136 ARTISTS AND ARTISANS

,"", L+b#,*-,*;tl"TSf;tilJSi;,u+ri+iC, fi#S#titp,ru;-#tg:+fifit.;i"g analysis or Egyptian art

cally attired figures, whose penetrating and direct gaze JH:L s-AHistory'dEgptiansculptweanilpaintingintheotil
forecast the finest of Byzantine works. Kigilom. London, isao. o""*i.. of art of theold Kingdorn, copi-
lsee also Archaism; Architecture; Artists and Artisansi ously illustrated; somewhat out of date, but still a standard refer-
Beauty; Bronze; Bronze Statuettes; Calcite; Captions; Ce- encewgrk. - -.
Fa- STlg s' The Art and Atchttecture of Ancient Egvp!' revised bv
ramics; Color Symbolism; Diorite and Related'Rocks; Y'
ience; Gems; Gesture; Glass; Gold; Granite; G;;;;;' *,hiil,illl;Jiil5illl11*:;i:*?'i;iilffitffiHl-
Ivory; Jewelry; Limestone; Masks; Models; Painting; Pal- notes.
ettes; portraiture; Relief Sculpture; Royal Tomb Painting; Vandersleyen, C., ed. Das Ahe Aegryten. Berlin, 1975.
Collection of

Silver; Sphinx;vessels; andthecompositearticleonsculp- essays aod entries on Egyptian sculpture and relief by various
scholars;inclu$j+! 9$i. dptienne.
ture.l .
Vandiel, J. Manuel dtarchf/ilogiz Paris,1952-1978. Six vol-

BrBlrocRAprry ' dilT":t#*::xi#;nffiY^*ltileJ;

analysis
nittt","n n"un
sculpt're'
Ndred, C. Al<henaten and Nefertiri. New York, 1973' Detailed UuJ"ft, 1984. Development of Middle Kingdom
of alt in the Amarna period tor 1973 exhibition' RITA E. FREED
Aldred, C. Egtptian Art: In tfu Days of the Pharaohs, 3100-32A B'C'
New York,-i980. Very readable overview of stylistic development of
Egyptian art.
nrr"ia, n. The Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beaury ftom An'
cient Egtpt. New York, 1996. Critical reexamination of Amarna
sculpture and relief. ARTISTS AND ARTISANS. Egvptologists long de-
Bothmer, B.Y. Egltptian Sculpture of the Late Peiod' New York' 1960' bated whether the statuary painting, and relief created
Pioneering attempt to analyze and date Egyptian sculpture and re- during the three millennia of pharaonic history could
lief from the twenty-fifth dynasty through Roman times'
Art properly be considered art, since those products were in- :
Brovarski, E., S. Doll, and R Freed, eds' Egtpt's Golden Age-Tha
of fivlng in the New Kingdom. Boston, 1982' Exhibition catalog
of tended to serye an essentially utilitarian purpose in the !

igyptt fitt"tt nonroyal minor arts of the New Kingdom; essays and context of Egyptian civilization, above all in the funerary i',
entries by multiple authors' cult. Nowadays, specialistS agree that the Egyptians did
DAuria, S., P. Lacovara, and C. Roehrig' MummiBs anil Magic' Bos- indeed make art. The related issue of whether those who
ton, 1988. Exhibition catalog about the art of burial; multiple au-
produced ar-t may be accurately called artists is a question- .
thors for entries and essaYs.
Donadoni Roveri, A. M. Egtptian Civiftzation':Daily'I'ife' Religious of d"fit itiorr, for there can be no doubt that a wealth of
masterpieces are preserved to attest the inspiration and
:
Beliefs, Monumental Art. Turin, 1988/89' Catalog of the'Egyptian
Museum, Tirrin, Italy, in three volumes' technical skill of artistic genius. Among the extensive doc- :i
Evers, H. G. Staat aus dem Stein*Denkmalzr, G*chbhte
-
unil Beilcu'
umentation, there is ,ro for women Yorking a: ':
Munich'
tung der aegtptischen Plastik wiihtenil des mittleren Reichs'
sulptors, dra men, or
"rnid"n"a
painters' The rare application of i
tsz!. F'irsft;ailed anaivsis of Middle Kingdom art'
Freed, R., Y. Markowitz, and S. D'Auria, eds' Pharaohs
of the Sun: ttt" titte "scribe/paintel' to a woman identified her as a i
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankharruzn' Boston, 1999' Copiously
illus- cosmetician, a fuce painter. Weaving, with which this
ar-
trated essays and entries on Amarna period objects by a variety
;J;;.;;on""*.d, was the onlv handicraft tradition- :

of scholars. ally open to women-

Egpt' 2 vols' New York' 19531 1959' Over-
-
Hayes,
i"*
W. C. Tle Scepter of
of Egyptian collection in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art' i.tittit article, the term artist will lre reserved for men
New York.
who produced fine art: the sculptors, drafumen' and
painters. Focus is on those professions' especially on i ';
B'C'
Josephson, J. Egp tian Royal Sculpture of the Itte Period' 400-246
from
,",rlptorc working in stone, who have attracted more
of royal matenal the
Marnz, 1991. Well-written analysis i
scholxly attention than other artists' Their statues and
per:iod'
twenty-eighth dynasty through the early Ptolemaic
Kozloff, A., and B. Bryan. Egpt's Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep
III
.and
the reliefu carved in stone are hallmarks of ancient
Egypt' I:
Men involved in metal-working and storie-vessel manu-
HisWoid.Cleveland,lgg2'Exhaustivecompendiumandanalysis
of material from Amenhotpe III's reign' i
facture, cabinetmakers, joiners, and
jewelers-called arti-
A. Egtptian niinting' New York' 1954' Analysis of
the
fnf"f.iti*i"", ,

style and methods of ancient Egrptian

painters' sansorcraftsmenhere-willfigureincomparisonwithor;
Robin., G. The An of Ancicnt EWt' Cambidge'
Mass" 1997' The-
contrast to artists' tft" h"gt'uge dff 1ot late I
matic aPProach to Egyptian art' was Ro word artist diqtinct from
ihis distirrction, for there"Ontfr*
nr.rtnu", i. rct'p tlan iiitpture' Cairo and,l'ttxor'-fustin'
1989' Beau' =
--iif"lfv
*.ftt"" L,rerview and stylistic analysis of key pieces ftrrm the fumwti ("artisart" or "craftsman")'
Neittrer artlsts nor artisans *"t"^l"",u9ents
i1 ancient
Egyptian Museurn, Cairo, and Luxor Museum'
institution-the
;
:i
Saleh, M., and H. Sourou zian' Thc Eytien
Myneum, Cairo: Official Egypt but were attdched to an official
Cotolog*. Mainz, 1987' Rich source of information and photo-
or a temple. Yet some freelance work was
p:sslble -
gruplrJon objects
S.iaf.., H. Pinciples
in the Egyptian Vtuselm'
!11
of ng{tan nrt' Translated by J' Baines'
Oxford' **i" that framework in all periods' Sculptors paint- 'a
"r:r* and
,:i

:;1

,1
g r\ =.-=-€,-ffi
136 ARTISTS AND ARTISANS
F eitherthemosttraditiotiabf
j-"" -i,.Ellffi
', ;:i-,' 11.'t.*rr'*l'"rr r*,'{r:.t l{
tihiild"?'"Til3i'ii'u#i-
cally attired figures, whose penetrating and direct gaze
forecast the finest of Byzantine works.
lsee also Archaism; Architecture; Artists and Artisans;
Beauty; Bronze; Bronze Statuettes; Calcite; Captions; Ce-
ramics; Color Symbolism; Diorite and Related Rocks; Fa-
ience; Gems; Gesture; Glass; Gold; Granite; Grid Systems;
Ivory; Jewelry; Limestone; Masks; Models; Painting; Pal- '
ettes; Portraiture; Relief Sculpture; Royal Tomb Painting;
Silver; Sphinx; Vessels; and the compasite articlc on Sculp-
ture.]
BTBLIOGRAPHY
Ndred, C. ikhenaten and Nefertiti. New York, 19?3. Detailed analysis
of art in the Amarna period for 1973 exhibition.
Aldred, C. Erytian Art: In thz Days of tfu Pharuohs, 3100-320 B.C.
New York, 1980. Very readable overview of stylistic development of
Egyptian art.
a*.iJ, n. The Royal Women d Amarna: Images of Beauty from An'
cient Egtpt. New York, 1996. Critical reexamination of Amarna
sculpture and relief.
Bothmer, B.Y. Egtptian Sculpture of the late Peiod' New York, 1960'
Pioneering attempt to analyze and date Egyptian sculpture and re-
lief from the twenty-fifth dynasty through Roman times.
Brovarski, E., S. Doll, and R. Freed, eds. Egtpt's Golden Age-The Art
of Living in the New Kngdom. Boston, 1982. Exhibition catalog of
Egypt's finesr nonroyal minor arts of the New Kingdom; essays and
entries by multiple authors.
D'Auria, S., P. Lacovara, and C. Roehrig. Mummizs anil Magic' Bos'
ton, 1988. Exhibition catalog about the art of burial; multiple au-
thors for entries and essaYs.
Donadoni Roveri, A. M. Egtptian Civilizntion-Daily'Life, Religious
Beliefs, Monumental At. Ttrrin, 1988/89. Catalog of the Eg;ptian
Museum, Turin, Italy, in three voltrmes.
Evers, H. G. Staat aus dem Stein-Denkmaler, Geschichte und Bedcu-
tung dcr aegtptischen Pl.astik wiihrend ilcs mittleren Reichs' Munich,
1929. First detailed analysis of Middle Kingdom art'
Freed, R., Y. Markowitz, and S. D'Auria, eds. Pharaohs d the Sutt:
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamen. Boston, 1999' Copiously illus-
trated essays and entries on Amarna period objects by a variety
of scholars,
Hayes, W. C. The Scepter of Egpt. 2 vols- New York, 1953; I 959' Over-
.rie..q of Egyptian collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art'
New York.
Josephson, I. Egyptian Royal Sculpture of the Late Period, 400-246
B'C'
of royal material from the
Mainz, 1997. Well-written analysis
twenty-eighth dynasty through the early Ptolemaic period'
III
Kozloff' A', and B' Bryan' Egtpt's Dazzling sun: Amenhotep
His World. Cleveland, 1992. Exhaustive compendium and analysis
of material {rom Amenhotpe III's reign.
Mekhitarian, A. Egtptinn Painting. New York, 1954' Analysis of the
style and methods of ancient Egtptian painters'
Robins. G. The Art of Anciznt Egtpt. Cambidge, Mass" 1997'
The'
matic approach to Egyptian art'
Russman, E. Egtptinn Sculpture. Cairo and Lwar' Austin' 1989'
Beau'
tifully written overview and stylistic analysis irf key pieces from the
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and Luxor Museum
Saleh, M., and H. Sourouzian- Tlu Egtptian Museum' Cairo:-ffiial
Catalogte. Mainz, 198?. Rich source of information
and photo-
graphs on objects in the Egyptian Museum, 91t",'
- Oford'
Sciafer H. Priiciptes of Egyption A't' Tlanslated by J' Baines'
dl*j.ffi 'fl996:tJto#"#+i";3#$#"*anarysisorEgyptianart
theory.
Smith, W S. A History of Egptian Sculpure and Painting in the Old
Kingdom. London, 1946. Qverview of art of the Old Kingdom, copi-
ously illustrated; sornewhat out of date, but still a standard refer-
ence work.
Smith, W. S. Ihe Art ond Architecture of Ancient Egypf, revised by
W K. Simpson. New Haven and London, 1998. Detailed overview
of the topic, recently rwised, with extensive photographs and foot-
notes.
Vandersleyen, C., ed. Das Alte Aegryten. Berlin, 1975. Collection of
essays and entries on Egyptian sculpture and relief by various
scholars; includes 440 plates.
Yardter, J. Manuel d'archzologie igtptienne. Paris, 1952-1978' Six vol-
umes of analysis of Egyptian sculpture and relief.
Wildung, D. Sasostns und Amznemhat: Aegtpten im Mittleren Reich.
Munich; 1984. Development of Middle Kingdom sculpture.
RITA E. FREED
ARTISTS AND ARTISANS. Egyptologists long de-
bated whether the statuary, painting, and relief created
during the three millennia of pharaonic history could
properly be considered art, since those products were in-
tended to serve an essentially utilitarian purpose in the
context of Egyptian civilization, above all in the funerary
cult. Nowadays, specialists agree that the Egyptians did
indeed make art. The related issue of whether those who
produced art may be accurately ealled artists is a question
of definition, for there can be no doubt that a wealth of
masterpieces are preserved to attest the inspiration and
technical skill oJartistic genius. Among the extensive doc-
umentati,on, there is no evidence for women working as
sulptors, draftsmen, or painters. The rare application of
the title "scribe/painted' to a woman identified her as a
cosmetician, a fuce painter. Weaving, with which this ar-
ticle is not concerned, was the only handicraft tradition-
alIY oPen to women'
In this article, the term artist will be resen/ed for men
who produced fine art: t}le sculptors, diafumen, and
painters. Focus is on those professions, especially on
sculptols working in stone, who have attracted more
and sch;bdy attention than other artists' Their statues and
the reliefs carued in stone are hallmarks of ancient Egypt'
Men involved in metal-working and stone-vessel manu-
fucture, cabinetmakers, joiners, and jewelers-called arti-
sans or craftsmen here-will figure in comparison with'or
contrast to artists. The Egyptian language did not make
t}is distinction, for there was no word arll'tf distinct from
hmwti ("artisan" or "craftsman").
Neither artists nor artisans were free agents in ancient
Egypt but were attached to an-offrcial institution-the
ot a temple. Yet some freelance wSrk was possible
"u:,ttt that framework in all periods' Sculptors and paint-
witirin
138 ARTISTS AND ARTISANS
ARTISTS AND ARTISANS. Fifth dynasty
sculptors, from the tomb ofTy at Sa4qara.
less skilled colleagues laid down broad areas of flat color
and painted in the background.
In a temple, several teams of artists and craftsmen
might be at work simultaneously under the supervision of
one or more .'masters" (which method of production did
not differ fundamentally from well-documented practices
in the ateliers of the Renaissance and Baroque eras of
western Europe).
Raw materials were at the disposition of the employe4,
iince quarrying and mining, as well as the importation of
various materials (like coniferous wood from tJre Levant
and the gemstone lapis lazuli from farther afield) were un-
der the control of the crown and its somEtime rival the
temple. Tools, too, were not normally owned by the men
who wielded them, but were state or temple property, to
be issued as needed.
Self-Assessment. Ancient Egyptian artists were not
accustomed to claim credit for specific works. Compara-
tively few "artists' signatures" are attested, so artistic per-
sonalities, familiar in Western Art especially from the
Renaissance onward, are lacking. Nevertheless, Egyptolo-
gists have been tempted to associate iconographic and
stylistic innovations with known individuals. For ex-
ample, Senenmut, the architect of Queen Hatshepsut's
mortuarv temple at Deir el-Bahri, has been credited with
creating new genres in statuary, since they are first at-
tested among his own scultptures. Colossi in the "radical"
style, which characterized the earlieq, Theban phase of
Akhenatent reign, have been attributed to Bak, a sculptor
who claims responsibility for "very large monuments of
the king in the Aten temple at Amarna." Tangible evidence
is, however, Iacking to support these and similar claims
made by Egyptologists on behalf of other artists. Cer-
tainly, innovations originated in and were disseminated
from the major royal and temple ateliers, either directly
by the artists or through the medium of their works.
Texts have seldom been informative about an artist's
attitude toward his own proficiency' In one remarkable
document (the stela Louwe C 14, dated c.2025 BcE), the
owner-a sculptoq, painter, and overseer of craftsmen-
laid claim to secret knowledge, before he launched into a
detrailed, boastful account of his accomplishments. More
than seven centuries late[ an overseer ofworks and sculp-
tor named Userhat-Hatiay similarly claimed access to se-
crets, implying a role for them in the practice of his pro-
fession, which included the manufacture of cult images
for the temples of the gods. Such secret informa-
tion might refer to temple archives, where specifications
for divine statues and pattern books for reliefs and paint-
ings were presumably kept, although evidence for that is
scant.
Many of the higher ranking artists simultaneously oc-
cupied positions in the priesthood, and depictions of
them on their own monuments showed them like other
important men: receiving offerings or worshiping deities,
not working at their professions.
The Workplace: Historical Review. Workshop scenes
in nonroyal tombs of the Old Kingdom show artists and
craftsmen at work, side by side, on the estate of the tomb
owner. Leatherworkers might have been needed on a reg-
ular basis to supply sandals and apparel for a large house-
hold, and joiners were needed to make and keep furniture
in good repair. The sculptors would be only on temporary
loan from the king, for the purposes of preparing statues
that were required for the funerary equipment of the
tomb owner and his family.
Fror4 the later Old Kingdom, the practice of sending
artists from the capital at Memphis to decorate tombs of ,;.j,
favored ofEcials iu the provinces has been documented.
That local workshops also existedls proved by the prolif- z
eration of local styles that emerged with the breakdown =
,.}
of central authority toward the end of the sixth dynasty. :,.
Detailed analysis of finds from some sites in northern Up- ::€
%
per Eglpt has identified iconographic and paleographic ':#
peculiarities thai evolved in relative isolation during the ':4
period that followed.
$
!.,
#
,i

When a Theban royal family succeeded in reuniting the'
county, contact was reestablished with the "classical" art
of the Old Kingdom, as represented in the necropolis of
the Memphis region. Within a few decades, at about 2000
gcB, a uniform style again existed throughout Egrpt. The
role of artists based at the Residence, which was again
located near Memphis, was paramount in this develop'
ment, Inscriptions confirm the evidence of the- monu-
ments themselves; for example, an official at Elephantine
on Egypt's southern border recorded that Senwosret I
sent artists from the Residence to decorate his tomb' An
almost contemporary biographical inscription of a sculp'
tor relates the way he began his career at the Residence
before being sent to Abydos, the cult center of the god of
the dead, Osiris, to work on the king's projects there'
Local ateiiers working under the intermittent influence
of such artists existed at both Elephantine and Abydos'
Around Thebes, such a workshop is presumed to have
served the needs of temples in a number of towns, as well'
as in the provincial capital of Thebes itself'
ianis, in the northeastern Nile Delta, was long consid-
ered the site of a major contemporarleous atelier-an idea
that arose because many royal sculptures of Middle King-
dom kings were discovered there. Those statues, howeveq
were brought to Tanis centuries after the fall of the Middle
Kingdom. A number of them can be confidently traced
back to the once vast temple precinct at Heliopolis' some
40 kilometers (25 miles) north of Memphis' Most likely'
Heliopolis*the center of the solar cult from earliest
times-possessed its own atelier as early as the Old King-
dom, but neither archaeological nor textual evidence has
this supposition'
.vet come to light to substantiate
divide in Middle Kingdom art sepa-
The major stylistic
to furnish temples of the gods from
rates works produced
funerary establishments' Presum-
those created for royal
fu t"t-":{ generations
ably, an atelier was in existence
lo-
near the sites of the kings' pyramids, which were all
there' draftsmen
cated in the general vicinity of Memphis;
and sculptol working in a continuous tradition made
com-
stat rary irrd decorated the temples of royal funerary
in the asso-
plexes, as well as the tombs of favored ofRcials
Kingdom pre-
ciated cemeteries. Those men and their Old
Ptah-
decessors may have been affiliated with the cult of
the patron god of craftsmen-which was centered at
Memphis. Piah's high priest r'r'as called "Greatest of
Craftsmen." The assumption of an atelier in
physical
proximity to the temple'is reasonable, but there are few
,r.u**d craftsmen -hose titles associated them explicitely
q.ith Ptah's temple, and they lived during the New
Kingdom.
far.rak, Amun's cult center at Thebes, is the only reli-
and
gious institution whose claim to extensive workshops
ateliers is well supported' From the New Kingdom'
a
ARTISTS AND ARTISANS I39
wealth of onomastic (name-related) data exists forsmiths,
calpenters' sculptors, and drafumen attached to the tem-
ple treasury. That information is supplemented by the
decoration of contemporaneous tombs, where there are
depictions of the manufacture of a variety of items in tem-
ple workshops-from elaborate cult vessels, jewelry, and
gilded openwork shrines to colossal statuary
Carpenters, smiths, and jewelers worked in ateliers lo-
cated near the temple (with its treasury), from which they
obtained their tools and raw materials' Relief sculptors,
draftsmen, and painters worked of necessity at the wall-
whether at the temple or tomb' The presence of ateliers
for the manufacture of statues raises a more complex
question, for the medium determined where statuary was
made. Sculptors who created small, portable cult images
could have worked close to Karnak, to facilitate access to
(and effective control over) the precious metals, imported
woods, and semiprecious stones requisitioned from the
treasury.
Study focusing on the sculpture of Amenhotpe III
(c.1390 ncr) of the eighteenth dynasty has confirmed that
ateliers for stone statuary existed at quarry sites' From the
following reign-that of Akhenaken-a number of work-
shops for stone statuary have been located at the site of
Akhenaten's capital. One was beside the great Aten temple
in the city centet but the fumous atelier belonging to the
master sculptor Thutmose, where archaeologists exca-
vated the painted bust of Queen Nefertiti along with sev-
eral other masterpieces, was situated within a residential
quarte4 among other large estates.
Workmen's Villages. Special communities' housing
workmen employed on royal building projects, are known
from the Old Kingdom onward' One such settlement' as-
sociated with the pyramid plateau of Giza is under exca-
vation by Egyptian archaeologists' Such villages are not
per-
identical with the so-called pyramid towns, where the
cult of the deceased king'
sonnel lived who served the
The best-known workmen's village is the New King-
dom settlement of Deil el-Medina at Western Thebes'
Overwhelming site data comes from the period that fol-
lowed the reestablishment of the community after the
Amarna period. The walled village at Tell el-Amarna ac-
.ommodited the workmen who cut and decorated the
rock-cut tombs at the site, but the village's brief existence
The
ended as a billet for those who policed the cemetery'
ar-
exceptional, indeed privileged, status of the artists and
tisans who lived and worked at Deir el-Medina derived
from their association with the king and his fate' for they
were responsible for cutting and decorating the royal
debris
tombs located in the cliffs of Western Thebes' The
of the settlement yielded copious written documentation
of the
concerned with the daily life and religious beliefs
community; aside from figured limestone ostraca' re-
 I4O ASASIF
markably little archaeological evidence related. to the
crafts pursued by the site's inhabitants in their spare time,
Pa5rrnent. Prior to the New Kingdom, information on
remuneration for artists and artisans is limited. Inscrip-
tions left by those for whom tombs and their decoration
were commissioned in Old KJngdom times are concerned
with assuring posterity that proper pa).ment (unspecified)
was made for the work and the craftsmen "satisfied."
Such inscriptions were intended to document the good
character and generosity of the tomb owner. Study of both
the inscriptions and the representations that accompany
a few of them suggests tlat the standard paynent in the
form of victuals (food) was supplemented in some cases
by "wages," paid in lengths of linen cloth, a valuable com-
modity in all periods.
The Ramessid workmen's village of Deir el-Medina pro-
vides a surfeit of information on prices and pa5rment. For
their regular work in the service of the state, the inhabi-
tants received grain rations montlly, according to their
profession and rank. Any surplus that remained after bak-
ing and brewing for the family might be traded within the
community. The state also provided oil, cloth, seasonal
products (fruit, vegetables), and some luxuries. Supple-
mentary income derived from freelancing among the
community. Craftsmen worked not only for each other to
order but they also accumulated stock, as witnessed, for
example, by finds of shawabtis that lack only the name of
the owner (and it would have been added when the figu-
rine was sold). A wooden statue cost about twice the
monthly grain ration of a draftsman. The charge for dec-
orating a coffrn exceeded the price of the coffin itself-
attesting to the higher value placed on the work of a
draftsman over a joiner.
lSee also Art; Painting, oventiew article; Scribes; and
Sculpture, orsewiew article.l
BIBLIOGRAPIIY
Aldred, Cyril. "Some Royal Portraits of the Middle Kingdom in
Egypt." Metropolitan Museum Journal 3 (1970), 27-50. See espe-
cially pages 37-39, on which doubt is expressed that geographically
specific styles existed in royal sculpture of the Middle Kingdom,
Arnold, Dorothea. The Royal Women of Amama: Images d Beauty from
Ancient Egryt Exhibiton catalog, The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
New York, 1 996. Includes a chapter devoted to the workshop of the
sculptor Thutmose.
Baines, John. "Techniques of Decoration in the Hall of Barques in the
Temple of Sethos I at Abydos." Journal of Egtptian Archaeologt 75
0989), 13-28.
Baines, John. "On the Status and Purposes of Ancient Egyptian Art."
Cambrilge Archaeobgical Journal 4. 1 (1994), 67-94, Pages 67-:14
present the role of artists and their status.
Barta, Winfried. Das Selbstuugnis eines altiigtptischen Kilnstlers (Stelc
Iiuyre C 14). Berlin, 1970. Publication on the stela, with detailed
commentary.
Dijh Jacobus van. "Maya's Chief Sculptor Userhat-Hatiay." Gdttinger
Miszellen 148 (1995), 29-34.
Dorman, Peter F. I'\rc Monumznts of Senenmut: Problems in Historical
Methodolog. London and New York, 1988. Reviews on Senenmut,s
statues; argues against his personal involvement in creating them.
Eyre, Christopher J. "Work and Organization of Work in the Old
Kingdom" and "Work and the Organization of Work in the New
Kingdom.". In labor in the Ancicnt Near East, edited by Marvin A.
Powell, pp. 547 and 167-221 (respectively). New Haven, 1987.
Fischeg, Henry George. Dendera in the Third Millennium. Locust Val-
ley, N. Y., 1968. One of several studies by Fischer detailing the evo-
Iution of a local style during the First Intermediate period.
Franke, Detlef. Das Heiligtum des Heqaib auf Ebphantine. Geschichte
eines kwinzheiligtums im Mittleren Reicft, Heidelberg,1994. Chap-
ter 3 is devoted to the relationship between the royal crafumen and
local ateliers at Elephantine.
Freed, Rita E. "The Development of Middle Kingdom Eg5ptian Sculp-
tural Schools of Late Dynasty XI, with an appendix on trends of
Early Dynasty XII (2040-1S78 BCE)." ph.D. diss., Institute of Fine
Arts, New York University, 1984. Available from University Micro-
films International, Ann Arbor Mich. (#3421510).
Kozloff, Arielle P., and Betsy M.Bryan. Egptb DazzlingSun: Amenho-
tep III and His l,Vorld. Exhibition Catalog, Cleveland Museum of Art,
I 992 . See Bryan's comments on statue production on pages 136-146 .
Krauss, Rolf. "Der Oberbildhauer Bak und sein Denkstein in'Berlin."
Jahrbuch der Berliner Musen n. F. 23 (1986), 5-46. Thorough study
of Bak, Akhenaten's "Chief Sculptor."
Lowle, D. A. "A Remarkable Family of Draughtsmen-Painters from
Early Nineteenth-Dynasty Thebes." Oriens Anti4uus 15 (1976), 91*
105. Discussion of Dedia's monuments.
Roth, Ann Macy. "The Practical Economics of Tomb Building in the
Old Kingdom: A Visit to the Necropolis in a Carrying Chair." In For
his Ka: Esseys Offered in Memory of Kaus Baer edited by David p.
Silverman, pp. 227 -240. Chicago, 1994.
Steinmann, Frank. "Untersuchungen zu den in der handwerklich-
ktinstlerischen Produktion beschiiftigten Personen und Berufsgrup-
pen des Neuen Reiches." 7*itschrift fAr tigtptische Sprache und Altet
turnskunde I I 8 ( 1 99 I ), 1 49-l 6 1. Last of five articles devoted to ana-
lyzing the professions of ancient Egyptian artists and artisans, from
a socioeconomic standpoint.
Vercoutte! Jean. "Le r6le des artisans dans la naissance de la civilisa-
tion 6gptienne." Chronique d'Egpte 6S (1993), 70-83. Covers the
relationship of the god Ptah to artists and artisans, with particular
reference to the formativb phase of Egyptian civilization.
MARIANNE EATON-KRAUSS
ASASIF, one of the principal areas of the Theban ne-
cropolis, located on the eastern bank of the Nile River
(25o44'N, 32o36'E). The exact meaning of the Arabic term
al:asasif is not known, although the translation "passages ,&
interconnecting under the ground" has been suggested. 6
*
More likely, howeveq the term is a plural of. al-'assaf, .$
which is attested as a personal name. Thus the term may 4
j.t
refer to a tribe or clan that claimed descent from a cer-
tain individual al-l{ssaf. Topographically, the area known
as the Asasif stretches from the edge of the cultivation in
the southeast to (and including) the tomb and temple of
Nebhepetre Montuhotep I and the terrace temple of Hat-
shepsut at Deir el-Bahri in the northwest. Besides these
two temples, the most visible landmarks in the area today
are huge, towerlike mud-brick buildings (pylons) that
form the superstructures of large private tombs of the
Saite period (the twenty-sixth dynasty, 664-525 ncn).