EVALUATION OF MICRO TUBE CONTINUOUS FLOW EMITTERS UNDER

BUCKET DRIP IRRIGATION WITH VARYING PRESSURE HEADS

BY

MUHAMMAD HALIDU YAHAYA

ENG/13/AGE/00117

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERINGBAYERO UNIVERSITY KANO

NIGERIA

NOVEMBER 2018
 EVALUATION OF MICRO TUBE CONTINUOUS FLOW EMITTERS UNDER
BUCKET DRIP IRRIGATION WITH VARYING
PRESSURE HEADS

BY

MUHAMMAD HALIDU YAHAYA

ENG/13/AGE/00117

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THEDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,BAYERO
UNIVERSITY KANO NIGERIA, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD
OFBACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR

DR.M.M.MAINA

NOVEMBER 2018

ii
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project title ‘Evaluation of micro tube continuous flow emitters under

bucket drip irrigation with varying pressure head’ at Bayero University Kano, Nigeria’ has been

performed by me in the Department of Agricultural and Environmental engineering under the

supervision of Dr.M.M.Maina and not been presented anywhere for the award of certificate .All

source have been duly acknowledged.

___________________________ ____________________

Muhammad Halidu Yahaya Date

iii
 DEDICATION

I dedicated this to my Beloved Mum Hajiya Nana, My Aunty Hajiya zainab, and entire members

of my family for their financial and moral support throughout the project may Allah Subhanahu

wata’ala reward them abundantly and grant them Jannatul Firdausi (Ameen)

iv
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project with the title “Evaluation of micro tube continuous flow

emitters under bucket drip irrigation with varying pressure head “was conducted by

MUHAMMAD HALIDU YAHAYA with the registration number ENG/13/AGE/00117 meets

the requirements and regulations governing the award of bachelor of engineering (Agricultural

and environmental engineering ) degree of Bayero university Kano.

_____________________ ____________________
Dr.M.M.Maina Date
(Project supervisor)

______________________ ______________________
Engr. M.D Zakari Date
(Project Coordinator)

________________________ ____________________
Dr. M.S.Abubakar Date
(Head of the Department)

_______________________ _____________________
Prof. M.k.Othm
(External Examiner) Date

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of ALLAH, the extremely merciful, the Bestowal of mercy. All praise is due to

ALLAH for his countless blessings, May his eternal peace and blessings be upon his messenger,

Muhammad S.A.W, his family and his companions until the day of judgment .I wish to express

my profound gratitude to my project supervisor, Dr.M.M.Maina who devoted his time, by

making useful and constructive correction, suggestion and given a dedicated guidance

throughout for this project to become reality. I sincerely acknowledge the support and

contributions of all the technicians of the department of soil and water laboratory especially for

his immense contribution and devotion he have made both morally and financially support for

this project to be a successful one. I sincerely acknowledge the support and contributions of

Engr. A.Shitu, Engr. M.I.T. Usman and all the teaching and non teaching staffs of the department

for their intellectual observations in the supervision of this project. My appreciation extend to my

beloved parents, Hajiya Nana, My Aunty Hajiya Zainab, for their endless prayers, and financial

support. My brothers, Engr. Abdulrahman, Engr.Ibrahim for their support and encouragement .

And not forgetting my late father, May his soul rest in perfect peace and May ALLAH grant him

jannatul firdaus (Ameen).I am indebted to my sisters, Fatima, Aisha, Hauwa, and my entire

family members for their contributions and endless prayers.I am indebted to Mallam Kamsusi,

for his contributions, may ALLAH reward all of you abundantly and I wish you all a successful

career in their entire live.

vi
 ABSTRACT

This work was conducted to evaluate the performance of micro tube (medical infusion set)

continuous flow emitters under Bucket Drip irrigation with varying pressure heads. This aims at

designing and evaluating the continuous flow bucket drip irrigation and comparing the

performance of the medical infusion set emitters with the varying pressure heads 1.5 m,1m,0.5m

heights. Parameters to evaluate drip irrigation system applications, Emitters flow rate variation

(qvar.),for 0.5m height, lateral one was (26.95) and lateral two was (35.03),for 1m height, lateral

one was (36.06) and lateral two was (36.06),for 1.5m height, lateral one was (34.53) and lateral

two was (41.95).The Uniformity coefficient (UC),for 0.5m height, lateral one was (91.74) and

lateral two was (87.59),for 1m height, lateral one was (88.65) and lateral two was (89.59),for

1.5m height, lateral one was (87.75) and lateral two was (85.44).Coefficient of variation(Cv),for

0.5m height, lateral one was (0.103) and lateral two was (0.150),for 1m height, lateral one was

(0.145) and lateral two was (0.124),for 1.5m height, lateral one was (0.145) and lateral two was

(0.177), and Coefficient of discharge(Cd),for 0.5m height,100% opening was (10.08), 80%

opening was ( 9.68), 60% opening was(5.99), 40% opening was (0.95),for 1m height, 100%

opening was (15.48), 80% opening was (13.98),60% opening was (11.08),40% opening

was(1.29), for 1.5 m height, 100% opening was (16.92), 80% opening was (15.93), 60% opening

was (13.77), 40% opening was (1.95).The result of the average discharge of the 0.5 m and 1m

pressure heads were compared using the t-test data analysis. It was observed that the calculated t-

value at one tail was (0.000803) and t-crit.was (2.131847), at two tail was, t-value was

(0.001605) and t-crit. Was(2.776445).The average discharge of the 1m and 1.5m pressure heads

were compared using the t-test data analyzed, it was observed that the calculated t- value at one

tail was (0.004819) and t-crit.was (2.131847), at two tail was, t-value was (0.009637) and t-

crit.was (2.776445),the t-value is less than t-crit.value at df = 4 for 5% and 1% level of

significance. Difference in discharge between the two different pressure heads is not significant.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents Page
TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………………………………ii
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................. iv
CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................................ v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………….......vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………..…viii
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………..xi
LIST OF FIGURE .......................................................................................................................................xiii
LIST OF PLATE...................................................................................................................................... xiiiiii
LIST OF APPENDICE………………………………………………………………………….xivi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem........................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Justification ................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Aims and Objectives .................................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Significants of the projects ........................................................................................................ 3
1.6 Scope and limitations................................................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review.................................................................................................................................... 5

2.1. Irrigation and types of irrigation scheme............................................................................................... 5
2.2 Components of a conventional drip irrigation system ............................................................................ 6
2.1: Components of a conventional drip irrigation system .......................................................................... 6
2.3 Emitters ................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Emitters ............................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Soil wetted diameter under drip irrigation ........................................................................................... 8
2.1: Parameter of emitter wetted diameter versus discharge for various soil types ..................................... 9
2.4 Performance evaluation.......................................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Design of drip irrigation system............................................................................................................ 10
viii
2.5.1 Emitter selection ................................................................................................................................ 11
2.5.2 Lateral design ..................................................................................................................................... 11
2.6 Operation and maintenance of drip irrigation system ......................................................................... 11
2.6.1 Fertilizer application in drip irrigation systems ................................................................................. 12
2.6.2 Clogging and clogging management in drip irrigation systems ......................................................... 12
2.7 Irrigation water requirement ................................................................................................................. 13
2.7.1 Estimating reference evapotranspiration ............................................................................................ 13
2.7.2 Estimating crop evapotranspiration ...................................................................................... 14
2.7.3 Actual crop evapotranspiration .......................................................................................................... 15

2.2 Crop coefficient data for selected field crops (KC )................................................................................. 15
2.8 Measures of systems performance ........................................................................................................ 16
2.8.1 Water application uniformity ............................................................................................................. 16
2.8.2Uniformity coefficient......................................................................................................................... 16
2.8.3 Coefficient of variation ...................................................................................................................... 16
2.8.4 Emitter flow variation ........................................................................................................................ 17
2.8.5 Coefficient of discharge ..................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 18

3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 18
3.2 .Study location ...................................................................................................................................... 18
3.3. Materials .............................................................................................................................................. 18
3.4. Construction of emitters ....................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 System layout and Operation Principles of the Continuous-flow Drip System. ................................... 20
3.6 Evaluation of the continuous-flow drip irrigation system..................................................................... 23

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and Discussions......................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Comparison between the three pressure heads .................................................................................. 24
4.3 Performance evaluation of the system ................................................................................................. 26

CHAPTER FIVE

5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 30

5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................................. 31
ix
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 32
Appendices .................................................................................................................................................. 38
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................. 38
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................. 39
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................................. 39

x
 LIST OF TABLE
Tables Pages
2.1: Parameter of emitter wetted diameter versus discharge for various soil types ........................ 9
2.2:Crop coefficient data for selected field crops (KC ) ................................................................... 15
4.1: Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters at 0.5 m
Height pressure head...................................................................................................................... 24
4.2: Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters at 1 m height
pressure head. ................................................................................................................................ 24
4.3: Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters at 1.5 m height
pressure head. ................................................................................................................................ 25
4.4: Average discharge of the three pressure heads. ...................................................................... 25
4.5: Shows the evaluated uniformity indices ................................................................................. 27

xi
 LIST OF FIGURE
Figures Pages
2.1: Components of a conventional drip irrigation system .............................................................. 6
3.1: Shows the main components of the medical infusion set….……………………………………………………………19
3.2: System layout and Operation Principles of the Continuous-flow Drip System. .................... 20
3.2: System setup and layout of the bucket drip irrigation system ................................................ 20
4.1: Calibration curve of the medical infusion set emitters ........................................................... 26
4.6: Roller clamp calibration ......................................................................................................... 27
4.2: calibration curve on clamp effect ........................................................................................... 28
4.3: Calibration curves on clamp effect 0.5m, 1m, 1.5m height ................................................... 29

xii
 LIST OF PLATE
Plates Pages
3.1: showing wooden stand of varying pressure head ................................................................... 21
3.2: Showing the process of laying of pipes of the system layout ................................................. 22
3.3: Showing how the pipes were laid ........................................................................................... 22

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background

In some parts of African especially in arid and semi-arid regions of Africa, water deficit is the

most important environmental factor limiting yields in agriculture. When irrigated, these areas

can have a high yield potential because of the high solar radiation, favorable day and night

temperature and low atmospheric humidity, conditions that decrease the incidence of pests and

diseases compared to areas in temperate zones. The key to maximizing crop yields per unit of

supplied water in dry lands is ensuring that as much as possible of the available moisture is used

through plant transpiration and as little as possible is lost through soil evaporation, deep

percolation and transpiration from weeds (Isaya et al., 2001).

The Irrigation system is simply the artificial application of water to the soil or plant, in the

required quantity and at the time needed, is a risk management tool for agricultural production.

The risk of yield reduction due to drought is minimized with irrigation. Drip irrigation involves

dripping water onto the soil at very low flow rates (0.2–20 l/h) from a system of small-diameter

plastic pipes fitted with outlets (drip emitters) (Isaya et al., 2001) The basic concept underlying

the drip irrigation method is to supply the amount of water needed by the plant within a limited

volume of soil and as often needed. Water is applied close to the plant so that only that part of

the soil immediately surrounding the plant is wetted. The volume of soil irrigated by each drip

emitter and the water flow along the soil profile are a function of the characteristics of the soil

(texture and hydraulic conductivity) and the discharge rate of the drip emitter. Compared to the

sprinkler and furrow-irrigation methods (with efficiencies of 60– 70% in high-management

systems), drip irrigation can achieve 90–95% efficiency (Isaya et al., 2001). The losses through

evaporation, deep percolation, and surface run-off in drip irrigation systems are minimized,

thereby achieving high efficiencies of up to 90% and above (Donay et al., 1997). Despite this

1
impressive advantages, drip irrigation services just over 1% of the world's irrigated land, due to

high initial cost (Mofoke et al., 2006).

The drum and bucket drip irrigation systems have been recommended as commensurate drip kits

for low-income farmers (Anon, 2004; IDE, 2003; UNEP, 2004). This system use plastic micro-

tubes (1-10mm diameter) as emitters. The operational principle of these kits is to apply water to

the crops 2 - 4 times daily. This is done with a view to maintaining the crop root zone at high

moisture contents conducive for the attainment of bumper crop yields. Advantages of drip or

trickle irrigation system include: less water loss, reduction in weed growth, less labour

requirements, reduction in evaporation compared to other watering methods, less usage of

fertilizer, reduced soil erosion, equitable water distribution and higher crop

production.Disadvantages of this technology include: clogging of drip holes, there is a low

pressure system, high initial cost, algae growth and easy damage to drip lines. Drip irrigation is

an efficient method for minimizing the water used in agricultural and horticultural crop

production. Frequency of water application is one of the most important factors in drip irrigation

management because of its effect on soil water regime, root distribution around the drip holes,

the amount of water uptake by roots and water percolating beyond the root zone (Coelho and Or

1999;Assouline, 2002; Wang et al. 2006).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Rainfall is one of the most important factors affecting crop production (Rukuni and Carl 2004).

The smallholder farming sector has been experiencing difficulties and decreasing in all over

nation, especially at Kura local government of Kano state, due to;

1. The unpredictable rainfall patterns or insufficient rainfall brings about shortage in crop yield.

2. Non uniform water requirement in all the growth stages (During the growth stage of every

crop water requirement varies).

2
3. To serves as water saving technique, to address all these issues there is the need to develop

an irrigation system that meets the water use and uniform water requirement of crops,

examples watermelon, maize etc, to improve their production.

1.3 Justification

Agriculture accounts for about 70 – 80% use of available water in the world (Duhrkoopet al.,

2009). However, dwindling water availability has made it necessary to improve on the way water

is used in Agriculture. Efficient use of water is becoming increasingly important and alternative

water application methods such as drip and sprinkler irrigation may contribute substantially in

making the best use of the little water available for crop production. Designing and construction

of an affordable and efficient Drip irrigation system for the small scale farmers will indeed help

in achieving high yield per amount of water applied to the crop.

1.4 Aim and Objectives

The study aimed at designing and evaluating the performance of micro tube (medical infusion

set)emitters with varying pressure heads.

The objectives are:

1. To design a continuous-flow drip irrigation system under bucket drip irrigation system.

2. To evaluate the continuous-flow bucket drip irrigation system with varying pressure heads

1.5 Significance of the Projects

The Significance of this Project areas Follow:

1. Maximization of crop yields per unit of supplied water in the dry land

2. Control of weeds and crop diseases

3. Provision of uniform water requirement in the growth stage of plant

4. To conserved water or save water

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The projectbased on the evaluation of micro tube(medical infusion set) as continuous flows

emitters under bucket drip with varying pressure head.

3
The limitations are as follows

1. The decrease in discharge rate can be due to decrease in pressure head.

2. Water has to be periodically applied manually because the reservoir is small.

3. It is difficult in adopting it for mechanized farming.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1. Irrigation and types of irrigation scheme

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land to provide adequate moisture for crop

production (Solomon, 1990). Phocaides, (2000) also defined irrigation as the application of

water, supplementary to that supplied directly by precipitation, for the production of crops. Rain-

fed agriculture is erratic in which man cannot depend solely on. Hence the need of artificial

application of water cannot be underestimated in achieving a sustainable agriculture. Agriculture

is the greatest user of water resources in the world totaling to about 70% of total withdrawals and

over 80% of the consumptive use of water (Baudequin and Molle, 2003; Stockle, 2001). Notably,

there are large regional variations, from 88% in Africa to less than 50% in Europe. Ascough and

Kiker (2002) stated that irrigated agriculture is the largest user of water resources in South Africa

accounting for 53% of the total annual amount used.

Irrigation includes the development of the water supply, conveyance system, method of

application, and the waste water disposal system, along with the necessary management to

achieve the intended purpose. In dry areas, rainfall during the growing season falls short of most

crop needs and thus irrigation makes up for the shortage. Even in areas of high seasonal rainfall,

crops often suffer from lack of moisture for short periods during some part of the growing season

(USDA, 1984). These therefore underline the importance of irrigation in attaining crop

production targets.There are two basic types of irrigation systems namely open canal systems

and pressurized piped systems (Phocaides, 2000). Irrigation is thus implemented through surface

and pressurized systems, characterized by the mode of transport of the water to the point of

application (Keller and Bliesner, 1990). Scherer (2005) expands it further that there are four

basic methods, of water application, which are subsurface irrigation, surface/gravity irrigation,

trickle/drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.

5
2.2 Components of a conventional drip irrigation system

The distinguishing advantages of drip irrigation systems over others are based on precise

application of crop water requirement at the right time, and directly to the root zone where it is

needed. This is achieved through a network of various components, each performing a

characteristic function.

Figure 2.1: Components of a conventional drip irrigation system

Water is pumped from a source, which could be a river, a stream, ground water or some other

source of freshwater. The abstracted water flows through valves, filters, mainlines, sub-mains, or

manifolds, and finally through the laterals before it is discharged to the field crops through

emitters. The manifolds, sub-main and main pipelines may be laid on the surface or buried

underground. The mainline could be any type of pipe such as polyethylene (PE),

polyvinylchloride (PVC), butylenes (BL), galvanized steel, or aluminum. Laterals feed the

emitters directly. They are usually flexible PVC or PE tubing, and are generally placed on the

soil surface except if micro-sprinklers are to be used. The diameter of common lateral pipes

ranges mainly from 10-32mm (Schwab et al., 1993). Other components of a standard drip

6
irrigation system are: pressure regulators, pressure gauges, flow meters, flushing valves,

automatic timers, fertilizer injectors, and filters. An efficient filtration system is indispensable for

smooth functioning of drip irrigation systems. Otherwise, the emitters would clog, sometimes,

within a few hours the commencement of irrigation.

2.3 Emitters

2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Emitters

Emitters are the terminal components of drip irrigation system. They allow water to flow from

the lateral to the soil. Conventional emitters operate at nominal pressures of about 78.5 – 98.1

kPa (8-10m), applying small discharges in the order of 2-8 l/hr (benami and ofen, 1984).

Emitters are generally classified from two perspectives. The first classification is in manner of

connection and positioning of the emitter on laterals, whilst the second is based on the emitter

flow regime. In the first context, emitters are grouped as either point-source or line-source

emitters (James, 1988). Point-source emitters apply water at discrete locations in the irrigated

field. The wetted areas do not, as a rule, overlap. Point-source emitters are further distinguished

as either on-line or in-line emitter. In-line emitters function as couplings, connecting adjacent

lateral sections. The discharge required down the stream the lateral passes through all preceding

emitters. Most manufacturers handling in-line emitters now produce laterals with integral built

in-line emitters. On the other hand, on-line emitters are inserted in holes bored through the lateral

wall. Some on-line emitters however, have spikes, and are therefore self-piercing. The ‘barbs’ of

on-line emitters cause additional resistance to flow leading to considerable energy loss along

laterals having such emitters. In-line emitters cause lesser energy drop because they do not have

barbs. Nevertheless, the major drawback of in-line emitters is that they cause complete stoppage

of flow downstream any clogged emitter. Some on-line emitters are available with multiple

outlets. Small diameter tubes connected to the emitter outlets are used to convey water to the

7
desired locations around the plants. Such emitters are particularly advantageous drip irrigating

mature orchards.

The second emitter classification is based on flow regime places common emitters info four

main categories as follows (karmeli et al., 1985):

 Long path or laminar emitters

 Turbulent emitters

 Vortex emitters

 Pressure compensating emitters.

2.3.2 Soil wetted diameter under drip irrigation

The first phase in design of drip irrigation system involves selecting an appropriate emitter for

the system. Emitter selection is based primarily on the characteristic curves and soil wetted

diameter of available emitters. It is well established that the sub-surface wetting pattern of a

point source emitter takes the form of a cone. When irrigation starts, water from the emitter

spreads over the soil surface and the wetted area expands. If discharge remains unaltered, the

wetted area tends to stabilize at some point in time during irrigation. The diameter of terminal

wetted portion is known as wetted diameter of the emitter (Howel et al., 1980). The size of the

wetted area depends on the discharge rate as well as the soil type and infiltration characteristics.

Research has shown that for a constant volume of water, increasing the emitter flow rate results

in wider but shallower cones for all soils (Hachum et al., 1976). Brandtl et al (1972) further

reported that the time required to reach the equilibrium wetted area is much longer for higher

discharges. It is therefore better in principle to drip irrigate crops using emitter discharges, for a

relatively longer period of time, than to apply the gross depth of water for a shorter period under

higher discharge. For practical purposes, the radius of the wetted hemisphere may be estimated

from Eq. 2.6 (Howel et al., 1980).

𝑟 = 3𝑞𝑡 [2𝜋 ( 𝜃𝑓– 𝜃𝑖 )] − 1/3

8
Where:

q = volumetric rate of water application, m3/hr

t = application time, hr

r = radius of wetted area, m

θf= final volumetric water content

θi= initial volumetric water content

Since the magnitude of the soil wetted diameter is influenced largely by discharge and soil

characteristics, it is possible to generate a general relationship between these variables. One of

such widely used relationships is (Dandy and Hassanli, 1996):

𝑊𝑑 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑞𝑒

Where:Wd= soil wetted diameter, mqe = emitter discharge, l/hr

α and β are constants depending on soil type. Values of α and β for the three main soil groups are

given in Table 2.

Table 2.1: Parameter of emitter wetted diameter versus discharge for various soil types
Soil Type α(m) β(m)
Fine soil 1.2 0.1
Medium siol 0.7 0.11
Coarse soil 0.3 0.12
Source: Dandy and Hassall (1996)

2.4 Performance evaluation

The performance of drip irrigation systems is heavily influenced by the uniformity of flow

through each emitter along a drip line. However, unlike other systems, the uniformity of drip

irrigation systems is not only a function of the design characteristics but is also significantly

affected by installation, maintenance and management practices. Therefore, measuring

application uniformity in drip irrigation systems is an important component of performance

evaluation and the assessment of the likely system longevity (Sadler et al., 1995).

9
Discharge uniformity may be assessed by measuring discharge from a number of emitters using a

catch can methodology. For subsurface systems, this involves excavating the soil around the

emitter and collecting the water quantity discharged (Sadler et al., 1995). Pressure may be

measured at the flush point or end of the lateral using a standard pressure gauge or at specific

points along the lateral using a needle point pressure gauge inserted directly through the tape or

tube. Where an assumption of no plugging can be made, the models used for the design and

evaluation of drip irrigation systems may also be used to evaluate the application uniformity of

subsurface systems based on the measured pressures and the system design characteristics

(Pheneet al., 1992; Wu and Yue, 1991 ). Root zone recharge may be measured directly using soil

moisture sensors, such as tensiometer, gypsum block and capacitance probe. In this case, sensors

should be placed in vertical grid pattern along a radial axis from the emitter to measure both

lateral and vertical soil water movement. Soil moisture sensing is also commonly used to identify

deep drainage losses and variations in wetted pattern due to application rate and period of

watering (Wu, 1992). A wide range of irrigation uniformity coefficient is commonly used in

performance evaluation (Jensen 1983). Camp et al. (1997) evaluated the appropriateness of

various uniformity coefficients for drip irrigation systems including the traditional Christiansen

(1942) equation as used by a number of workers. Acceptable flow rate 10 – 20 % (Qvar),

uniformity coefficient (UC) should be greater than 90% and coefficient of variation (CV)

between 1-20%. (Braltset al.1987).

2.5 Design of drip irrigation system

The design of drip irrigation systems is a multi-faceted process that pulls a broad spectrum of

input data from various domains. Some of the input data serve as guides for selecting the systems

components. Thereafter, the irrigation system is configured, preferably into sub-units, and the

sizes of the pipelines determined.

10
2.5.1 Emitter selection

Emitter selection involves choosing an appropriate emitter from a pool of available ones. The

selected emitter is primarily one that has the capacity to deliver the required application rate, and

wet the soil to a reasonably safe diameter. Also the emitter choice should not be characterized by

excessively high operating pressure, as this would increase the energy cost. If the required

discharge is too high, practically above 12 l/hr, it could be economical to use more than one

emitter per crop stand arranged in recommended patterns such as the zigzag and pig tail

configuration.

2.5.2 Lateral design

Laterals in drip irrigation system serve as hydraulic link between the supply line (mains or sub

mains) and the emitters. Therefore, laterals must be properly designed for the emitters to function

well. Lateral design is pivoted about determining the pipe length and diameter that would limit

pressure variation in the pipeline to within acceptable limits. Initially, the 20% rule originally

developed for use in sprinkler system design was generally adopted for drip irrigation systems.

However, Wu (1997) has recently shown that this criterion could be safely relaxed to 30% for

drip irrigation systems still with a resultant spatial uniformity of 80% and above.

2.6 Operation and maintenance of drip irrigation system

Most present day drip irrigation systems are fully automated. The routine field work including

pump operation and opening/closing of valves are pre-planned and electronically controlled by

integral timers. Minimal human labor is therefore required for the irrigation procedures.

However, one field operation that still attracts strict precautionary monitoring even when

automated is fertilizer application.

11
2.6.1 Fertilizer application in drip irrigation systems

The common practice with drip irrigation systems is to apply fertilizer through the irrigation

water. This practice is known as fertigation.Fertigation is used with drip irrigation systems

because it offers distinguishing advantages, some of which include (Bhella and Wilcox, 1985:

sanders, 1997):

 Savings in labour and energy

 Improved efficiency in fertilizer recovery

 Minimal losses due to leaching – so relatively smaller quantities of fertilizer maybe needed

 Optimization of the nutritional balance by supplying the nutrients directly to the root zone

 Good control over nutrient concentration in the soil.

2.6.2 Clogging and clogging management in drip irrigation systems

The incidence of emitter clogging is an inevitable operational problem in drip irrigation systems.

This is primarily because the flow paths of emitters are very small, and thus highly vulnerable to

blockage by foreign particles. The design of emitters is mainly conditional by recognition of the

axiom that the smaller the emitter opening, the more closely the flow rate may be matched with

soil infiltration rates, but the probability of plugging increases. Therefore, most emitters are

designed with some degree of compromise between these two divergent criteria. The onset of

clogging causes partial or complete stoppage of flow which manifests in reduced systems

uniformity. If allowed to persist for long, some of the crops may suffer irreparable damage.

Contemporary drip irrigation systems have accessory components that helps to reduce the

severity of clogging. These equipments constitute heavy contribution to the high capital cost of

drip irrigation systems. Unfortunately, clogging agents are present in most sources of irrigation

\water (Bucks and Nakayama, 1985). Clogging materials include suspended soil material,

organic debris, plastic cuttings, dissolved chemicals, bacteria and algae.

12
2.7 Irrigation water requirement

The operational principle of irrigation systems is to supply plants with sufficient water to prevent

stress that may cause reduced yield or poor quality harvest. Field crops require water for

physiological processes such as transpiration, growth, structural support, translocation,

photosynthesis and even digestion. The quantity of water used by plants for these processes is

termed consumptive use (CU) (James, 1988). Transpiration alone constitutes up to 99% of

consumptive, and therefore is loosely taken to denote consumptive use (James, 1988). Irrigation

water requirement is a broader term extending beyond crop consumptive use (crop

evapotranspiration). This quantity may be expressed mathematically as follows (Burman et al.,

1980):

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝– 𝑃𝑒 + (𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠)

Where:

Ireq= irrigation water requirement

Pe = effective rainfall

ETcrop = evapotranspiration of the crop.

2.7.1 Estimating reference evapotranspiration

To estimate a crop’s water requirement, first you must obtain the evaporative demand, which is

related to a given climate and expressed as the potential evapotranspiration. Reference

evapotranspiration (ETo) is defined as the rate of water use measured for a large area of short

green grass growing under non-limiting conditions. Obtaining accurate climatic data for each

environment is time consuming, laborious and expensive, and yet crop water requirement data

are needed at short notice for project planning. To meet this need several methods such as the

Blaney-Criddle, radiation, Penman, Penman- Monteith and pan evaporation methods are used to

calculate ETo. The choice of method used must be based on the type of climatic data available

and on the accuracy required in determining water needs. The Penman method gives the best

13
results in terms of accuracy with an error of ±10%. The pan evaporation method (error level

±15%) provides better accuracy compared to the radiation (±20% in hot conditions) and Blaney-

Criddle (±25%) methods.

2.7.2 Estimating crop evapotranspiration

Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is the sum of transpiration by the crop and evaporation from the

soil surface. The value of ETc obtained is a measure of the demand from crops that are grown in

large fields under optimum soil–water and other environmental conditions, and with excellent

management. When there is full ground cover, evaporation is negligible, but immediately

following sowing and during the early growing period evaporation from the soil surface may be

considerable, particularly when the soil surface is wet for most of the time from rain or irrigation.

Empirically determined ETc/ETo ratios, called crop coefficients, relate ETo to ETc. The crop

coefficient (Kc) is crop specific and expresses potential evaporative demand of a particular crop

in relation to ETo. The value of Kc largely depends on the level of ground cover and the

frequency with which the soil is wetted by rain and/or irrigation. For most crops, K c increases

from a low value (0.5–0.9) during the initial stages of growth, to a maximum value (0.9–1.2)

during the period when the crop reaches full development, and declines again (0.3–0.9) as the

crop matures. The Kc values for the initial crop development stage are related to ETo and

frequency of irrigation or rain.

The crop growing season can be divided into four stages, as follows:

 Initial stage: germination to 10% ground cover

 Crop development stage: from 10% to 80% ground cover

 Mid-season stage: 80% ground cover to start of ripening

 Late stage: from start of ripening to harvest.

Crop evapotranspiration is estimated by the following formula:

𝐸𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 × 𝐸𝑇𝑜 .

14
Where:ETc = crop evapotranspiration in mm/dayETo = reference evapotranspiration in mm/day

Kc= crop coefficient.

2.7.3 Actual crop evapotranspiration

The ETC calculated above predicts crop evapotranspiration under non-limiting field conditions,

whereas the conditions encountered in the field are often limiting, especially for resource-poor

farmers. Lower than predicted evapotranspiration, actual crop evapotranspiration (ETa), and

therefore crop production, will result from influences such as inadequate soil fertility, moisture

deficit, soil salinity, waterlogging, and incidence of pests and diseases.

Table.2.2 Crop coefficient data for selected field crops (KC )

Crop development stages

Crop Initial stage Cropdevelopme Mid-season Late season

ntemment
Banana(tropical) Ment
0.4–0.5 0.7–0.9 10–1.1 0.9–1.0
Bean(green) 0.3–0.4 0.7–0.8 1.0–1.1 0.9–1.0
Bean(dry) 0.3–0.4 0.7–0.8 1.1–1.2 0.7–0.8
Cabbage 0.4–0.5 0.7–0.8 1.0–1.1 0.9–1.0
Cotton 0.4–0.5 0.7–0.8 1.1–1.3 0.9–1.0
Grape 0.4–0.6 0.6–0.8 0.7–0.9 0.6–0.8
Maize 0.3–0.5 0.7–0.9 1.1–1.2 1.0–1.2
Onion 0.4–0.6 0.7–0.8 1.0–1.1 0.9–1.0
Pea 0.4–0.5 0.7–0.9 1.1–1.2 1.0–1.2
Pepper 0.3–0.4 0.6–0.8 1.0–1.1 0.9–1.0
Potato 0.4–0.5 0.7–0.8 1.1–1.2 0.9–1.0
Sugarcane 0.4–0.5 0.7–1.0 1.0–1.3 0.8–0.9
Tomato 0.4–0.5 0.7–0.8 1.1–1.3 0.8–1.0
Water melon 0.4–0.5 0.7–0.8 1.0–1.1 0.9–1.0

15
2.8 Measures of systems performance

2.8.1 Water application uniformity

Water application uniformity in micro-irrigation depends on system uniformity and spatial

uniformity in the field (Wu et al., 2007). The system uniformity is affected by system design

factors such as lateral diameter and emitter spacing (Wu et al., 1986), and manufacturing

variation (Braltset al., 1981a). It is also affected by emitter clogging (Braltset al., 1981b). The

parameters used to evaluate drip irrigation system application uniformity are: the Uniformity

Coefficient (UC); emitter flow variation (qvar); and Coefficient of Variation (CV) of emitter flow

(Bralts and Kensar, 1983; Wu et al., 1986). Using these parameters, Ayarset al. (1999) discussed

various drip tape products and determined the values of these uniformity parameters. System

uniformity values predicted by design or evaluation models are similar for both surface and

subsurface drip (Camp et al., 1997).

2.8.2Uniformity coefficient

Uniformity coefficient, UC, as defined by Christiansen (1942) and modified to reflect a

percentage, calculated using the equation:

Uniformity coefficient,

1/𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖−1 |𝑞𝑖 − |

𝑈𝐶 = 100 × [1 − ( )]

Where:

= mean discharge

q = discharge

n = number of emitters evaluated.

2.8.3 Coefficient of variation

Discharge coefficient of variation is used as a measure of application uniformity (Wu, 1997;

camp et al., 2001). It is calculated by:

16
 𝑠
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐶𝑣 =

Where:

= mean discharge

s = standard deviation of (drip flow) emitter flow rate

2.8.4 Emitter flow variation

Emitter flow variation (Wu, 1997; camp et al., 1997) measures the deviation between the

maximum and the minimum emitter flow rates, and is given by:

(𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛) × 100%

𝑞𝑣𝑎𝑟 =
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥

Where:

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
As far as uniformity is concerned, each of the parameters described above expresses some

measure of deviation of parts of the distribution from the mean.

2.8.5 Coefficient of discharge

Discharge coefficient as defined by Dilip Kumar (1986) is calculated using the equation:

𝑚
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑎√2𝑔

Where:

m = discharge gradient

a = cross-sectional area of orifice, mm

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

17
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology

3.1. Introduction

This Chapter describes the materials utilized for the field trials necessary for obtaining the

requisite data presented in this study. The methods adopted for the field trials, have also been

described. The study area characteristics, relevant equations and statistical tools and measures of

performance of micro-tube (medical infusion set) continuous flow drip irrigation system emitters

have also been presented.

3.2 .Study location

The continuous flow drip irrigation system was constructed and evaluated at the test field,

equipment maintenance base of department of Agricultural and Environmental engineering at

BayeroUniversity Kano, Nigeria

3.3. Materials

The materials used for the experiment where as follows:

 Three(3) 20litre bucket

 PVC pipes

 Medical infusion set of:

 Internal diameter 2.01mm

 External diameter 3.65mm

 End caps

 Tee (T) joint

 Wooden stand of 0.5m height, 1m height,1.5m height

 Measuring cylinder(1000ml and 100ml)

 Collection cans(500ml beaker)

18
 Control valve

 Stop watch

3.4. Construction of emitters

The medical infusion set is referred to as intra-venous administration set is the device used in

hospitals to dose liquid medications to patients. The needle from the original configuration of the

device will be discarded to eliminate possibilities of operational injuries. With this the medical

infusion set will be ready to be used as an emitter for drip irrigation

Discharge monitor Tubing Roller clamp Needle

Figure 3.1 Shows the Main components of the medical infusion set

3.5 Design of the continuous-flow drip irrigation system

The criterion of the drip system is to supply the peak daily crop water requirement at a steady

rate throughout the 24 hours of a day.

19
Figure.3.2 System layout and Operation Principles of the Continuous-flow Drip System.

This system was constructed at the Agricultural and environmental engineering test field Bayero

University Kano

Figure.3.2: System setup and layout of the bucket drip irrigation system

20litres buckets was used as a reservoir to supply water to the laterals, the buckets are placed at

1.5 m 1 m and 0.5 m heights to obtain a pressure head that would enable the water to flow freely

20
by gravity. The buckets was connected to four laterals of 5 m length each and the emitters on the

laterals were spaced at 1 m to suit the inter roll spacing of watermelon. Thus, there were 5

emitters on each lateral. The medical infusion set emitters was connected on two laterals, while

the bubblers emitters were connected on the other laterals.

Provision will be made for a filter to overcome the problem of clogging, and valves will be

placed on the main line to control the flow of water.

Plate.3.1: showing wooden stand of varying pressure head

21
Plate 3.2: Showing the process of laying of pipes of the system layout

Plate 3.3: Showing how the pipes were laid

22
3.6 Evaluation of the continuous-flow drip irrigation system

The performance parameters that will be used for the system evaluation are: coefficient of

variation (Cv), Emitter flow rate variation (qvar) and uniformity coefficient (UC), coefficientof

variation will be determined; the Emitter flow variation will be determined, the discharge

coefficient of variation will be determined; the emitter for variation will be determined.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussions

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the summarized results are presented in tables or figures and the relevant

interpretation is given. The parameters used for these studies have also been explained.

4.2 Comparison between the three pressure heads

The system was calibrated and the discharge of all the emitters (E1 TO E5) was taken in L/hr

with three replications for 0.5 m, 1 m and 1.5 m pressure heads.

Table.4.1 Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters at 0.5 m

Height pressure head.

Pressure Discharge Discharge Discharge

head(m) rate(l/hr) rate(l/hr) rate(l/hr) Time(hr)
0.5m R1 R2 R3
E1 10.08 10.08 9.18 1
E2 12.24 10.08 11.52 1
E3 11.16 9.6 10.08 1
E4 11.16 9.84 10.98 1
E5 7.56 9.6 7.56 1

Table.4.2 Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters at 1 m
height pressure head.
Discharge
Pressure head(m) Discharge rate(l/hr) Discharge rate(l/hr) rate(l/hr) Time(hr)
1m R1 R2 R3
E1 15.48 16.08 12.96 1
E2 15.84 15.36 16.38 1
E3 15.12 16.32 14.76 1
E4 15.84 12.48 15.3 1
E5 10.08 10.8 10.26 1

24
Table.4.3.Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters at 1.5 m
height pressure head.
Pressure Discharge Discharge Discharge
head(m) rate(l/hr) rate(l/hr) rate(l/hr) Time(hr)
1.5m R1 R2 R3
E1 16.92 17.52 16.92 1
E2 19.8 20.64 21.6 1
E3 15.12 18 18 1
E4 19.8 20.88 19.8 1
E5 12.6 13.44 14.58 1

Table 4.4 Average discharge of the three pressure heads.

Discharge (l/hr)
Emitters position at
Numbers. of
laterals 0.5m 1m 1.5m
1 9.78 14.84 17.12
2 11.28 15.86 20.68
3 10.28 15.4 17.04
4 10.66 14.54 20.16
5 8.24 10.4 13.54

The result of the average discharge of the 0.5m and 1m pressure heads were compared using the

t-test data analysis. When the data was analyzed, it was observed that the calculated t- value at

one tail was (0.000803) and t-crit.was (2.131847), at two tail was, t-value was (0.001605) and t-

crit.was(2.776445).The average discharge of the 1m and 1.5m pressure heads were also

compared using the t-test data analyzed , it was observed that the calculated t- value at one tail

was (0.004819) and t-crit.was (2.131847), at two tail was, t-value was (0.009637) and t-

crit.was(2.776445),the t-value is less than t-crit.value at df = 4 for 5% and 1% level of

significance. Therefore, the difference in discharge between the two different pressure heads is

not significant. Hence, the two discharges are statistically similar; and anyone of the three

pressure heads 1.5m,1m, 0.5m could be used or recommended for farmers to irrigate different

kinds of crops e.g. water, cabbage, maize etc.

25
 20
18
16
14
Discharge l/hr

12
10 y = 7.42x + 6.52
8 R² = 0.9577 discharge l/hr
6 Linear (discharge l/hr)
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Pressure Head (m)

Figure.4.1. Calibration curve of the medical infusion set emitters

The calibration curve shows an increase in discharge with increase in pressure head in both

cases. The shape of calibration curve serves as a first line guide when adjusting the device to

obtain desired flow rates. The system was calibrated by determined the discharge of the emitters

at different pressure heads, the variation in discharge of the emitters with varying pressure head

was determined under 1.5 m,1 m,0.5 m pressure head.

4.3 Performance evaluation of the system

The uniformity coefficient (UC) does not agree with Bralts et al., (1987) i.e. is being less than

95%. Flow variation (qvar) does not agree with Bralts et al., (1987), since their report states that

qvar should be between 10 – 20%, Cv agrees with Bralts et al., (1987) reports which states that

CV should be between 1-20%. The design could not achieve this because either the head or

capacity of the container was too small for the qvar with the 2 mm drip emitter diameter, the

control valve was turned off whenever the lateral became full and this could affect the uniformity

of flow in the lateral/pipe. The slope of the land also could affect the uniformity of flow

26
 Table.4.5: Shows the evaluated uniformity indices

pressure head difference pressure head(m) pressure head(m) pressure head(m)

0.5m height 1m height 1.5m height
Emitter lateral no. Lateralonelateraltwo lateral one lateral two lateral onelateral two
Dischargevariation(qvar%) 2.6.95 35.03 36.06 36.06 34.53 41.95

Uniformitycoefficient(Uc%) 91.74 87.59 88.65 89.59 87.75 85.44

Coefficientofvariation(Cv%) 0.103 0.150 0.145 0.124 0.145 0.177

Pressure head Emitters Discharge (L/hr)

Percent 100% 80% 60% 40%

0.5m E1 10.08 9.68 5.99 0.95

1m E1 15.48 13.98 11.08 1.29

1.5m E1 16.92 15.93 13.77 1.95

Table.4.6 Roller clamp calibration

Using analysis of variance to analyze the above data, it was analyzed that the effect of the

position of roller clamp on discharge is highly significant at both 5% and 1% level of

significance. Calculated f=values are less than f=table values at both levels of significance.

Hence, the effect is highly significant.

27
 18
16
14
12
Discharge l/hr

10
0.5m
8
1m
6
4
1.5m
2
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
percentage Clamp opennig

Figure.4.2 calibration curve on clamp effect

0.5M
12
10 y = 15.54x - 4.203
Discharge l/hr

8 R² = 0.8966
6
0.5M
4
2 Linear (0.5M)
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
percentage clamp opening

28
 1M
20
y = 22.735x - 5.457
R² = 0.8469
Discharge L / hr

15

10
1M
5 Linear (1M)

0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
percentage Clamp opennig

1.5M
25
y = 23.535x - 4.332
Discharge L / hr

20
R² = 0.7709
15
10 1.5M
Linear (1.5M)
5
0
0% 50% 100% 150%
percentage Clamp opennig

Figure.4.3.Calibration curves on clamp effect 0.5 m, 1 m, 1.5 m height

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Summary

The project ‘Evaluation of the micro tube continuous flow emitter under bucket drip irrigation

with varying pressure heads was carried out at Bayero University Kano, Department of

Agricultural and Environmental Engineering test field. The parameters used to evaluate drip

irrigation system applications, emitters flow rate variation (qvar.), obtained at pressure heads, for

0.5 m height, lateral one was (26.95) and lateral two was (35.03), for 1 m height, lateral one was

(36.06) and lateral two was (36.06), for 1.5m height, lateral one was (34.53) and lateral two was

(41.95).Uniformity coefficient (UC), obtained at pressure heads, for 0.5m height, lateral one was

(91.74) and lateral two was (87.59),for 1m height, lateral one was (88.65) and lateral two was

(89.59), for 1.5m height, lateral one was (87.75) and lateral two was (85.44). Coefficient of

variation(Cv) ,obtained at pressure heads, for 0.5 m height, lateral one was (0.103) and lateral

two was (0.150),for 1m height, lateral one was (0.145) and lateral two was (0.124), for 1.5 m

height, lateral one was (0.145) and lateral two was (0.177), and Coefficient of

discharge(Cd),obtained at pressure heads, for 0.5 m height, 100% opening was (10.08), 80%

opening was ( 9.68), 60% opening was (5.99), 40% opening was (0.95), for 1 m height, 100%

opening was (15.48), 80% opening was (13.98),60% opening was (11.08),40% opening was

(1.29), for 1.5m height, 100% opening was (16.92), 80% opening was (15.93), 60% opening was

(13.77), 40% opening was (1.95).The result of the average discharge of the 0.5m and 1m

pressure heads were compared using the t-test data analysis,it was observed that the calculated t-

value at one tail was (0.000803) and t-crit.was (2.131847), at two tail was, t-value was

(0.001605) and t-crit. Was (2.776445).The average discharge of the 1m and 1.5m pressure heads

30
were also compared using the t-test data analyzed, it was observed that the calculated t- value at

one tail was (0.004819) and t-crit.was (2.131847), at two tail was, t-value was (0.009637) and t-

crit.was(2.776445),the t-value is less than t-crit.value at df = 4 for 5% and 1% level of

significance. Therefore, the difference in discharge between the two different pressure heads is

not significant. The comprising between the bubblers and the medical infusion set emitters was

highly clear. The medical infusion set emitters conserved more water than the bubblers and all

other forms of drip irrigations system. It was observed that the higher the height the increased in

the discharged rate and vice versa and The t-test results analyzed that the varying pressure heads

was not significant; at 1% and 5%, hence all the three-pressure heads 0.5 m height, 1 m height,

1.5 m heights are recommended, any of these can be used by farmers to run the water freely

under gravity.

5.2 Conclusion

The t-test results analyzed, that the varying pressure heads was not significant; at 1% and 5%,

hence all the three-pressure heads 0.5 m height,1 m height,1.5 m heights are recommended and

were found to have a similar discharge, any of these pressure heads can be used by farmers to

irrigate different kinds of crops e.g watermelon,cabbage,maize etc.

5.3 Recommendations

1. Further studies should focus on automation of the design system, to operate automatically i.e.

water should be pump to the reservoirs automatically and the supply of water to the crop should

be control automatically at a certain discharge rate, time to time.

2. The land should be well leveled to allow uniformity flow of water.

3. The study should be repeated and a crop should be planted to determine the yield response.

31
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 Appendices

Appendix A

t-Test: Paired 1m AND 1.5m PRESSURE HEADS

Means

Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 14.208 17.708
Variance 4.79012 8.25232
Observations 5 5
Pearson Correlation 0.812265
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 4
t Stat -4.65337
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.004819
t Critical one-tail 2.131847
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.009637
t critical two-tail 2.776445

T-test: Paired 0.5m and 1m pressure heads means

Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 10.048 14.208
Variance 1.32172 4.79012
Observations 5 5
Pearson Correlation 0.91711
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 4
t Stat -7.60371
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.000803

38
t Critical one-tail 2.131847

P(T<=t) two-tail 0.001605

t Critical two-tail 2.776445

Appendix B

ANOVA: clamp effect.

SUMMARY

Groups Count Sum Average Variance

Column 1 3 39.59 13.19667 10.22583

Column 2 3 30.84 10.28 15.6121

Column 3 3 4.19 1.396667 0.258533

ANOVA

Source of

Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit

Between

Groups 226.6606 2 113.3303 13.02823 0.006557 5.143253

Within Groups 52.19293 6 8.698822

Total 278.8535 8

Appendix C

Table.1Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters 0.5m height

pressure head

Lateral one Discharge rate Discharge rate Discharge rate Time

39
Pressure (l/hr) (l/hr) (l/hr) (hr)

head(m) R1 in 10secs R2 in 15secs R3 in 20secs

0.5m

E1 10.08 10.08 9.18 1

E2 12.24 10.08 11.52 1

E3 11.16 9.60 10.08 1

E4 11.16 9.84 10.98 1

E5 7.56 9.60 7.56 1

Table.2 Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters 0.5m height

pressure head

Lateral two Discharge rate (l/hr) Discharge rate Discharge rate (l/hr) Time

Pressure head(m) R1 in 10secs (l/hr) R3 in 20secs (hr)

0.5m R2 in 15secs

E1 11.16 10.80 10.44 1

E2 12.24 12.00 11.52 1

E3 12.96 12.72 12.60 1

E4 13.68 12.24 12.96 1

E5 9.36 10.32 5.58 1

Table.3 Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters

1m height pressure head

Lateral one Discharge Discharge Discharge Time

Pressure rate rate rate (hr)

head(m) (l/hr) (l/hr) (l/hr)

40
1m R1 in 10secs R2 in 15secs R3 in 20secs

E1 15.48 16.08 12.96 1

E2 15.84 15.36 16.38 1

E3 15.12 16.32 14.76 1

E4 15.84 12.48 15.30 1

E5 10.08 10.08 10.26 1

Table.4 Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters

1m height pressure head

Lateral two Discharge rate Discharge rate Discharge rate Time

Pressure (l/hr) (l/hr) (l/hr) (hr)

head(m) R1 in10secs R2 in 15secs R3 in 20secs

1m

E1 16.20 14.4 15.30 1

E2 18.36 15.36 16.92 1

E3 18.72 16.32 17.10 1

E4 19.08 16.08 16.20 1

E5 12.96 12.24 11.16 1

Table.5 Measured discharges for the calibration of medica1.5m height pressure head

Lateral one Discharge rate Discharge rate Discharge rate Time

Pressure (l/hr) (l/hr) (l/hr) (hr)

Head R1 in 10secs R2 in 15secs R3 in 20secs

1.5m

E1 16.92 17.52 16.92 1

E2 19.80 20.64 21.60 1

41
E3 15.12 18.00 18.00 1

E4 19.80 20.88 19.80 1

E5 12.60 13.44 14.58 1

Table.6 Measured discharges for the calibration of medical infusion set emitters

1.5m height pressure head

Lateral two Discharge rate Discharge rate Discharge rate Time

Pressure head (l/hr) (l/hr) (l/hr) (l/hr)

(m) R1 in 10secs R2 in 15secs R3 in 20secs

1.5m

E1 19.08 18.72 19.44 1

E2 21.96 21.36 21.60 1

E3 21.96 22.08 21.96 1

E4 21.60 22.32 24.30 1

E5 15.48 10.08 14.04 1

37