaned and benda uji harus dibersihkan dan diuji ulang.
retested. In many cases the diffused or Pada banyak kasus, indikasi yang tersebar
weak indications turn to be false atau samar berubah menjadi indikasi palsu
indications caused by an improper yang disebabkan prosedur penetrant yang
penetrant procedure. kurang benar.
6. Gross 6. Nyata
Gross indications are the result of Indikasi nyata adalah akibat pembersihan
ineffective penetrant removal or deep penetrant yang tidak efektip atau adanya
indications on the surface. indikasi yang dalam pada permukaan.
Skecthes below show typical true indications. Gambar berikut adalah indikasi sejati.

Figures below illustrate typical liquid penetrant Gambar dibawah ini memperlihatkan indikasi
indications found in liquid penetrant testing. cairan penetrant pada pengujian penetrant.
Visible dye indication of seam.
Visible dye indication of lamination.
Visible dye indication of forging lap.
Visible dye indications of unhealed porosity in aluminum plate.

Visible dye indications of cracks in aluminum forging.
Visible dye indications of weldment shrink cracks.
Visible dye indication of forging burst.
Fluorescent indications of porosity.

DEPTH DETERMINATION OF PENETRANT PENENTUAN KEDALAMAN DISKONTINUITAS
DISCONTINUITIES PENETRANT
The greater the depth of a discontinuity, the Makin dalam suatu diskontinuitas, makin banyak
more penetrant it will holds and the larger and penetrant tertahan di dalamnya dan makin besar
brighter the indication. dan jelas indikasinya.
POSTCLEANING PEMBERSIHAN AKHIR
After the specimen has been inspected, it is Setelah spesimen diperiksa, sangat penting untuk
very important that it be thoroughly cleaned. A mencucinya dengan bersih. Pembersihan akhir
thorough postcleaning is necessary because yang menyeluruh perlu dilakukan karena sisa-sisa
penetrant and developer residue tend to attract penetrant dan developer akan mengikat uap air
moisture which may cause corrosion, or it can dan mengakibatkan korosi, atau zat-zat tersebut
interfere with subsequent processing or usage. dapat mengganggu proses atau penggunaan
selanjutnya.
Postcleaning usually will involved the same Pembersihan akhir biasanya melibatkan jenis
types of cleaning operations as were used in proses pembersihan yang sama seperti pada
precleaning. pembersihan awal.
QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT TEST KENDALI MUTU UNTUK MATERIAL PENGUJIAN
MATERIALS PENETRANT
ALUMINUM TEST BLOCKS BLOK UJI ALUMINIUM
They provide a good means of evaluating Blok ini dipakai untuk mengevaluasi kegunaan
general purpose penetrants. They should be umum dari penetrant. Blok ini hanya dipakai
used for comparisons only and not for absolute sebagai perbandingan saja, bukan untuk evaluasi
evaluations. mutlak.
These blocks are nonuniform, the depth and Blok ini tidak seragam, kedalaman dan lebar retak
width of cracks are uncontrolled. The size of tidak terkontrol. Ukuran blok bisa bervariasi tapi
the blocks may vary but are about 5 x 8 cm by biasanya sekitar 5 x 8 cm dengan tebal 10 mm,
10 mm thickness of 2024-T-3 aluminum alloy. terbuat dari paduan aluminium 2024-T-3.
The blocks are heated to 510-525oC and Blok dipanaskan sampai suhu 510-525oC dan
quenched in cold water to provide an overall didinginkan cepat di air dingin untuk membuat
crack pattern. A groove approximately 1.5 mm pola retakan. Alur sedalam 1.5 mm dan lebar 2mm
deep by 2 mm wide may be cut across the dibuat di tengah-tengah daerah pengaruh panas
center of the heat-affected zone on both faces pada kedua sisi blok tersebut.
of the block.
Because of the large cracking that often results Karena jumlah retak yang banyak pada blok ini,
in this block, it is used for comparing low and maka blok ini seringkali dipakai untuk memban-
medium sensitivity fluorescent penetrant. dingkan sensitivitas penetrant fluorescent tingkat
rendah dan medium.

SENSITIVITY TEST UJI SENSITIVITAS
While there have been no simple quantitative Sementara belum ada uji kuantitatip sederhana
tests developed for measuring penetrant untuk mengukur sensitivitas penetrant, uji
sensitivity, a simple comparative test is usually perbandingan sederhana biasanya dianggap
adequate. mencukupi.
The penetrant to be tested is applied to one- Penetrant yang diuji diaplikasikan pada setengah
half of the test block and the new or reference blok uji, dan penetrant baru atau yang dijadikan
penetrant is applied to the remaining half. referensi diaplikasikan pada setengah bagian lain.
The processing used—including dwell time, Pemrosesan penetrant – termasuk waktu diam,
emulsification or removal, and developing—is emulsifikasi atau pembersihan, dan developing –
that recommended by the penetrant dilakukan sesuai rekomendasi pabrik pembuat
manufacturer. penetrant.
By visual observation it is determined if the old Melalui pengamatan visual, selanjutnya ditentukan
penetrant is contamined to the point where it apakah penetrant yang lama telah terkontaminasi
must be discarded. dan harus dibuang.
MENISCUS TEST UJI MENISKUS
Provides a practical test for evaluating the dye Merupakan pengujian untuk mengevaluasi
concentration in thin-liquid films. konsentrasi pewarna di dalam cairan.
The test utilizes a flat glass platen and a convex Pengujian ini menggunakan kaca rata dan lensa
lens. When a drop of solution is placed cembung. Saat satu tetes larutan fluorescent
between the lens and platen, a colorless or diteteskan antara lensa dan kaca, maka akan
nonfluorescent spot is formed around the point terbentuk jejak di sekitar titik sentuh. Sudut kontak
of contact. The resultant contact angle simply yang dihasilkan memperlihatkan kemampuan
indicates the ability of a liquid to wet a surface. cairan untuk membasahi permukaan.
The diameter of the remaining spot of colorless Diameter dari jejak penetrant pada lensa cembung
penetrant provides a measure of film thickness menunjukkan ukuran ketebalan lapisan film yang
which can be used to compare the dye dapat dipakai untuk membandingkan konsentrasi
concentration of penetrant. zat pewarna di dalam penetrant.

Prolonged exposure of a film to ultraviolet light Paparan dalam waktu lama di bawah cahaya
or accidental contamination by acids or alkalis ultraviolet atau kontaminasi akibat asam atau basa
will affect the dye concentration and therefore akan mempengaruhi konsentrasi pewarna dan
change the spot diameter. akan mengubah diameter jejak pada lensa.
CERAMIC BLOCK TEST UJI BLOK KERAMIK

Consists of an unglazed ceramic disc which Terdiri dari piringan keramik buram yang mengan-
has thousand of micropores and cracks on its dung ribuan pori dan retak berukuran sangat kecil
surface. pada permukaanya.
A performance comparison can be made of Perbandingan performance dapat dilakukan antara
two or more penetrant merely by noting the dua penetrant atau lebih yang diaplikasikan secara
number of distribution of porosity indication sebelah-menyebelah dengan memperhatikan jum-
and their brightness in a side-by-side compari- lah distribusi indikasi porositas dan kecemer-
son test. langannya.
A small amount of a test penetrant is placed on Sejumlah kecil penetrant yang diuji ditempatkan
one side and a reference penetrant is applied pada satu sisi dan penetrant referensi ditempatkan
to the other side. After the correct dwell time, pada sisi yang lain. Setelah waktu diam tertentu,
the two penetrants are compared. kedua penetrant tersebut diperbandingkan.
A reduction in the number of apparent Pengurangan jumlah dan tingkat kecemerlangan
brightness of pore indications should be indikasi pori-pori selanjutnya diamati saat
observed when comparing a fresh and old membandingkan antara penetrant yang lama dan
batch of penetrant. baru.
WATER CONTENT TEST UJI KADAR AIR
The ASTM Standard D-95 describes a test Standard ASTM D-95 menjelaskan pengujian ini,
where 100 ml of penetrant is placed in a boiling dimana 100 ml penetrant ditempatkan dalam gelas
flask with a similar quantity of moisture-free ukuran yang berisi xylene bebas air dengan
xylene. The condensate is collected in a volume yang sama. Uap pembakaran dikumpulkan
graduated tube to show percent of water by dalam suatu tabung berjenjang untuk memperlihat-
volume. kan persentase air per volume.
If percent of water exceeds manufacturer’s Jika persentase air melebihi rekomendasi pabrik,
remommendation, the penetrant is discarded. penetrant harus dibuang.
VISCOSITY TEST UJI KEKENTALAN
A viscometer tube is used to measure the Sebuah tabung ukuran kekentalan digunakan
viscosity in centistoke to determine if the untuk mengukur kekentalan dalam centistoke
penetrant is within the range recommended by untuk menentukan apakah penetrant masih di
the manufacturer. A typical standard is ASTM dalam rentang yang direkomendasikan oleh
D-445. pabrik. Standar yang dipakai adalah ASTM D-445.

FLUORESCENT PENETRANT FADE TEST UJI KEPUDARAN PENETRAN FLUORESCENT
This test involves the use of the aluminum test Pengujian ini memakai blok aluminium dengan
blocks in a side-by-side comparison test. perbandingan secara sebelah menyebelah.
The fluorescent penetrant is placed on both Penetran fluorescent ditempatkan pada kedua sisi
sides of the block and processed normally. blok dan diproses seperti biasanya. Separuh
One half of the block is then exposed to a bagian blok disinari cahaya ultraviolet selama satu
standard black light for one hour, while the jam, sedangkan separuh sisi yang lain ditutupi
other side is covered with paper. kertas.
The fluorescent brilliance of the two sides is Kecemerlangan fluorescent dari kedua sisi tersebut
observed and if one side is noticeably less diamati dan dibandingkan, dan jika salah satu sisi
brilliant, the penetrant is discarded. tampak lebih pudar, penetrant harus dibuang.
WATER WASHABILITY TEST UJI KEMAMPUCUCIAN DENGAN AIR
This test evaluates the efficiency of the Pengujian ini mengevaluasi efisiensi emulsifier
emulsifier by comparing two different dengan membandingkan dua macam persentase
percentage blends of penetrant and emulsifier. campuran penetran dan emulsifier yang berbeda.
A special steel block is placed at a 75o angle Blok baja khusus diposisikan pada sudut 75o dan
and the two blends are allowed to flow dua macam campuran tadi dialirkan secara
separately down the block. After a five-minute terpisah di atas blok. Setelah waktu tunggu selama
waiting period, the block is washed and lima menit, blok dicuci dan diperiksa mengenai
examined for traces of remaining penetrant. keberadaan jejak penetran.
DEVELOPER TEST UJI DEVELOPER
Dry developers are simply visually inspected to Developer kering cukup diperiksa secara visual
see that they are not lumpy or caked instead of untuk melihat adanya gumpalan-gumpalan atau
fluffy and light. tidak ada yang lengket satu sama lain.
Wet developers are often checked using a Developer basah seringkali diperiksa memakai
hydrometer to assure that the density of the hydrometer untuk menjamin bahwa massa jenis
powder in the vehicle is within the range that serbuk di dalam campuran masih dalam rentang
recommended by the manufacturer. yang direkomendasikan oleh pabrik pembuat.
PORTABLE EQUIPMENT PERALATAN PORTABEL
The process control of portable equipment Pengontrolan proses untuk peralatan portabel
involves checking materials and associated meliputi pemeriksaan material dan peralatan yang
equipment of the penetrant kit. ada hubungannya dengan paket penetran.
When ordering penetrant materials from the Saat memesan material penetran dari pemasok,
manufacturer, performance specifications spesifikasi performance sebaiknya dicantumkan
should be requested in the purchase order. dalam dokumen pembelian. Hal ini bermanfaat
This establishes the necessary documentation untuk mendokumentasikan performance material
to verify material performance. Aerosol cans penetrant. Tiap kaleng semprot yang dipakai pada
are normally used in portable equipment; each peralatan portabel, pada bagian bawahnya selalu
can has a batch number on it. terdapat nomer batch.
Portable kits contain a cleaner. If the cleaner is Paket portabel termasuk juga pembersih (cleaner).
used to preclean a part, it must be able to Jika cleaner dipakai sebagai pembersih awal maka
preclean the part without leaving a residue. harus mampu membersihkan benda tanpa
Care should be taken to ensure that the cleaner meninggalkan sisa. Harus diperhatikan agar tidak
used is not marked as a remover, which has a memakai remover sebagai pembersih awal karena
very slow evaporation rate and will leave an oil laju penguapannya rendah dan akan mening-
residue. galkan sisa minyak di permukaan.

Most cleaners today are labeled cleaner/ Kebanyakan cleaner yang ada saat ini diberi label
remover. These cleaners do not leave a residue sebagai cleaner/remover. Cleaner ini tidak mening-
and can be used to preclean parts. galkan sisa minyak dan bisa dipakai sebagai
pembersih awal.
Developers now use a different liquid solvent Developer yang ada saat ini memakai solvent cair
as a vehicle, which does not evaporate as yang berbeda-beda sebagai pengencer, sehingga
quickly. To prevent a loss of sensitivity and a tidak cepat menguap. Untuk mencegah hilangnya
possible masking of discontinuities, allow the sensitivitas dan tertutupnya diskontinuitas, biarkan
developer to dry before applying more developer mengering dulu sebelum penyemprotan
developer. developer tambahan.
LIGHTING PENCAHAYAAN
Control of lighting is a key part of the process Pengontrolan cahaya merupakan bagian kunci dari
control. pengendalian proses.
The ultraviolet light in fluorescent penetrant Lampu ultraviolet pada paket portabel penetran
portable kits must be checked for lens fluorescent harus diperiksa kebersihan lensanya
cleanliness and possible cracks. The ultraviolet dan kemungkinan adanya retak. Intensitas cahaya
light intensity must be checked against the ultraviolet harus diperiksa apakah sudah sesuai
applicable specification. dengan spesifikasi yang berlaku.
Ultraviolet lights from a 100 Watt mercury vapor Cahaya ultraviolet dari lampu mercury 100 Watt
lamp normally produce higher intensities than umumnya menghasilkan intensitas lebih dari 1000
the 1000 μW/cm2 at a distance of 38 cm. μW/cm2 pada jarak 38 cm.
Daily checks of ultraviolet light intensity is a Pemeriksaan harian intensitas cahaya ultraviolet
necessity for adequate process control. For diperlukan untuk pengendalian proses yang benar.
systems used during multiple 8 h shifts, Untuk sistem shift yang digunakan selama
ultraviolet lights should be checked at the start kelipatan 8 jam, lampu ultraviolet harus diperiksa di
of each shift. awal mulainya shift.
The darkness of the fluorescent penetrant Tingkat kegelapan ruangan pemeriksaan penetrant
inspection area is important. Most specifi- fluorescent perlu diperhatikan. Kebanyakan
cations require no more that 20 lux. (2 fc) of spesifikasi mensyaratkan intensitas cahaya tampak
white light in the area. tidak lebih dari 20 lux (2 fc) dalam ruang
pemeriksaan.
In addition, inspectors must allow their eyes to Sebagai tambahan, inspektor harus membiasakan
adjust when first entering the darkened test matanya saat memasuki ruang gelap. Umumnya
area. Normally, 5 min is enough time for the perlu waktu 5 menit bagi mata untuk beradaptasi
eye to adapt to a dark environment. Tests dalam lingkungan gelap. Pengujian sebaiknya
should not start until the inspector’s eyes have jangan dimulai hingga mata inspektor terbiasa
adapted to the darkened conditions. dengan keadaan gelap.

CHAPTER FIVE
REVIEW
_______ 1. A typical false indication could be caused by an assembly that requires the
components to be press-fitted.
_______ 2. Nonrelevant indications could be caused by the rough surface on a casting.
_______ 3. Postcleaning is necessary only when the part must be retested by the liquid
penetrant method.
_______ 4. A typical true indication producing round indications is commonly caused by

porosity.
_______ 5. Diffused or weak indications are often caused by subsurface discontinuities,

and the part must be retested using a highly sensitive penetrant that will
penetrate grain structure.
_______ 6. True indications are usually those that require evaluation to determine their
effect on the service life of the part.
_______ 7. The aluminum test blocks used in penetrant evaluation are heated and
quenched in water to produce a pattern of cracks on the surface.
_______ 8. The sensitivity tests used in penetrant inspection are relatively simple,
nonquantitative, and require side-by-side visual observation.
_______ 9. The meniscus test utilizes a flat glass platen and convex lens to determine
the dye concentration of a visible or fluorescent penetrant.
_______ 10. The ceramic block test uses an unfired ceramic disc to determine the dye
concentration of a visibles or fluorescent penetrant.
_______ 11. A special steel block, placed at a 75° angle, is used to check the
effectiveness of the emulsifier.
_______ 12. Dry developers are often checked with a hydrometer to insure that they are
still light and fluffy and not settled into a dense mixture.
_______ 13. The fluorescent penetrant fade test usually makes use of the aluminum test
blocks to perform the test.
_______ 14. The depth of a discontinuity can be compared by observing the relative size
or brightness of the indication.
_______ 15. Penetrant that has been transferred to a clean article from the indication on
another article can cause a false indication.
_______ 16. Nonrelevant indications often are actual surface discontinuities.
_______ 17. If a discontinuity is evaluated as being a true indication, the article should
automatically be rejected.

CHAPTER SIX
This chapter discusses types of discontinuities Bab ini mendiskusikan jenis-jenis diskontinuitas
that can be evaluated with the liquid penetrant yang dapat dievaluasi menggunakan metoda
method. cairan penetrant.
CATEGORIES OF DISCONTINUITIES KATAGORI DISKONTINUITAS
Discontinuities can be divided into THREE Diskontinuitas dapat dibagi menjadi TIGA katagori
general categories: inherent, processing, and umum: bawaan, proses, dan servis.
service.
1. Inherent. 1. Bawaan.
They are usually related to discontinuities Biasanya berhubungan dengan diskonti-
found in the molten metal. nuitas yang ditemukan dalam logam cair.
Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to Diskontinuitas wrought bawaan berhubungan
the melting and solidification of the dengan peleburan dan pembekuan ingot
original ingot before it is formed into sebelum dibentuk menjadi slabs, bloom, dan
slabs, blooms, and billets. billet.
Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the Diskontinuitas tuangan bawaan berhubu-
melting, casting, and solidification of a ngan dengan peleburan, pengecoran, dan
cast article. Usually caused by inherent pembekuan benda cor. Biasanya disebab-
variables such as inadequate feeding, kan karena variabel bawaan seperti kurang
gating, excessive pouring temperature, pengisian, gating, suhu tuang berlebihan,
and entrapped gases. dan gas yang terperangkap.
2. Processing discontinuities. 2. Diskontinuitas Proses.
They are usually related to the various Biasanya berhubungan dengan aneka
manufacturing processes such as machi- proses manufaktur seperti permesinan,
ning, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, pembentukan, extruding, pengerolan,
heat treating, and plating. pengelasan, laku panas, dan pelapisan.
3. Service discontinuities. 3. Diskontinuitas Servis.
They are related to the various service Berhubungan dengan aneka kondisi
conditions such as stress corrosion, pengoperasian seperti korosi tegangan,
fatigue, and erosion. kelelahan, dan erosi.
REMEMBER, when you use the liquid penetrant INGAT, jika anda menggunakan metoda cairan
method, you can find only those discontinuities penetran, anda hanya bisa menemukan diskonti-
which are open to the surface. nuitas yang membuka ke permukaan.
However, during the manufacturing process, Namun demikian, selama proses manufaktur,
many discontinuities that were subsurface can banyak diskontinuitas yang tadinya di bawah
be made open to the surface by machining, permukaan menjadi membuka ke permukaan
grinding, and the like. karena permesinan, penggerindaan, dan
sejenisnya.
Remember that discontinuities are not Ingat bahwa diskontinuitas belum tentu cacat.
necessarily defects. Any indication that is found Sembarang indikasi yang ditemukan oleh inspektor
by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it dinamakan sebagai diskontinuitas hingga dikenali
can be identified and evaluated as to the effect dan dievaluasi pengaruhnya terhadap pengopera-
it will have on the service of the part. sian komponen.

THE ORIGINS OF DISCONTINUITIES ASAL-MUASAL DISKONTINUITAS
Listed below are some typical discontinuities Di bawah ini adalah beberapa jenis diskontinuitas
that should be recognized when doing any type yang sebaiknya dikenali jika melakukan pengujian
of nondestructive test. tanpa merusak.
Discontinuities trapped in the ingot during steel Diskontinuitas yang terperangkap di dalam ingot
making process may cause aditional types of selama proses pembuatan baja dapat menyebab-
discontinuities as the steel is used in the manu- kan terjadinya jenis diskontinuitas lain saat baja
facture of an article. tersebut dipakai memproduksi suatu artikel.
There are FOUR main types of discontinuities Ada EMPAT jenis diskontinuitas utama yang
found in ingots: ditemukan di dalam ingot:
1. Porosity – caused by entrapped gas in 1. Porositas – disebabkan oleh gas-gas yang
the molten metal. terperangkap di dalam logam cair.
2. Nonmetallic inclusions – caused by 2. Inklusi Nonlogam – disebabkan karena
impurities accidentally included in the ketidakmurnian yang tanpa sengaja terjadi
molten metal. dalam logam cair.
3. Pipe – caused by shrinkage at the center 3. Pipa – disebabkan karena penyusutan pada
of the ingot as the molten metal solidifies. bagian tengah ingot selama pembekuan.
4. Segregations – occurs when the 4. Segregasi – terjadi karena ketidakseragaman
distribution of the various elements is not distribusi aneka elemen di dalam ingot.
uniform throughout the ingot. This Kondisi ini dimanakan “banding” dan
condition is called “banding” and is not dianggap tidak begitu berarti.
usually significant.
The “hot top” is usually cropped off to remove Bagian “hot top” biasanya dipotong untuk menghi-
most of the above discontinuities. langkan sebagian besar diskontinuitas di atas.

CASTING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS TUANGAN
Casting discontinuities occur when molten Diskontinuitas tuangan terjadi saat logam cair
metal is poured into a mold and allowed to dituangkan ke dalam cetakan dan dibiarkan
solidify. membeku.
A COLD SHUT is caused when molten metal is COLD SHUT disebabkan jika ada logam cair
poured over solidified metal as shown below. menumpuki logam yang sudah membeku.
When the metal is poured, it hits the mold Saat logam cair dituangkan dan membentur
too hard and spatters small drops of metal. dinding cetakan terlalu keras akan terjadi
When these drops of metal hit higher up on percikan logam cair. Jika percikan ini mengenai
the mold, they stick and solidify. When the dinding cetakan, dia akan lengket dan
rising molten metal reaches and covers the membeku. Apabila logam cair menutupi
solidified drops of metal, a crack-like percikan beku tersebut, terbentuk diskontinuitas
discontinuity is formed. yang menyerupai retakan.
HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) occurs SOBEK PANAS (RETAK SUSUT) terjadi apabila
when there is unequal shrinkage between light terjadi penyusutan yang tidak merata antara
and heavy sections as shown below. bagian ringan dan berat seperti dalam gambar.
In a casting having light and heavy sections, Pada benda cor, makin ringan suatu bagian
the light sections, being smaller, solidify maka makin cepat pembekuan dan penyusu-
faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier tannya, yang akan menarik bagian berat yang
sections, which are hotter and not shrinking lebih panas dan lebih lambat penyusutannya
as fast, toward the light sections. dibandingkan bagian tipis.

SHRINKAGE CAVITIES occur when there is RONGGA SUSUT terjadi jika volume logam cair
insufficient molten metal to fill the space tidak cukup mengisi rongga akibat penyusutan,
created by shrinkage, just as pipe is formed in sama seperti halnya pipe yang terbentuk di dalam
an ingot. ingot.
GATE
(ENTRANCE FOR
MOLTEN METAL)
Shrinkage cavities can be eliminated, or the Rongga susut dapat dicegah atau dikurangi
possibility of shrinkage cavities can be kemungkinan terjadinya dengan menambahkan
greatly reduced, by adding a feeder head or corong pengisian seperti dalam gambar kanan
reservoir as shown above on the right. atas.
MICROSHRINKAGE is usually many small SUSUT MIKRO biasanya berupa lubang-lubang
subsurface holes that appear at the gate of the kecil di bawah permukaan yang muncul pada gate
casting caused by premature blocking of the akibat penyumbatan gate sebelum pengisian
gate. selesai seluruhnya.
Microshrinkage can also occur when the Susut mikro dapat juga disebabkan ketika
molten metal must flow from a thin section logam cair harus mengalir dari bagian tipis ke
into a thicker section of a casting. bagian yang lebih tebal di dalam cetakan.
BLOW HOLES are small holes at the surface of LUBANG TIUP adalah lubang-lubang kecil pada
the casting caused by gas which comes from permukaan benda cor akibat gas-gas yang berasal
the mold itself. Many molds are made of sand, dari dinding cetakan. Banyak cetakan yang dibuat
and when molten metal comes into contact dari pasir dan saat logam cair bersentuhan
with the mold, the water in the sand is released dengannya kelembaban yang terkandung dalam
as steam. pasir berubah menjadi uap air.
POROSITY is caused by entrapped gas. POROSITAS disebabkan karena gas-gas yang
Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on terperangkap. Porositas biasanya di bawah
the surface depending on the design of the permukaan namun dapat pula terjadi di
mold. permukaan, tergantung pada disain cetakan.
WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT

PENETRANT is best suited for the highest adalah jenis penetrant yang paling baik untuk
sensitivity in cast articles. memperoleh sensitivitas tertinggi pada benda-
benda cor.

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS PROSES
Processing discontinuities are those found or Diskontinuitas proses ditemukan atau dihasilkan
produced by forming or fabrication operations saat pembentukan atau operasi fabrikasi, termasuk
including rolling, forging, welding, machining, pengerolan, penempaan, pengelasan, permesinan,
grinding, and heat treating. penggerindaan, dan perlakuan panas.
WORKING THE BILLETS PENGERJAAN BILLET
When an ingot is further processed into slabs, Ketika ingot diproses lebih lanjut menjadi slabs,
blooms, and billets, it is possible for the blooms, dan billets, diskontinuitas bisa berubah
discontinuities to change size and shape. ukuran dan bentuk.
As a billet is flattened and spread out, Saat billet diratakan dan digepengkan, inklusi
nonmetallic inclusions may cause a lamination. nonlogam dapat menyebabkan laminasi. Pipa dan
Pipe, and porosity could also cause porositas juga dapat menyebabkan laminasi
laminations in the same manner as shown dengan cara yang sama seperti dalam gambar di
below. bawah ini.
As a billet is rolled into bar stock, nonmetallic Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, inklusi
inclusions are squeezed out into longer and nonlogam tertekan menjadi diskontinuitas yang
thinner discontinuities called stringers. panjang dan tipis dinamakan stringers.
A nonmetallic inclusion in bar stock extends in Inklusi nonlogam dalam batang tongkat menyebar
the direction of grain formation. As the billet is ke arah pembentukan butiran. Saat billet dirol
rolled smaller around and longer, the stringer semakin kecil dan panjang, stringer juga menjadi
also becomes smaller around and longer. lebih kecil dan panjang.

As a billet is rolled into round bar stock, surface Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, ketidak-
irregularities may cause SEAMS. Seams are teraturan permukaan bisa mengakibatkan seams.
caused by folding of metal due to improper Seams terjadi akibat lipatan logam karena
rolling or by a crack in the billet as shown pengerolan yang salah atau karena retakan pada
below. billet seperti dalam gambar berikut.
A seam could also occur when the billet is Seam juga bisa terjadi saat billet dibentuk menjadi
formed into a rectangular bar as shown below. batang kotak seperti berikut.

FORGING DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS TEMPAAN
Forging discontinuities occur when metal is Diskontinuitas tempaan terjadi saat logam dipukul
hammered or pressed into shape, usually while atau ditekan menjadi bentuk tertentu, biasanya
the metal is very hot. ketika logam dalam kondisi sangat panas.
A forged part gains strength due to the grain Benda tempa memperoleh kekuatan akibat
flow taking the shape of the die, and the aliran butiran yang berlangsung ke semua arah
process is shown below. mengikuti bentuk cetakan seperti gambar.
A FORGING BURST is a rupture caused by PECAH TEMPA adalah kepecahan yang disebab-
forging at improper temperatures. Forging kan karena suhu penempaan yang salah. Penem-
metal at too low temperature may cause burst. paan logam pada suhu terlalu rendah mengaki-
Burst may be either internal or open to the batkan kepecahan. Pecah tempa bisa di dalam,
surface a shown below. maupun membuka ke permukaan.
Improper temperatures caused these parts Suhu tempa yang terlalu rendah mengakibatkan
to break as the material was being shaped komponen di atas pecah saat ditempa. Logam
by forging. The metal was not hot enough tidak cukup panas sehingga tidak terjadi aliran
and did not want to flow with the forging. saat ditempa. Saat ditekan pada waktu
When squeezed by the heavy forging press, penempaan, logam akan pecah di bagian
the metal in the center simply ruptured. tengahnya.

A FORGING LAP is caused by folding of metal LIPATAN TEMPA disebabkan lipatan logam pada
on the surface of the forging, usually when permukaan benda tempa, terjadi karena logam
some of the forging metal is squezeed out terjepit antara cetakan bagian atas dan bawah
between the two dies that do not match. yang tidak lurus.
Forging laps can also be caused by poor Lipatan tempa dapat juga disebabkan disain
die design. As the metal is pressed into the cetakan yang keliru. Saat logam ditekan di
cavity in this die, the metal is forced up at dalam rongga cetakan, logam dipaksa meme-
the bottom of the die and tends to fold over nuhi cetakan dan cenderung terlipat ke arahnya
on itself, forming the forging lap shown on sendiri membentuk lipatan tempa seperti dalam
the right. gambar kanan bawah.
For production testing of forgings, POSTEMUL- Untuk pengujian produksi benda-benda tempa,
SIFIABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT is the POSTEMULSIFIABLE FLUORESCENT PENE-
recommended penetrant technique to obtain TRANT merupakan teknik yang direkomendasikan
the best sensitivity. untuk memperoleh sensitivitas terbaik.

GRINDING CRACK are a processing-type RETAK GERINDA adalah diskontinuitas proses,
discontinuity caused by stresses which are built disebabkan karena tegangan yang terjadi akibat
up from excess heat created between grinding panas berlebih yang ditimbulkan antara mata
wheel and metal. gerinda dan logam.
Grinding cracks will usually occur at right angle Retak gerinda biasanya akan terjadi pada arah
to the rotation of the grinding wheel. tegak lurus terhadap arah putar mata gerinda.
HEAT TREAT CRACKS are often caused by the RETAK LAKU PANAS seringkali disebabkan tega-
stresses built up during heating and cooling. ngan yang terjadi selama pemanasan dan pendi-
Unequal cooling between light and heavy nginan. Laju pendinginan yang tidak sama antara
sections may cause heat treat cracks. bagian ringan dan berat bisa menyebabkan retak.
Heat treat cracks have no specific direction Retak laku panas tidak mempunyai arah
and usually start at sharp corners which act tertentu, dan biasanya bermula dari pojok-pojok
as stress concentration points. tajam yang bertindak sebagai titik konsentrasi
tegangan.
During inspection of heat treated parts, the first Selama pemeriksaan komponen yang dilaku
areas of concern will be: panas, tempat pertama yang menjadi perhatian:
• Any sharp area, such as corner, ridges, • Daerah tajam seperti pojok-pojok,
etc. permukaan kasar, takik, dll.
• Junction of light and heavy sections. • Pertemuan antara bagian ringan dan berat.
The photo below shows a part that has cracked Foto di bawah ini memperlihatkan komponen yang
from heat treatment. Notice that the crack cuts retak akibat perlakuan panas. Perhatikan bahwa
across the grain. Since heat treatment cracks retak tersebut melintang terhadap butiran logam.
have no specific direction, the crack might just Karena retak laku panas tidak memiliki arah ter-
as well have followed the grain. tentu, arahnya bisa juga mengikuti butiran logam.

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES below are types DISKONTINUITAS PENGELASAN dibawah ini
of processing discontinuities. termasuk ke dalam diskontinuitas proses.
Crater cracks Retak kawah
Stress cracks Retak tegang
Porosity Porositas
Slag Inclusion Inklusi Slag

Tungsten Inclusion Inklusi Tungsten
Lack of Penetration Kurang Penembusan
Lack of Fusion Kurang Peleburan
Undercut Undercut

SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS SERVIS
FATIGUE CRACKS are service-type disconti- RETAK FATIK merupakan diskontinuitas servis
nuities that are usually open to the surface yang biasanya membuka ke permukaan dimana
where they start from concentration points. mulainya dari titik-titik konsentrasi tegangan.
Fatigue cracks occur crosswise to the Arah perambatan retak fatik melintang terhadap
direction of strees movement. The stress on arah tegangan. Arah tegangan yang bekerja
the driven shaft below would have been pada poros penggerak di bawah ini searah
clockwise – the direction of its rotation. The jarum jam – yaitu arah putaran poros. Retak
fatigue crack occured across the direction of fatik yang timbul arahnya melintang terhadap
stress movement. arah tegangan.
Fatigue cracks are possible only after the Retak fatik hanya mungkin timbul setelah
part is placed into service, but may be the komponen menjalankan fungsinya, dan bisa
result of porosity, inclusions, or other disebabkan karena porositas, inklusi, atau
discontinuities in a highly stressed metal diskontinuitas lain pada bagian logam yang
part. konsentrasi tegangannya tinggi.


CHAPTER SIX
REVIEW
_______ 1. The general category of processing discontinuities relates to discontinuities
caused during manufacturing processes such as welding, extruding, and
heat treating.
_______ 2. During the steel-making process the top of the ingot is usually removed to
help eliminate such discontinuities as pipe, porosity and nonmetallic
inclusions.
_______ 3. When a billet is rolled into bar stock, a nonmetallic inclusion could be
formed into a longer and thinner discontinuity called a stringer.
_______ 4. Porosity in a billet could cause a lamination if the metal were formed into a
flat plate.
_______ 5. Seams are usually subsurface discontinuities caused by improper rolling of

a billet into round stock.
_______ 6. During the rolling of a billet into round bar stock, the grain in the metal forms
perpendicular to the direction of rolling.
_______ 7. In the forging operation, underheated metal will not allow the metal to flow
properly and may cause "forging seams".
_______ 8. Forging bursts are considered subsurface discontinuities and can never be
inspected with liquid penetrant techniques.
_______ 9. Cold shuts are common discontinuities found in the forging process and are
caused by inadequate heating of the forged part.
_______ 10. Blow holes are subsurface discontinuities commonly found in cast parts.
_______ 11. Because cold metal occupies more space than hot metal, there is the
danger of "hot tears" during the casting process.
_______ 12. Porosity is often caused by entrapped gas that is expanded during the
heating and pressing in the forging process.
_______ 13. Microshrinkage is often found at the gate of a casting and is usually
subsurface.
_______ 14. Grinding cracks are usually at right angles to the direction of grinding and
are caused by the heat build-up between the grinding wheel and metal.
_______ 15. Heat treat cracks are often associated with stress concentration points on
the part being heat treated.
_______ 16. Porosity may lead to a fatigue crack in a highly stressed part.
_______ 17. Crater cracks and tungsten inclusions are both associated with
discontinuities formed during the welding process.
_______ 18. Lack of penetration and lack of fusion both refer to the same type of
welding discontinuity.

CHAPTER SEVEN
It should be emphasized that liquid penetrant Perlu ditekankan bahwa pemeriksaan cairan pene-
inspection is NOT the best method in all cases. tran BUKAN metoda terbaik untuk semua kasus.
The selection of one testing method over Pemilihan satu metoda pengujian atas metoda
another is based upon variables such as: lainnya didasarkan pada variabel-variabel seperti:
1. Type and origin of discontinuity. 1. Jenis dan asal diskontinuitas.
2. Material manufacturing process. 2. Proses pembuatan material.
3. Accessibility of article. 3. Akses ke artikel.
4. Level of acceptability desired. 4. Tingkat keberterimaan yang diinginkan.
5. Equipment available. 5. Ketersediaan peralatan.
6. Cost. 6. Biaya.
IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF PENGENALAN DAN PEMBANDINGAN

DISCONTINUITIES DISKONTINUITAS
Each of the specific discontinuities below are Tiap jenis diskontinuitas di bawah ini dibagi
divided into three general categories: menjadi tiga katagori umum: BAWAAN, PROSES,
INHERENT, PROCESSING, and SERVICE. dan SERVIS.
Cold shut Cold shut
Fillet crack Retak fillet
Grinding crack Retak gerinda
Heat-affected zone cracking Retak daerah pengaruh panas
Heat-treat crack Retak laku panas
Shrinkage crack Retak susut
Thread crack Retak ulir
Hydrogen flake Hydrogen flake
Lack of penetration Kurang penembusan
Lamination Laminasi
Laps and seams Lipatan dan lapisan
Laps and seams Lipatan dan lapisan
Microshrinkage Susut mikro
Stress corrosion Korosi tegangan
Hot tears Sobek panas
Intergranular corrosion Korosi batas butir

TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION PELATIHAN DAN SERTIFIKASI
It is important that the technician and super- Adalah penting bahwa teknisi dan pengawas
visor be qualified in the liquid penetrant method dikualifikasi untuk metoda cairan penetran sebe-
before the technique is used and test results lum menggunakan teknik ini dan mengevaluasi
evaluated. hasil uji.
The American Society for Nondestructive ASNT merekomendasikan penggunaan dokumen
Testing recommends the use of its document Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
This document provides the employer with Dokumen tersebut memberikan pedoman bagi
necessary guidelines to properly qualify and perusahaan dalam mengkualifikasi dan menser-
certify the NDT technician in all methods. tifikasi teknisi NDT untuk semua metoda.
To comply with this document, the employer Dalam rangka mengikuti dokumen tersebut,
must establish a WRITTEN PRACTICE which perusahaan harus menyusun sebuah WRITTEN
describes in detail how the technician will be PRACTICE yang menjelaskan secara detil, cara
trained, examined, and certified. melatih, menguji dan mensertifiksi teknisi NDT.
The student is advised to study the 2006 Peserta disarankan untuk mempelajari dokumen
Edition of SNT-TC-1A to determine the SNT-TC-1A edisi 2006 untuk mengetahui jumlah
recommended number of hours of class- jam pelajaran yang direkomendasikan dan
room instruction and months of experience pengalaman (dalam bulan) yang diperlukan
necessary to be certified as a liquid dalam proses sertifikasi sebagai teknisi
penetrant testing technician. pengujian cairan penetrant.
Certification of NDT personnel is the responsi- Sertifikasi personil NDT merupakan tanggung
bility of the employer and is usually at THREE jawab perusahaan dan biasanya dibagi menjadi
levels. TIGA level.
Level I – is qualified to properly perform Level I – memiliki kualifikasi untuk melakukan
speci-fic calibrations, specific NDT, kalibrasi, NDT, dan evaluasi tertentu
and specific evaluations for untuk menentukan penerimaan atau
acceptance or rejection penolakan dengan mengacu pada
determinations according to written pedoman tertulis, dan untuk merekam
instructions and to record results. hasil. Menerima perintah dan
Should receive the necessary pengawasan seperlunya dari NDT level II
instruction and supervision from a atau III.
certified NDT Level II or III individual.
Level II – is qualified to set up and calibrate Level II – memiliki kualifikasi untuk mengatur dan
equipment and to interpret and mengkalibrasi peralatan dan mengiter-
evaluate results with respect to pretasi serta mengevaluasi hasil dengan
applicable codes, standards, and mengacu pada code, standard, dan
specifications. Should be thoroughly spesifikasi. Mengenal dengan baik
familiar with the scope and limi- lingkup dan batasan metoda dimana ia
tations of the methods for which terkualifikasi. Melakukan tanggung
qualified. Should exercise assigned jawab yang dibebankan untuk memberi-
responsibility for on-the-job training kan petunjuk kepada siswa dan NDT
and guidance of trainees and NDT Level I. Mampu mengorganisir dan
Level I personnel. Should be able to membuat laporan hasil pengujian NDT.
organize and report the results of
NDT tests.

Level III – Should be capable of developing, Level III – mampu mengembangkan, mengkualifi-
qualifying, and approving proce- kasi, dan menyetujui prosedur, menyu-
dures, establishing and approving sun dan menyetujui teknik, menginter-
techniques, interpreting codes, stan- pretasi code, standard, dan prosedur;
dards, specifications, and proce- dan menunjuk metoda NDT tertentu,
dures; and designating the particular teknik, dan prosedur yang akan diguna-
NDT methods, techniques, and kan. Mampu menginterpretasi dan
procedures to be used. Should be mengevaluasi hasil sesuai code,
capable of interpreting and eva- standard, dan spesifikasi yang ada.
luating results in terms of existing Memiliki latar belakang kemampuan
codes, standards, and specifica- praktis yang mencukupi dalam aplikasi
tions. Should have sufficient practical material, fabrikasi, dan teknologi
background in applicable materials, produksi yang berlaku untuk menyusun
fabrication, and product technology teknik dan untuk membantu dalam
to establish techniques and to assist menetapkan kriteria penerimaan dimana
in establishing acceptance criteria tidak tercakup dalam code, standard,
when none are otherwise available. atau spesifikasi yang ada. Memiliki
Should have general familiarity with pengetahuan tentang semua metoda
other appropriate NDT methods. NDT. Mampu mengadakan pelatihan
Should be capable of training and dan pengujian terhadap personil NDT
examining NDT Level I and II Level I dan II untuk disertifikasi pada
personnel for certification in those metode NDT tertentu.
methods.
The SNT-TC-1A document recommends that Dokumen nomer SNT-TC-1A merekomendasikan

the level I and II NDT technician be examined in bahwa teknisi NDT Level I dan II diuji dalam bidang
the following areas: berikut:
A. General examination. A. Ujian General.
B. Specific examination. B. Ujian Specific.
C. Practical examination. C. Ujian Practical.
ASNT provides a service to the industry by ASNT menyediakan layanan kepada industri
providing Level III examination in the basic and dengan mengadakan ujian Level III dalam bidang
method areas. Because of the individual basic dan method. Mengingat banyaknya persya-
requirements of the many industries using NDT, ratan industri pengguna NDT yang berbeda-beda,
the specific examination is still the responsibility ujian specific masih merupakan tanggung jawab
of the employer. perusahaan.

CHAPTER SEVEN
REVIEW
_______ 1. The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the
Level I technician performing the test.
_______ 2. ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, II, and III personnel in the
General and Specific areas.
_______ 3. The responsibility of issuing a certificate to the NDT technician is always

given to the employer if the SNT-TC-1A document is to be complied with.
_______ 4. If the SNT-TC-1A document is to be used as a recommended guideline,

the Written Practice must be submitted to ASNT for approval.
_______ 5. If the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are to be followed, the Level III technician
should have a knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT
eventhough certification is needed only in the liquid penetrant area.
_______ 6. A Level I technician performing a liquid penetrant test is permitted to

accept or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are
given to him by a level II or level III certified individual.
_______ 7. It is essential that every employer using the SNT-TC-1A document establish
a Written Practice.
_______ 8. If an employer does not have a Level III technician in his company, he can
retain the services of an outside agency to perform these functions.
_______ 9. To comply with the guidelines of SNT-TC-1A, all three levels of technicians
must take a General, Practical, and Specific test if examinations are used to
determine certification.

CHAPTER EIGHT
This chapter discusses test procedure for liquid Bab ini mendiskusikan prosedur pengujian untuk
penetrant test. cairan penetrant.
CONTROLLING LIQUID PENETRANT TESTS PENGENDALIAN UJI CAIRAN PENETRAN
The three types of written documents that Tiga jenis dokumen tertulis untuk mengendalikan
control penetrant tests are standards, pengujian penetrant adalah standard, spesifikasi,
specifications, and written practices. Level II dan written practice. Personil level II disyaratkan
personnel are required to be able to interpret agar mampu menginterpretasi dan menyiapkan
and prepare these documents. dokumen-dokumen tersebut.
STANDARDS STANDARD
A standard is a reference document that Standard adalah dokumen referensi yang mengen-
controls and standardizes generally accepted dalikan dan menstandardkan kebiasaan yang
practices for a nondestructive testing method. It umum diterima untuk melakukan metoda NDT.
defines criteria for equipment, penetrant Standard mendefinisikan kriteria peralatan, material
materials, inspector qualifications, test require- penetran, kualifikasi inspektor, persyaratan uji, dan
ments, and written procedure requirements. persyaratan prosedur tertulis. ASTM E 165,
ASTM E 165, Standard Test Method for Liquid Standard Test Method for Liquid Penetrant
Penetrant Examination are examples of Examination merupakan contoh standard.
standards.
Many standards require that penetrant tests be Banyak standard mensyaratkan agar pengujian
performed to written procedures. Quality and penetran dilakukan dengan mengacu pada prose-
reliability can be affected if proper test dur tertulis. Kualitas dan keandalan dapat
techniques and procedures are not followed. In terpengaruh jika teknik dan prosedur yang benar
addition, written procedures establish test tidak diikuti. Lagi pula, prosedur tertulis menjamin
repeatability. dilakukannya pengujian berulang-ulang.
SPECIFICATIONS SPESIFIKASI
A specification is written by a company for a Spesifikasi dibuat oleh perusahaan untuk proses
specific process. The specification is a tool tertentu. Spesifikasi adalah alat yang digunakan
used by engineering, management, and oleh bagian teknik, manajemen, dan pembelian
purchasing for contractual documents. untuk keperluan dokumen kontrak. Biasanya,
Normally, the specification will contain the spesifikasi akan mencantumkan bagian-bagian
following sections: berikut ini:
1. Reference documents, 1. Dokumen referensi,
2. Materials, 2. Material,
3. Equipment, 3. Perlengkapan,
4. Personnel qualification, 4. Kualifikasi personil,
5. Process control, and 5. Pengendalian proses, dan
6. Written procedure requirements. 6. Persyaratan prosedur tertulis.
A sample specification is contained in the last Contoh spesifikasi dapat dilihat di bagian akhir bab
part of this chapter. ini.

1. Reference Documents Section 1. Bagian Dokumen Referensi
All the documents that are applicable to the Semua dokumen yang berlaku untuk membuat
penetrant specification are listed in the spesifikasi penetran dimasukkan dalam daftar
reference document section of the proce- di bagian dokumen referensi dari prosedur
dure. For example, the company may tersebut. Contohnya, perusahaan mensya-
require that all penetrant practices meet the ratkan bahwa semua pekerjaan penetran harus
requirements of ASTM E 165, Standard Test memenuhi ketentuan ASTM E 165, Standard
Method for Liquid Penetrant Examination, so Test Method for Liquid Penetrant Examination,
this standard would be listed as a source or sehingga standard ini akan dimasukkan dalam
reference document. daftar sebagai sumber atau dokumen referensi.
2. Materials Section 2. Bagian Material
The materials section establishes the Bagian material menetapkan material penetran
penetrant materials that can be used to yang dapat dipakai untuk menjalankan
perform the procedure. It may include the prosedur. Bagian ini menyebutkan jenis, teknik,
type, technique, and sensitivity level of the dan tingkat sensitivitas penetrant. Developer
penetrant. Acceptable developers are also yang diijinkan untuk dipakai juga disebutkan di
included in this section, and any special dalam bagian ini, disamping itu jenis material
cleaning materials may be noted. pembersih khusus juga bisa dimasukkan.
3. Equipment Section 3. Bagian Peralatan
The equipment required to apply, remove, Peralatan yang disyaratkan pemakaiannya,
dry, develop, and test the part is listed in this untuk membersihkan, mengeringkan, mende-
section. Any special equipment require- velop, dan menguji komponen dimasukkan da-
ments will also be noted. lam daftar di bagian ini, termasuk persyaratan
untuk peralatan khusus jika ada.
4. Personnel Qualification Section 4. Bagian Kualifikasi Personil
The personnel qualification section is nor- Bagian kualifikasi personil biasanya mengacu
mally written to an established industry pada dokumen yang sudah ada seperti
document such as Recommended Practice Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A atau
No. SNT-TC-1A or CP-189. CP-189.
5. Process Control Section 5. Bagian Pengendalian Proses
The process control section specifies any Bagian pengendalian proses menetapkan jenis
tests that must be performed on the pengujian yang harus dilakukan pada material
materials and the acceptable criteria for that penetran dan kriteria keberterimaan untuk
test. In addition, this section contains any pengujian tersebut. Bagian ini juga menyebut-
special requirements to be used, such as kan persyaratan khusus yang dipakai seperti
acceptable precleaning techniques or teknik pembersihan awal yang diijinkan atau
specific developers. jenis developer khusus.
6. Written Procedure 6. Prosedur Tertulis
A prime contractor may establish the written Kontraktor utama dapat membuat prosedur
procedure for a part or have the subcon- tertulis untuk suatu komponen atau meminta
tractor submit a written procedure for subkontraktor mengajukan prosedur tertulis
approval. In either case, a written procedure untuk dimintakan persetujuan. Pada kedua
is needed to perform a liquid penetrant test kasus tersebut, prosedur tertulis diperlukan agar
effectively. pelaksanaan pengujian penetran berjalan
efektip.

WRITTEN PRACTICE WRITTEN PRACTICE
Written practices provide specific guidance on Written practice memberikan pedoman khusus
the performance of the penetrant test. The terhadap pelaksanaan pengujian penetran. Detil
depth or detail contained in a written practice yang tercantum dalam suatu written practice
will vary. adalah bervariasi.
Some written practices are very specific and Beberapa written practice bisa sangat khusus dan
are written for one kind of test object, whereas ditulis untuk satu macam benda uji, sebaliknya
others are general and cover many different yang lain bersifat umum dan mencakup banyak
parts. Often, company will require a benda uji yang berbeda. Seringkali, perusahaan
subcontractor to provide written practice for a mensyaratkan subkontraktor menyediakan written
specific part. In this case, the written practice practice untuk satu bagian khusus. Dalam hal ini
will be written to the company’s specification written practice akan ditulis mengacu pada
document. dokumen spesifikasi dari perusahaan tersebut.
A written practice should contain, at the Sebuah written practice sebaiknya memuat, paling
minimum, the following: tidak, hal-hal berikut ini:
1. Penetrant materials to be used, 1. Material penetran yang dipakai,
2. Details of precleaning the part, 2. Detil pembersihan awal benda uji,
3. Complete processing parameters, 3. Parameter pemrosesan secara lengkap,
4. Inspection and evaluation requirements, 4. Persyaratan inspeksi dan evaluasi,
5. Specific information of part to be 5. Informasi khusus mengenai benda yang
inspected, diperiksa,
6. Acceptance/rejection criteria and 6. Kriteria keberterimaan dan penolakan dan
7. Postcleaning procedures. 7. Prosedur pembersihan akhir.
Many times, inspection personnel will find that Acapkali, personil pemeriksaan akan menemukan
testing documentation is a combination of the bahwa dokumentasi pengujian adalah kombinasi
specification and written practice. This is antara spesifikasi dan written practice. Hal ini sah-
acceptable and, in some cases, can be a more sah saja dan, pada beberapa kasus, dapat
cost effective way to control penetrant tests. menghemat biaya.
An example of a combined specification and Contoh dari kombinasi antara spesifikasi dan
written practice is the way one aircraft written practice adalah cara dimana sebuah pabrik
manufacturer combined the documents. The pesawat terbang meggabungkan dokumen.
combined document was placed in the general Dokumen gabungan diletakkan pada bagian
section of the aircraft maintenance manual. umum dari manual perawatan pesawat. Apabila
Whenever a part in other areas of the manual sebuah komponen di bagian lain dari manual
required a penetrant test, the inspector was tersebut mensyaratkan uji penetran, inspektor
referred to this document. This simplified the dapat mengacu pada dokumen ini. Hal tersebut
process and was more cost effective. menyederhanakan proses dan menghemat biaya.

SAMPLE SPECIFICATION – PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS
XYZ Manufacturing, Inc.

1.0. Penetrant Testing Process Specification
1.1. Scope – This specification establishes the minimum requirements for penetrant
inspection of nonporous materials. The penetrant inspection processes described in this
specification are applicable to inprocess and final inspections.
2.0. Reference Documents

2.1. The following documents, of the issue in effect on the date of invitation for bids or request
for proposal, forma part of this specification to the extent specified therein:
ANSI/NCSL — American National Standard for Calibration
Z540-1-1994
ASNT — Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA
ASTM D 95 — Method of Test for Water in Petroleum Products
ASTM D 2512 — Test Method for Compatibility of Materials with Liquid Oxygen
ASTM E 1316 — Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
ASTM E 1417 — Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination
MIL-I-25135 — Inspection Materials, Penetrant
QPL-SAE-AMS-2644-3 — Qualified Products List of Products Qualified under SAE
Aerospace Material Specification AMS 2644.
2.2. The referenced documents form a history of this specification to the extent specified
herein. Unless otherwise indicated, the issue in effect on the date of invitation for bids or
request for proposal shall apply.
3.0 Materials Section

3.1. Penetrant Materials
a. Use only materials listed or approved for listing by the Air Force in QPL-SAE-AMS-
2644-3 for penetrant inspection.
b. The manufacturer of penetrant materials shall furnish the purchaser with
recommended emulsifier dwell times, wet developer concentrations and mixing
instructions.
c. The manufacturer shall provide material safety data sheets for each product.
d. The system concept for penetrant materials shall be used for all penetrant
inspections.
4.0. Equipment Section

4.1. General — The penetrant equipment shall be constructed and arranged in a manner that
will:
a. minimize water, dust and other contamination to the inspection materials and parts,
b. permit uniform, controlled operations and provide safe and adequate ventilation for
the process and materials involved and
c. be suitable for the penetrant material in use.

4.2. Certification and calibration of equipment.
a. All gages, meters and measurement equipment shall be calibrated per ANSI/NCSL
Z540-1-1994.
b. Certify temperature and pressure instrumentation for the operating range to be used.
Minimum accuracy of temperature gages is ± 2.8°C (± 5°F). Minimum accuracy of
pressure gages is ± 35 kPa (± 5 psi).
c. SI units shall be used for measurement of ultraviolet light intensity.
d. Lux (lx) shall be used for measurement of visible light.
4.3. Removal Station.
a. The removal station shall be equipped with a water pressure gage, water
temperature gage and spray nozzles that produce a coarse spray that is cone
shaped or fan shaped.
b. Maximum water pressure allowed is 276 kPa (40 psi).
c. Water temperature shall be between 10 and 38°C (50 and 100°F).
d. Ultraviolet light intensity at the rinse station shall be 1000 μW/cm2 and a maximum of
100 lx of ambient white light at the parts surface.
4.4. Developer Station.
a. Dry developer stations shall be equipped with a system to inject dry air into the
chamber and disperse the particles.
b. Aqueous suspendible developers shall be equipped with a system to keep the
developer agitated and maintain the developer materials in suspension.
4.5. Dryer Station
a. Dryers shall be equipped with a temperature control and a monitoring device.
b. Thermostatic controlling devices shall be calibrated per 4.2.
c. Dryer temperatures shall not exceed 72°C (160°F) in the area of the component.
Recommended dryer temperature is 49°C (120°F).
4.6. Inspection Station
a. The area shall be kept clean and free of contaminating products and clutter.
b. Ultraviolet lights used in the inspection station shall have a minimum intensity of 1000
μW/cm2 at the working surface of the part being inspected.
c. Ambient light in the inspection station during fluorescent penetrant inspection shall
not exceed 20 lx.
d. White light used in the inspection station for interpretation and evaluation of visible
penetrant indications shall have a minimum intensity of 1000 lx.
e. Inspection stations should be equipped with ventilation systems.
4.7. Portable Kits
a. Ultraviolet lights used in portable kits shall have a minimum intensity of 1000 μW/cm2
at the working surface of the part being inspected.
b. Portable kits shall maintain the system concept for penetrants and developers.

5.0. Personnel Qualification Section
5.1. The training, qualification and certification of personnel performing penetrant operations
and inspections for acceptance/rejection shall be in accordance with ASNT
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
6.0. Process Control Section

6.1. Quality Checks
a. The following tests of penetrant materials used in open tanks shall be made, in
accordance with AMS 2644, on a monthly basis:
1) penetrant intensity,
2) sensitivity,
3) water content (Method A only),
4) lipophilic emulsifier water content and
5) hydrophilic remover concentration.
b. Dry developers shall be checked daily for caking and penetrant contamination.
c. Wet developers shall be checked daily for penetrant contamination and wetting ability
and weekly for concentration.
d. Ultraviolet light intensities shall be checked at the beginning of each shift and after
bulb replacement.
e. Ambient light intensities shall be checked weekly.
f. White light inspection intensities shall be checked at the beginning of each shift and
after bulb replacement.
g. System performance checks shall be made daily.
6.2. Process Limitations
a. Do not use form a or b developers with Type II penetrant systems.
b. Do not use Type II penetrants for final acceptance inspection of aerospace
components except as specified on engineering drawings.
c. The use of developer is required for all inservice inspections.
d. When inspecting oxygen lines or tanks, penetrant materials should be tested for
impact sensitivity before use per ASTM D 2512.
e. Final inspection of components shall not be performed until all operations that could
expose or produce surface discontinuities have been performed.
6.3. Sequence of Operations for Penetrant Inspection
a. Penetrant inspection operations shall follow established and approved sequences.
b. Normal inspection sequence shall be:
1) precleaning,
2) penetrant application and dwell,
3) penetrant removal/wash,
4) dry and developer application depending on type developer used,

5) developer dwell,
6) inspection and
7) postcleaning and protection.
6.4. Precleaning of Components
a. Clean all components to be penetrant tested in accordance with applicable process
specifications.
b. Surfaces shall be free of any rust, scale, welding flux, burrs, feather edges, smeared
material, spatter, grease, paint, carbon, plating, engine varnish, oily film, dirt and
other contaminants that would mask discontinuities or produce nonrelevant
indications.
c. Surfaces shall be cleaned by solvent or chemical means. Mechanical cleaning shall
only be accomplished by abrasive blasting if the surface of the metal is not peened
by the process and surface discontinuities sealed.
d. Etching of components shall only be accomplished per approved engineering data.
e. Components shall be thoroughly rinsed and dried after solvent, chemical or
mechanical cleaning.
6.5. Penetrant Selection and Application
a. Unless indicated on engineering drawings, the following penetrants and sensitivities
will be used for the components indicated in Table 1.
b. Method B or Method D will be used on aluminum alloys.
c. Temperature of the component, penetrant and ambient air shall be between 10 and
43°C (50 and 110°F) for penetrant application. Components shall not be preheated
above the maximum temperature range.
d. Application of penetrant shall be applied by dipping, spraying, brushing, pouring or
flowing.
e. Parts shall not remain immersed in penetrant during penetrant dwell time. Parts shall
be rotated if necessary to avoid pooling of the penetrant. The penetrant on the
surface of the component will not be allowed to dry.
6.6. Penetrant Dwell Time
a. Unless indicated on engineering drawings, the minimum penetrant dwell time shall
be 15 min for discontinuities other than intergranular corrosion.
b. Minimum penetrant dwell time for intergranular corrosion shall be 1 h.
6.7. Penetrant Removal
a. General — Keep washing of components to a minimum. Components suspected of
being overwashed shall be reprocessed. A small amount of background is
acceptable. Type I penetrants shall be removed under ultraviolet light.
b. Method A, Water Washable Penetrant
1) A manual or automatic spray wash may be used.
2) Removal shall be as specified in 6.7f.
c. Method B, Postemulsifier, Lipophilic Penetrant
1) Emulsifier will be applied by dipping, pouring or flowing onto the component.
Brushing or spraying shall not be used.

2) Emulsifier dwell time shall be the minimum time required to render the penetrant
water washable. Minimum time will be determined by experimentation on a test
component.
Table 1. Penetrant selection
Sensitivity
Type Material/Component
Level
I 1 Castings, other than precision.
All materials not otherwise covered by

I 2
this table.
I 3 Aluminum alloys.
Method C for suspected localized damage

I 3
or rework.
Ground handling or support equipment

II N/A
and tooling.
3) Maximum dwell time is 3 min for Type I penetrants and 30 s for Type H
penetrants.
4) Emulsifier action shall be stopped by water immersion or quick water spray of
the entire component.
5) Rinse of the component shall be performed as specified in 6.7f.
d. Method C, Solvent Removal
1) Type I and II penetrants shall be removed by first using a clean, dry, lint free
cloth or towel to remove excess penetrant. The remaining background penetrant
shall be removed, under appropriate lighting, by wiping with a clean, lint free
cloth or towel dampened with solvent. Repeat until all excess penetrant is
removed.
2) In no manner will penetrant be removed by spraying or flushing the surface of
the component with solvent.
e. Method D, Postemulsifier,
Hydrophilic Penetrant
1) Prerinse the component with a water spray for the time necessary to remove the
bulk of the excess penetrant. Water spray shall be in accordance with 6.7f.
Maximum prerinse time is 90 s for any one area.
2) Hydrophilic remover may be applied by immersion, flowing or spraying. If a
spray rinse is used, do not exceed recommended limits for remover
concentration. Spray rinse parameters are in 6.7f.
3) Remover dwell time will be determined by experimenting on test components.
The dwell time will be the minimum time necessary to produce an acceptable
background. Dwell time will not exceed 2 min.
4) Final rinse will be performed as specified in 6.7f.

f. Rinsing
1) Removal stations shall conform to 4.3.
2) Hydro air nozzles are permitted only with Type I, level 1 sensitivity penetrants.
Maximum air pressure is 172 kPa (25 psi).
3) Rinse spray will be a coarse spray that is cone shaped or fan shaped. Spray
nozzles will held about 30 cm (12 in.) from the part.
4) Rinse water contaminants that may leave residue on the component after drying
are not acceptable. Filtering of water may be required.
g. Drying
1) Dry stations will conform to 4.5.
2) Components shall be removed from the dryer as soon as the surface is dry.
3) Maximum drying time, for circulating air dryers shall not exceed 30 min. Parts left
in dryers for longer than 30 min shall be reprocessed.
4) Maximum drying time for room temperature drying is 1 h.
5) If required, parts will be rotated to avoid pooling of liquid during drying.
6) Components with thin cross sections shall not be mixed with components with
thicker sections.
h. Developing
1) Components will be completely dried before application of dry or nonaqueous
developer.
2) Developer dwell times will be half of the penetrant dwell time, but not less than
10 min for final inspection. Developer dwell time begins when developer is on
the part and dry.
3) Dry developers may be applied by dipping, dusting or fogging. Excess dry
developer may be removed by gently tapping component.
4) Aqueous soluble and suspendible developers may be applied by dipping,
flowing and spraying. Brushing on is not acceptable. Dry parts immediately after
excess developer has drained from the component.
5) Nonaqueous developers are applied by spraying. Containers shall be shaken or
agitated sufficiently. Developer will be sprayed onto the component in a manner
to produce a light uniform coating.
i. Inspection/Evaluation
1) Inspection of components may begin and it is recommended, as soon as
developer is dry. However, final inspection of the component shall not be made
until the developer dwell time has elapsed.
2) Inspection of components shall be accomplished in the proper and appropriate
lighting conditions as specified in 4.6.
3) Inspectors working in darkened conditions shall allow at least 5 min for dark
conditioning to occur before inspection components.
4) Inspect components completely. Magnifiers may be used to interpret or evaluate
indications.

5) Perform interpretation and evaluation of indications to determine if components
meet specification requirements per engineering data.
6) Removal of an indication and application of nonaqueous developer is permitted
only once.
7) Acceptance and rejection criteria per engineering data will be provided for each
component inspected and included in the written procedure.
j. Postcleaning
1) Components will be postcleaned by either water wash or solvent to remove all
penetrant materials.
2) Mild scrubbing may be used to remove wet developers.
3) Components will be dried after cleaning and protected as needed.
7.0. Written Procedure Requirement

7.1. Written procedures for components shall be in writing and approved by a Level III certified
per 5.1 in penetrant testing.
7.2. Perform penetrant inspections according to a written procedure that meets the
requirements of this specification. A general written practice for similar components is
acceptable. All written procedures will contain at least the following information:
a. precleaning operations should include the materials and procedures to be used;
b. the type, technique and sensitivity of penetrant materials to be used;
c. detailed procedures on the application and dwell time of penetrants, the removal of
the penetrant, drying parameters, developer and application technique, developer
dwell time, inspection and evaluation requirements and postcleaning of components;
d. inspection and evaluation criteria will include areas of high interest on each
component and acceptable and rejectable criteria based on engineering data.
Allowable limits of mechanical evaluation should be included;
e. postcleaning operations should include the materials and procedures to be used;
and
f. documentation requirements for each inspection.

CHAPTER EIGHT
REVIEW
_______ 1. For penetrant testing, the process specification establishes:
a. a minimum degree requirement.
b. an average degree requirement.
c. a maximum degree requirement.
d. an engineering specific degree requirement.
_______ 2. When are inservice quality test on penetrant materials in open tanks required?
a. Quality tests are not required; they are recommended periodically according to
need.
b. Whenever a complete changeover of materials is accomplished.
c. Whenever requested in writing by the Quality Assurance Auditor.
d. At least monthly.
_______ 3. In order to enhance the sensitivity of the process, which of the following may be
done before application of the penetrant?
a. The penetrant may be preheated to 66 °C (150 °F).
b. The parts may be preheated between 66 and 107 °C (150 and 225 °F).
c. A more sensitive penetrant may be mixed with contaminated penetrant.
d. Fluorescent penetrant can be charged by exposure to intense ultraviolet light.
e. None of the above procedures are permitted.
_______ 4. Which reference document covers the calibration of equipment?

a. ANSI/NCSL Z540-1-1994.
b. SNT-TC-lA.
c. ASTM E 1316.
d. QPL-SAE-AMS-2644-3.
_______ 5. Allowable penetrant materials are restricted to those in:

a. ANSI/NCSL Z540-1-1994.
b. ASTM E 1316.
c. ASTM E 1417.
d. QPL-SAE-AMS-2644-3.
_______ 6. The minimum accuracy of a temperature gage is:

a. ± 5 °F (± 2.8 °C).
b. ± 10 T(±5.6 -C).
c. ± 15 -F(±18.3 -C).
d. Calibration is not required.
_______ 7. Material safety data sheets are provided by the:

a. prime contractor.
b. subcontractor.
c. penetrant manufacturer.
d. Federal government.
_______ 8. For small parts, a dryer is required when:

a. aqueous wet developer is used.
b. nonaqueous developer is used.
c. dry developer is used.
d. all of the above are used.
e. only a and c are used.

_______ 9. One component requiring penetrant testing is suspected of having stress
corrosion cracking. According to the specification, the penetrant dwell time
required is:
a. 10 min.
b. 30 min.
c. 1 h.
d. 2 h.
_______ 10. According to the specification, which of the following reference documents
is used for qualification of testing personnel?
a. ATA Specification 105.
b. SNT-TC-1A.
c. MIL-STD-410E.
d. ISO 9712.
_______ 11. Your company has entered into a contract to produce components for XYZ
Manufacturing. A requirement of the contract is to use this specification for
penetrant testing of the components. The date of the contract is January 1,
1996; components were not produced and tested until June 1996. The
Specification was originally approved for use in January 1980. It was
superseded and revised in May 1985 as the B Revision, again in April 1992
as the C Revision and also in August 1996 as the D Revision. Which revision
is in effect for the purpose of your company's contractual requirement?
a. The original January 1980 version.
b. Revision B.
c. Revision C.
d. Revision D.
e. Any of the above, according to your preference.
_______ 12. Emulsifier dwell time shall be:

a. as recommended by the penetrant material manufacturer.
b. as specified in Table 1 of the Specification.
c. determined experimentally on each part.
d. controlled by use of a stopwatch.
_______ 13. According to the specification, specifying acceptance criteria is the

responsibility of:
a. the Level III.
b. Quality assurance personnel.
c. engineering personnel.
d. the Federal government.
_______ 14. According to the specification, Type II penetrant can be used with:
a. Form a developer.
b. Form b developer.
c. Form c developer.
d. both a and b above.
e. both b and c above.
_______ 15. According to the specification, Type II penetrants can be used for final acceptance
inspection of aerospace components.
a. True
b. False

_______ 16. The system concept for penetrant materials is required for:
a. water washable penetrants.
b. postemulsifier penetrants.
c. solvent removed penetrants.
d. all penetrants.
e. The system concept does not have to be used.
_______ 17. According to the specification, etching of components shall be

accomplished:
a. per engineering data.
b. according to MIL-STD-6869.
c. according to the Level III.
d. Etching of parts is not permitted.
_______ 18. The maximum lipophilic emulsifier dwell time for Type I penetrants is:
a. 30 s.
b. 1 min.
c. 2 min.
d. 3 min.
These last two questions are not related to the sample specification.
_______ 19. What is a common industrial technique of implementing a penetrant test

requirement?
a. Use an established written standard.
b. Use a process specification.
c. Use a written practice.
d. None of the above.
_______ 20. A subcontractor for a manufacturer would normally perform penetrant test
to:
a. A process specification.
b. An established standard.
c. A written practice.
d. None of the above.

REFERENCES
ASNT, NDT Training Program – Liquid Penetrant Method, Columbus, 2nd Edition, 1979.
Badger, Duane, Liquid Penetrant Testing – Classroom Training Book, ASNT, Columbus, 2005.
Eick, Charles W., ASNT Level III Study Guide – Liquid Penetrant Testing Method, ASNT, Columbus, 2nd
Edition, 2003.
Smilie, Robert W., Classroom Training Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Liquid Penetrant, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1998.
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Introduction, PH
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing – Liquid Penetrant, PH

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The Nature of Discontinuity 8

Commercially Available Liquid Penetrant Materials 11

Chapter One Review 15

Rust and Scale Remover 18

Stationary Penetrant Test Equipment 20

Portable Penetrant Test Equipment 21

Black Light Equipment 22

Penetrant Testing Materials 24

Chapter Two Review 29

Penetration (Dwell) Time 31

Penetrant Testing Processes 33

Filtered Particle Technique 37

Fixing and Recording Indications 38

Chapter Three Review 39

Post-emulsifiable Penetrant (PE Penetrant) 40

Guidelines to Choose Developer 48

Chapter Four Review 49

Interpretation and Evaluation of Indications 50

Typical Indications in Penetrant Inspection 51

Depth Determination of Penetrant Discontinuities 56

Quality Control of Penetrant Process Variables 56

Aluminum Test Block 56

Ceramic Block Test 58

Water Content Test 58

Fluorescent Penetrant Fade Test 59

Water Washability Test 59

Chapter Five Review 61

The Origins of Discontinuities 63

Working the Billet 66

Chapter Six Review 75

Identification and Comparison of Discontinuities 76

Training and Certification 77

Chapter Seven Review 79

Controlling Liquid Penetrant Tests 80

Sample Specification – Penetrant Testing Process 83

Chapter Eight Review 90

Table 1.1. Basic liquid penetrant classification system.

_______ 3. Because of the capillary action of penetrants, this process of inspection

_______ 8. The first important step in penetrant testing is surface preparation.

Table 2.1. Mechanical cleaning processes.

Table 2.2. Chemical cleaning processes.

1. Liquid oxygen (LOX) compatible materials – must be used when articles

_______ 2. A good exhaust system is recommended when working with cleaning

_______ 11. Emulsifiers must have high penetrating characteristics to emulsify

_______ 14. Nonaqueous developer refers to a powder that is applied dry.

Table 3.1. Liquid penetrant application terminology.

Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants) Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

Table 3.3. Process selection guide.

FILTERED PARTICLE TECHNIQUE TEKNIK PARTIKEL TERSARING

_______ 5. Water-washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier that permits good

_______ 6. Solvent-removable penetrants are available in both visible and fluorescent

_______ 7. Excess post-emulsifiable penetrant is commonly removed by spraying the

_______ 9. Warming the specimen to temperatures up to about 20o C tends to

_________________________ 13. List four (4) of the commonly used methods of

POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE

Developing is accomplished when a highly Proses developing dilakukan dengan mengapli-

_______ 2. During the rinse cycle an emulsifier is added to a solvent-removable

_______ 3. Water washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier.

_______ 4. Post-emulsification penetrants are commonly available in both visible and

_______ 5. Post-emulsification penetrants usually require a two-step penetrant removal

_______ 7. Solvent-removable penetrants are commonly used because they will

_______ 8. An advantage of the solvent –removable penetrant is that the excess

_______ 14. A major advantage of a nonaqueous developer is that it can be applied to a