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RT15
RT15
15
C H A P T E R
Special Radiographic
Techniques1
Projection Microfocus
Radioscopy FIGURE 1. Microfocus X-ray video system.
A typical system for testing of smaller
objects contains digital radioscopic
components. One type of system that has 160 kV microfocus X-ray tube head
shown versatility in many applications
Television camera
has been remote video viewing systems
like those in Fig. 1. The X-ray source is a
160 kV constant potential microfocus unit
capable of 300 W operation at a focal spot Image
size of 0.25 mm (0.01 in.). It can also intensifier
operate continuously at 80 W with a focal
spot of 0.012 mm (0.0005 in.). This means
that the X-ray unit can operate
continuously at 160 kV and 0.5 mA with Zoom
a 12 µm (5 × 10–4 in.) focal spot size and, Magnified X-ray image
in this configuration, can resolve details
as small as 25 µm (0.001 in.) at a
1:1 geometric relationship without
magnification.
Low light level imaging cameras Control unit Manipulator
controls
combined with high resolution fluors or Monitor
X-ray image intensifiers and camera
(d)
Automatic Defect
Recognition Applications
Automatic defect recognition (ADR) is
applied to parts that must be tested for
the presence or absence of certain
components or for the presence or
absence of bonding agents such as solder
and brazing. Automatic defect recognition
(b) may also be used at very high speed for
objects that can be scanned and
interrogated by intensity statistics, pixel
statistics or similar window techniques for
voids, inclusions or other anomalies with
good contrast against the surrounding
material. The picture in Fig. 5 shows the
ease of achieving a test for the presence,
Crack
absence or correct location of components
in a small armaments arming device. The
diameter of the device is about 25 mm
(1.0 in.) and, when imaged at 10×
(d)
that would just fill the detector field of Likewise, the dental application requires a
view is increased by the magnification special rod anode to permit interoral
squared. For example, if 3× is used then location for panoramic radiography of the
nine exposures are required to cover all of teeth. The results of these two
the original test object. Thus, applications show the capability of
optimization of the level of magnetization microfocus to detect minute detail:
to bring out detail yet limit the number of cracked enamel in the teeth and the
exposure positions is an important crushed honeycomb cell ends in the
challenge in projection radiographic aircraft structure. Also, it shows the
testing. flexibility of the equipment to adapt to
specialized requirements.
Penetrameter Compatibility
The limited field of view in high Projection Microfocus Radioscopy
magnification images also presents a The literature describes previous
problem for penetrameters or image developments in film projection
quality indicators. A requirement to radiography and contains many high
simultaneously display an appropriate quality photographs showing results
image quality indicator may tax the achieved with microfocal radiography.1-14
system when combined with a
requirement to produce an acceptable
video and hard copy image or digital
record for archival purposes. Often Closing
standard penetrameters are too large, Projection microfocal radiography using
covering a large fraction of the image both digital and film sensors is very
area. practical for detecting minute details in
objects ranging from tiny integrated
circuits to large steel structures having
13 mm (0.5 in.) thick walls. The major
Special Applications impedance to wide acceptance of
Some objects that do not fit in a volume projection microfocus radioscopy in the
convenient to a system’s fixed enclosure 1980s was the tardiness of industry in
can also be tested by using high accepting a slightly modified
magnification microfocus with remote penetrameter that can be fitted into the
displays or automated video systems. small field of view of a highly magnified
Systems have been constructed for projection X-ray image.
objects as varied as honeycomb core
aircraft parts as shown in Fig. 8 and for
dental X-rays as shown in Fig. 9. Aircraft
sections naturally require a very large FIGURE 9. View of dental work with
manipulator to properly align the microfocus rod anode.
microfocus source, imager and parts to
show subtle discontinuities such as
crushed core cells. This application places
severe demands on the microfocus unit’s
mechanical and electrical design.
and image contrast (as a function of tube discharge tubes are no longer used in flash
voltage); or the relation of image X-ray systems.
sharpness to geometry and focal spot size. Field Emission. Field emission is a process
Extensive references to flash in which electrons are emitted into high
radiography may be found in other vacuum by applying an extremely high
publications16-19 and in the Nondestructive electric field (30 to 100 MV·cm–1) at the
Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 3, surface of a cold metal cathode, generally
Radiography and Radiation Testing.15 made of tungsten. The cathode is
Several general observations may electrolytically etched into a very sharp
suggest the range of future developments needle so that the high electric field
in and applications for flash radiography. necessary for emission can be
1. Flash radiography has been used for concentrated at the tip of the needle and
ballistic studies to track the detonation can be produced at a reasonable applied
of explosives and especially the voltage. The electric field applied at the
projection of shells and rockets. cathode surface thins and lowers the
(Incidentally, because the test objects potential energy barrier at the surface and,
were removed from service upon when the applied electric field is
detonation, these tests were strictly sufficiently high, electrons at or slightly
speaking not nondestructive testing.) below fermi energy can tunnel through
2. Increases in the memory and speed of the surface energy barrier with a
microprocessors have made it possible probability (described by quantum
for digital radiography to be used in mechanical theory) that increases
circumstances where flash radiography exponentially with field strength
was formerly used, that is, successive Vacuum Discharges. Vacuum discharges
exposures at frame rates faster than occur in a residual gas pressure low
video. Digital radiography obviates the enough so that the electron mean free
mechanical systems of switches that path is many times larger than the gap
were necessary for film flash spacing between the electrodes; under
radiography. these conditions, the avalanche
3. Some flash radiography research has breakdown and collisions of electrons
not been released for publication with gas molecules are essentially
because of its military sponsorship. eliminated. In a vacuum discharge tube, a
4. The quantity of published research finite time is required for the discharge to
studies on flash radiography has develop even though the discharge
sharply diminished since 1990. initiation time can be short at high
voltages and can be affected by proper
choice of voltage, pulse duration and gap
Means of X-Ray Generation spacing. Once initiated, a vacuum
In X-ray tubes for conventional discharge is terminated only by removing
radiography, a thermionic cathode is used the voltage applied to the tube and there
to produce an electron beam that is is then a finite recovery time required for
accelerated and focused to strike a small the plasma to recombine and the metal
spot on a metal plane target. This basic vapor in the gap to condense and
mechanism of generating X-rays by disappear. This recovery time, which
impact of high energy electrons on a depends on prior discharge current and
metal target is also used in flash energy as well as gap spacing and
radiography. However, because thermionic electrode material, set the minimum time
cathodes cannot produce the very high interval between successive X-ray pulses
peak current densities and total currents from a given discharge tube; it is typically
required for flash radiography, different on the order of microseconds.
electron sources must be used. These
sources do not allow effective focusing of Flash X-Ray Tubes
the electron beam, so different X-ray tube
and target geometries must be designed Flash X-ray tube designs are based on
for achieving the necessary confined focal basic mechanisms and principles.
spot. Figure 10 illustrates a typical design for a
high vacuum sealed field emission flash
Gas Discharge Tubes. In early designs, gas X-ray tube, operating at relatively high
discharges were used to accelerate electrons voltages (100 to 2000 kV).
into the target and produce X-rays. Gas The simple sealed tube of Fig. 10 uses a
discharges can produce very large electron multiple needle field emission cathode
currents. However, electrons lose energy consisting of six linear arrays surrounding
by collision or ionization and the average a conical target made of tungsten. The
energy of the electrons striking the target focal spot and resolution characteristics of
is considerably less than the voltage this flash X-ray source have been
applied to the tube; a severe loss in X-ray discussed.20 The sharpness of the X-ray
generating efficiency and X-ray hardness image is determined by the base diameter
is the result. For these reasons gas of the cone, the effective focal spot
diameter being about two thirds of the voltage V0 (typically 15 to 100 kV) then
cone base diameter. The pulsed heat discharged in series by means of cross
absorption capability of the target is connected spark gaps. The open circuit
proportional to the lateral area of the output voltage is then NV0. The output
cone (and also to the electron range into voltage waveform into a resistive load R is
the target). an exponential:
For a given resolution, the X-ray
intensity can be increased by using a cone NT
with a small half angle θ. If θ becomes too (1) V = N Vo exp −
RC
small, X-rays are reabsorbed more heavily
in the target and the effective X-ray beam
where T is trigger voltage.
coverage is reduced. In practice, a
For flash radiography applications, the
nominal θ value of seven degrees is found
capacitor in each stage of the marx-surge
to be about optimum for flash
generator is replaced by a pulse forming
radiography. The maximum X-ray
network to produce a more effective,
intensity increases very rapidly with
more nearly rectangular output
increasing voltage, both because the
waveform.15
electron range increases rapidly with
voltage and because the efficiency of Blumlein Line Generators. The rise time of
X-ray generation also increases with the voltage pulses delivered by a
voltage; hence it is difficult to achieve marx-surge generator is not easily reduced
large X-ray intensities at low voltages below 5 ns. The difficulty in designing a
without excessive evaporation and rapid device with sufficiently low inductance
destruction of the target. puts a lower limit of about 15 ns on the
X-ray pulse length. The design also limits
the maximum current intensity and the
Pulsed High Voltage Sources for minimum characteristic impedance of the
Flash Radiography pulser, particularly for high voltage
A number of techniques have been used systems that contain a large number of
to generate the pulsed high voltage and to stages. For these reasons, more complex
accommodate the high current, low high voltage generating circuits are used
impedance characteristics of flash X-ray for applications that require output pulses
tubes. of very short duration, very high current
The oldest and simplest technique is to or very low impedance. The blumlein line
charge a capacitor to a high voltage, then generator is pulse charged by a marx-surge
discharge the capacitor through a low generator. A blumlein generator generally
impedance pressurized gas triggered spark consists of three coaxial cylinders that
gap. This technique is limited to 100 to behave as two transmission lines
150 kV, in practice. connected through a resistive load (the
Capacitive energy storage at relatively flash X-ray tube). The blumlein and the
low voltage (15 to 100 kV) followed by tube are designed to have approximately
voltage multiplication is routinely used to equal impedance, about 60 Ω, yielding a
generate high voltages. The voltage 600 kV, 10000 A, 3 ns electron or X-ray
multiplication is achieved by means of a pulse.
pulse transformer of a marx-surge Electron Accelerators. Linear accelerators
generator. Pulse transformers are suitable are sometimes used to produce very high
for output voltages up to 400 kV. electron energies for flash radiographic
Marx-surge generators can be used over a applications requiring moderately short
broad range of voltages, up to several (about 0.1 to 10 µs) repetitive pulses of
megavolts, and have been commonly very high energy X-rays. A unique design
used in flash X-ray systems. for high energy flash radiography system,
Marx-Surge Generators. In the simplest built in 1965, used three large cylindrical
form of a marx-surge generator, a bank of cavities, resonant at 50 MHz, arranged in
N capacitors (of individual capacitance C) series and excited by input radiofrequency
is charged in parallel to a direct current energy at 50 MHz. Standing waves
developed and increased in amplitude
during the excitation period. When the
standing wave amplitude reaches its
FIGURE 10. High voltage, sealed, field emission, flash X-ray maximum (about 5 MV·cm–1 axial field),
tube. a high current pulsed electron gun
Field emission produced an intense, relatively low energy
Anode target contact cathode
(500 keV) electron beam. The beam was
injected into the radio frequency cavities
and accelerated to 27 MV. The emerging
electron beam was focused onto a
X-ray
High voltage window transmission X-ray target, producing a
reentrant very high energy X-ray source only 1 mm
cavity X-ray target (0.04 in.) in diameter. The system was
suited for flash radiographic applications generation for flash X-ray diffraction
demanding very high penetration and studies.
high image quality.
Commercial Flash X-Ray Systems. The
different available outputs provide
additional flexibility and imaging Industrial Applications
capability. Soft X-ray output, achieved Industrial applications are not yet as
with special flash X-ray tubes using a thin widespread as applications to ballistics
beryllium or polyester film window, and detonics. A dynamic study of liquid
allows much higher X-ray dose and filled high voltage power switches (10 kV,
contrast. Soft X-rays are useful in the 600 A) was made to investigate arc
observation of low density media or in initiation and quenching during switch
flash X-ray diffraction studies. opening.
Others. A number of other flash X-ray Arc welding and electron beam
systems have also been designed, built welding21 have also been studied by flash
and used, particularly for very high radiography and flash cineradiography.
penetration studies, for a variety of Another application is to the metal
ballistic and diffraction applications,16 casting process, as illustrated in Fig. 11.
and for soft X-ray and characteristic X-ray This sequence of four radiographs was
FIGURE 11. Application of high voltage slow video flash radiography system to study casting
process. Sequential radiographs of filling of multicavity shell mold: (a) first image; (b) second;
(c) third; (d) fourth, cavities filled.
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
System
Technique Setup
Operating current 0 to 0.5 mA, selectable
See Table 1 lists features of the reversed Power 120 V, 60 Hz, 20 A
geometry, scanning source system. The Speed ≤ 4 s (512 to 2048 bits, selectable)
most unique feature of the system is the
Detector
large scanning X-ray source with a target
diameter of about 250 mm (10 in.). The Type sodium iodide (> 99 percent efficient)
X-ray source operates in a manner similar Diameter 25 mm (1 in.)
to a video monitor. An electron beam is Length 100 mm (4 in.)
electronically rastered over the inner Extender diameter 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) diameter
surface of the front of the X-ray source. Image
Where the electrons collide with the inner Area magnification ×1 to ×100
surface of the tube, X-rays are generated. Focal spot size < 25 µm (0.001 in.)
By electronically scanning the electron
Linear imaging 256 to 2000 lines
beam, the instantaneous position of the
X-ray source scans an area of the front Overall field of view 75 to 250 mm (3 to 10 in.)
surface of the tube. The size and location Off-axis alignment ± 0.7854 rad (± 45 degrees)
of the scanned region is user definable Penetrameter power 2-2T for aluminum
and varies from the whole front surface to Resolution
an area of about 50 × 50 mm Contrast resolution 0.5 percent for plastics and composites;
(2.0 × 2.0 in.). The repetition rate of the 0.3 percent for 4.19 mm (0.165 in.)
scan is user definable, variable from thick aluminum
0.25 to 16 s. The acceleration voltage is Contrast control ×1 to ×1000 signal gain
also user definable from 55 to 160 kV Image resolution 1 to 80 pixels per millimeter
with an electron beam current up to (25 to 2000 pixels per inch)
about 0.5 mA. The diameter of the Spatial resolution 4.5 to 10 line pairs per millimeter
electron beam spot at the inner surface of
the tube is about 25 µm (0.001 in.).
from the source pass through the rib of Reversed geometry scanning source
the wing and reach the X-ray detectors. X-radiography has been applied to the
Simultaneous image acquisition from detection of corrosion.27,28 A technique
eight different angles facilitates crack has been presented for reducing data from
detection and increased test throughput. a reversed geometry system to provide
The system completed the entire test in images of material thickness by
less than 2 h and detected foreign objects calibrating the data using known
and a large rib crack. thicknesses within the images. Using a
Using this setup on another occasion, second order approximation of Beer’s
the radiographer found fatigue cracks equation, good agreement was achieved
propagating from rivet heads that had not between the radiographic and mechanical
been previously detected. In one case, a measurements of thickness. Details of this
fatigue crack ran the length between two technique are discussed elsewhere.22
rivet heads. These cracks were later Figure 15 shows material loss due to
verified by removing the skin and corrosion in an aircraft crown. Researchers
performing eddy current testing. However, calibrated the thickness of the remaining
compared to eddy current testing, the aluminum portions by comparing the
large area X-ray system provided the gray scale values with known values of a
advantage in both throughput and depth calibrated step wedge they measured
of penetration. under the same conditions. To test the
One rivet, shown in Fig. 13a as a peak contrast sensitivity of the system,
in a three-dimensional density plot, researchers tested a 1.3 mm (0.05 in.)
displayed what appeared to be a crack thick aluminum panel with slight
(white line protruding at an angle corrosion. The thickness values over the
60 degrees from vertical). Before removing selected area of corrosion vary between
the skin to begin repairs, however, the 1.1 to 1.3 mm (0.045 to 0.050 in.). This
radiographer decided to determine measurement indicates a contrast
whether the feature could be a slit in the
sealant. Using the system’s postacquisition
image processing software, the
radiographer made a slice graph (Fig. 13b FIGURE 14. Setup for inspection of wing structure.
and 13c).
The reversed geometry scanning source
system has been mounted on a dual Detector bank
robotic system for scanning of an entire
aircraft wing (Fig. 14). Cracks and
corrosion were detected.
Corrosion Detection22
A common technique for detecting
corrosion in aircraft is visual testing for
surface distortions or pillowing of the
outer skin. Advanced nondestructive
testing techniques are used when regions
are partially or completely inaccessible for
testing because of the overlying structure.
Most of these techniques have difficulty
accurately quantifying the corrosion,
particularly in complex or multilayered X-ray source
structures.
FIGURE 13. Sealant slit: (a) three-dimensional density plot; (b) radiograph showing angular
rivet and line that indicates slice; (c) metal thickness in slice (relative scale).
(a) (b) (c)
sensitivity of about two percent for equalization gives the best gray scale
material loss resulting from corrosion. presentation of the corrosion. Because
Detection and quantification of histogram equalization is nonlinear, the
corrosion in real aircraft specimens is quantitative nature of the data is lost.
considerably more difficult than Examination of the images in Fig. 15
quantifying variations in thickness in a illustrates a difficulty in quantification of
fabricated specimen. The image of a corrosion in real specimens. The corroded
typical lap joint specimen in Fig 15a areas of the specimen have the
illustrates this difficulty. The specimen, appearance of having more material
obtained from an aircraft fuselage, has rather than less. This can be readily seen
several different thicknesses. Linear in an alternate representation of the data.
scaling of the image contrast to enable the Following calibration of the data, a
visualization of the variable thicknesses in three-dimensional volume can be
the specimen masks the slight variation constructed by assuming a flat bottom for
resulting from the corrosion in the the sample and a voidless, homogeneous
sample. Improved visualization of the structure. The vertical voxels of the
corrosion is obtained by performing a volume representation are filled with
linear stretch of the contrast, which scales fixed values until the projection through
the image to enable visualization of the the volume representation is equal to the
corrosion for a single thickness of the measured projection through the
specimen. specimen. This reconstructed volume is
An alternate technique that enables the then displayed with a volume
rapid visualization of corrosion in a visualization algorithm. For the specimen
specimen with multiple thicknesses is in Fig. 15a, the results of this procedure
histogram equalization. Histogram are shown in Fig. 15b. The region of
corrosion appears as an increase in the
apparent thickness of the material.
FIGURE 15. Enhancement of corrosion data: The apparent increase in material
(a) scaled radiographic image; thickness is a result of the radiographic
(b) three-dimensional rendering from intensities being a function of the total
detector of reversed geometry, scanning mass along the ray path between the
source system. source and the detector. As the material
corrodes, the aluminum of the structure
(a) combines with other elements to produce
corrosion byproducts. These byproducts
are sometimes trapped within the
structure. The net mass along the ray path
is the mass of the residual material plus
the mass of the byproducts. This increase
in net mass results in an increase rather
than a decrease in the attenuation of the
X-rays, which gives the appearance of an
increase in material thickness rather than
a decrease. The profile of thickness can be
plotted in menu generated charts along
user selectable lines.
X-ray tomographic images help to
provide insight into the nature of
corrosion and the difficulty of quantifying
it with radiographic techniques. X-ray
tomography enables viewing cross
sections of the material, without
(b) disturbing either the delicate structure of
the residual material or the location of the
byproducts. The nature of corrosion, as
illustrated in these cross sections, makes it
difficult to quantify with any technique.
However, the increase in apparent
thickness is a good indicator as to the
presence of corrosion.
The detectability of the corrosion with
radiography can be further improved with
digital laminography. Laminography is
performed by imaging the specimen from
several different angles. These images are
all back projected and summed to yield an
image that highlights the information at a
selected depth in the measurement
Closing
A reversed geometry portable system has
the capability to detect fatigue cracks in
aircraft structure. The system also can
distinguish between cracks, which reduce
the base level thickness, and irregularities
in sealant, which do not.
The reversed geometry technique can
present images of the effects of corrosion
on a real aircraft specimen. Because of the
nature of the corrosion, the radiograph
gives the appearance of increased
thickness in the corroded area, making
quantification of the extent of corrosion
difficult. Using data from the eight
detectors laminographic image
reconstruction of planes of interest within
the lap joint can increase the detectability
of the corrosion effects. Digital removal of
surface features from images of interior
planes of interest can improve corrosion
boundary definition.
always possible to have the sensor in triangle relationship. With the rigid
contact with the surface of the part. parallax technique, no markers are
In addition to problems encountered in necessary. However, the part thickness,
calculating the object’s height above the the distance from source to sensor and the
sensor surface, certain orientation or source shift must be accurately known. In
discontinuity geometries can cause addition to knowing these measurements,
measurement errors; these errors are not the image of the discontinuity must be
due to failure of the technique but to present on a twice exposed radiograph.
failure of the radiographer to recognize Normally, this radiograph is made by
and compensate for variations in object (1) calculating the necessary exposure
displacement. time; (2) making one part of the
radiograph with half of this exposure
time; (3) moving the source parallel to
(and a specified distance along) the sensor
Rigid Formula plane; and then (4) making the second
Figure 17a shows the rigid formula half of the exposure. The rigid parallax
parallax technique, which is also defined technique can be used when the sensor
in Eqs. 2 to 4. surface is placed in contact with the part
bottom and when there are no limitations
D B on the height of the source above the
(2) = sensor plane. It is important to have a
T − D A significantly large ratio of (1) the distance
from source to sensor over (2) the distance
BT from sensor side of object to sensor when
(3) D = using the rigid parallax technique.
A + B
Three other important points should
be remembered when using rigid formula
BT
(4) Hs = D − K = − K parallax radiography.
A + B
1. The fundamental relationship between
discontinuity height and image shift is
and where A is the source’s shift between nonlinear.
exposures; B is the parallax or image shift 2. As the discontinuity height
of the discontinuity; D is the distance of approaches the distance from source
the discontinuity above the image plane; to sensor, the image shift increases
K is the distance from the test object to without limit.
the sensor plane (assuming those surfaces 3. When the discontinuity height is
are parallel); and T is the distance from small compared to the distance from
source to sensor.30,31 source to sensor, the curve of accuracy
By measuring or knowing the first approaches linearity.
three parameters, the fourth parameter
can be calculated based on the similar
Discontinuity Marker
Sensor
Marker background plane
Object close to
background does not
appear to change position
FIGURE 17. Stereo technique diagrams: (a) rigid formula parallax technique; (b) single marker approximate technique;
(c) double marker approximate technique.
(a) (c)
A
A
Source 1 Source 2
Source 1 Source 2
T–D
T
Discontinuity
Source T
side
H marker
Hs
D K
B Sensor plane
H
Hs
(b) K
A
Sensor side
Source 1 Source 2 marker B3 B1 B2 Sensor
plane
Legend
A = source shift
B = indication shift in image
D = distance from discontinuity to sensor plane
K = distance from test object to sensor plane
H = thickness of test object
Hs = height of discontinuity above marker on sensor side
T = distance from source to sensor
Marker
Discontinuity
H
Hs
B1 B2 Sensor plane
If the sensor is not in intimate contact where Hs is the height of the discontinuity
with the part, the error will be increased above the sensor side marker and H is the
because the proportional ratio is based on distance between the source side marker
the discontinuity height above the sensor and the sensor side marker.
plane. Listed in Table 2 are the various
parallax formulas, the triangulation
measurement requirements and the
general areas of application for the
Double Marker double-marker, single-marker and rigid
Approximate Formula formula parallax techniques.
When the sensor cannot be placed in
intimate contact with the object or when
the image of the discontinuity is not Effects of Discontinuity
present on a double exposed radiograph,
the double marker approximate technique Geometry on Parallax
should be used (see Fig. 17c). Accuracy
If both markers are thin, neglect their The effect of discontinuity geometry on
thickness and assume that they represent the accuracy of parallax calculations is
the top and bottom of the test piece. By common to all three of these techniques.
measuring the parallax or image shift of Calculations typically indicate the center
each marker, as well as that of the line dimension of the discontinuity above
discontinuity, the relative position of the the sensor plane. However, in those cases
discontinuity between the two surfaces of where the geometry of the discontinuity
the test object can be obtained by linear is not cylindrical or rectilinear, its shape
interpolation, using Eqs. 5 to 9. can influence the accuracy and
detectability of discontinuities. If the
(5) B1 − B3 ≅ ∆ Bd general shape of the discontinuity can be
determined by viewing a standard
radiograph, proper allowances can be
(6) B2 − B3 ≅ ∆ Bs made.
Figure 18 shows three cases where the
approximate, average displacement of the
∆ Bd B1 − B3 discontinuity on the sensor plane can be
(7) ≅ calculated by using Eq. 10.
∆ Bs B2 − B3
L × R
Hs ∆ Bd (10) Parallax shift =
(8) ≅ 2
H ∆ Bs
where R and L are indication widths
caused by sources 1 and 2 respectively.
∆ Bd If the discontinuity geometry is similar
(9) Hs ≅ Hs ×
∆ Bs to one of those in Fig. 19, averaging the
Rigid formula yes yes yes yes for relatively short distances from source to sensor or
where marker placement is difficult
where part thickness is unknown or difficult to
measure
Approximate formula: yes no no yes also requires that part thickness D2 plus sensor
source side marker separation K be known
for relatively long distances
for situations where sensor side marker placement is
difficult
Approximate formula: yes no no no also requires that part thickness H be known
source side and most accurate approximate formula
sensor side markers best for long distances from source to sensor
simplifies data retrieval
discontinuity shift does not show the true cylindrical parts is made using a rigid
discontinuity dimension location. cassette. The radiographer must be aware
of and maintain to the maximum extent
possible, a normal relationship of the
sensor plane to the source. Additionally,
Source Movement when rigid sensor planes (including film
The correct movement is parallel to the cassettes) are used, the standoff or
sensor plane. This principle is further separation distance between the rigid
illustrated in Fig. 20, which shows sensor planes and the inside or outside of
incorrect source movements and changes the cylindrical object must be known and
in distance from source to sensor for a flat compensated for in the calculations.
object or a tapered surface.
When the source position is not Flickered Image Technique for
perpendicular to the sensor plane, the Depth Measurement30
approximate angle of the sensor plane (to
the source) must be known and Quantitative depth information can be
compensated for in the calculations, even extracted from a pair of stereo images
with correct source movement. through parallax calculations or by means
Care must also be exercised when using of the radioscopic flickered image
the parallax technique of discontinuity technique. The flickered image technique
depth determination on cylindrical parts. uses a pair of radioscopic images stored in
It is important to maintain the angle of a computer, a single video monitor and
source to sensor or plane as closely as software.
possible to 90 degrees, particularly in 1. Identifying markers are placed on the
those cases where flexible film cassettes front and back surfaces of the test
(or sensors embedded in fabric that object.
conforms to test object surfaces) are used.
This is also true when radiography of
FIGURE 18. Flaw geometries that permit calculation of average flaw displacement: (a) discontinuity with no
difficult orientation; (b) oblique discontinuity creates larger indication for source 1 than source 2;
(c) indication from long discontinuity resembles indication in Fig. 18a.
Sensor
plane
L L L
R R R
Legend
L = width of indication created by source 2 on sensor plane
R = width of indication created by source 1 on sensor plane
FIGURE 20. Incorrect source shifts: (a) oblique sensor plane; (b) oblique source shift; (c) source shift oblique to
sensor plane.
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 21. Designs for stereo radiographic displays: (a) two video monitors and prismatic specular
stereoscope; (b) signals from moving test object assigned to separate monitors for stereo image; (c) two video
monitors, partially silvered mirror and polarized filters; (d) liquid crystal synchronous polarizing screen
covering entire monitor screen, producing different polarizations for right and left images.
Monitor
Monitor Monitor
Signal
B
Polarizing
Monitor screen
Polarizing
Optics screen
Fixed mirror
Polarizing
glasses
Delay Delay
B A
Signal B Signal A
Synchronous
Monitor polarizing
screen
Stereoscopic
display system
Polarizing
glasses
Polarizing
glasses
Reinforcement will occur when the sort of a diffraction pattern. For example,
difference in the path lengths of the two glassy materials and liquids will generally
waves is equal to a whole number of give diffraction patterns in the form of
wavelengths. __ This
__ path length difference one or more broad diffuse peaks or halos.
is equal to BC + BD (Fig. __22). For __ X-ray powder diffractometry usually deals
reinforcement
__ __ to occur, BC must equal BD; exclusively with crystalline materials.
and if BC = BD = X, then 2X must equal Because every ordered material is made up
n λ, where n is an integer and λ is the of a unique arrangement and number of
wavelength. atoms, every ordered material will give a
It will also be seen that X = d × sinθ, diffraction pattern that is, to all intents
where d is the interplanar atomic spacing. and purposes, also unique. The diffraction
Hence, the overall condition for pattern can, moreover, be used to
reinforcement is a statement of Bragg’s determine the degree of crystallinity; that
law:40 is, the dimensions of the crystalline
regions in otherwise amorphous
(11) n λ = 2 d × sin θ substances.41
Positioning of Analytical
Role of Crystal Structure in Instrumentation
X-Ray Scattering and There are many similarities between the
Diffraction instrumentation used for diffraction and
spectrographic measurements, particularly
All substances are made of individual
in the case of the wavelength dispersive
atoms and nearly all substances have
spectrometer.
some degree of order, or periodicity, in the
As examples, the high voltage
arrangement of these atoms.
generator used to power the X-ray tube is
A crystal is a highly ordered substance
generally of the same type; the digital and
that can be defined as a homogeneous,
analog counting electronics and
anisotropic body (exhibiting properties
goniometer (angle measurement or
with values that vary when measured on
control) circuitry are almost identical. It is
different axes), having the natural shape
often found that in a given laboratory, the
of polyhedron.
high voltage generator and counting
In practical terms, determining the
electronics are actually shared between
homogeneity of a substance depends on
the diffractometer and wavelength
the means available for measuring the
dispersive spectrometer.
crystallinity. In general, the shorter the
Shown in Fig. 23 are layout diagrams of
diffracted wavelength, the smaller the
the instrumentation used in the three
recognizable crystalline region.
different analytical techniques.
Even noncrystalline materials have a
degree of order and each will give some
Trace Analysis
The wavelength dispersive X-ray 100
Detection limit (µg·g-1)
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