PART I: RETRIEVING AND SURFING FOR CONCEPTS AND

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING

I. CONCEPTS OF LEARNING: WHAT IS LEARNING?

Learning is a change in an individual caused by experience (Mazur, 1990)

Changes brought about by development is not learning

Learning is a process of acquiring, remembering, and applying knowledge, skills,

attitudes and other modes of response

Learning refers to the outcomes, or results of an experience: knowledge and

understanding, abilities and skills, and habits and attitudes

II. ELEMENTS OF THE LEARNING ACT (Kolesnik)

Goal:
Need / outcome

Motivation: Stimuli:
Desire to achieve the goal Environmental conditions
/ instruction to reach goal

Perception:
Individual interprets stimuli Response:
and derives meaning Reaction to the stimuli

Reinforcement:
Activities to strengthen
Integration:
new response
Assimilate the new response with those previously
made

III. THEORIES OF LEARNING

A. Behavioral Theories of Learning

Basic Framework

Learning has three elements (Borich)

Environment Performance Reinforcement

 1. Pavlov: Classical Conditioning Theory

An individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an

unconditional stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a condition response.

Learning Paradigm

Before Teacher’s command: child no

Conditioning “Recess time” response

Neutral stimulus

During Command: Ringing of Several parting Child

Conditioning “Recess time” the bell: prepares
snack
Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus

After Teacher’s command: elicits Child puts out

Conditioning “Recess time!” snack for each
Encounter with the
Oral command

Concepts Basic to Classical Conditioning

 Unconditioned stimulus (US) – stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response

 Unconditioned response (UCR) – a response to unconditioned stimulus
 Conditioned stimulus – a stimulus that has acquired the power to generate a conditioned
response.
 Conditioned response – a response elicited after a conditioning process
 Contingency – a situation in which one event happens only after another event has
happened.

Some Applications of Classical Conditioning to Classroom Teaching

1. Facilitate emotional, behavioral, and cognitive response to neural stimuli through positive
association with stimuli.
2. Build positive associations between teaching and learning activities.
3. Relate learning activities with pleasant events.
4. Assist every student to experience success.
5. Maintain a positive learning environment.
6. Develop skills in recognizing differences and similarities among situations to enable
them to discriminate and generalize situations.
2. B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning Theory

An individual learns the desire desired responses because he/she is rewarded for doing so and
learns to avoid undesired responses because he/she is punished for doing so.

Learning Paradigm

Response / behavior Leads to Repeating Operant

occurring consequences Avoiding behavior

Situation # 1

Operant behavior Positive Increase Response

reinforcement occurrence of

Jose studied hard Father gave Increase the

and got 95 in the him P50 desire to study
last test in Math harder

Situation # 2

Operant behavior Negative Increase the

reinforcement chances of getting
high grades,

Pete studied hard Escaped home Keeps on studying

chores harder

Situation # 3

Operant behavior Punishment Response

Ronald shouted Received scoldings will probably

In class and detained after avoid shouting in
class class again

Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning

 Operant conditioning – using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the

occurrence of behavior.
 Reinforcers – any consequence that strengthens a behavior.
- Primary reinforcer – related to basic needs. e.g. food
- Secondary reinforcer – value of something is acquired when associated with primary
reinforcer. e.g. money
- Positive reinforce – consequence given to strengthen behavior
- Negative reinforce – release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior
- Intrinsic – pleasure is inherit in the activity
 - Extrinsic – praises or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior
 Schedule of reinforcement – a rule when to reinforce following a performance
- Continuous reinforcement – reinforcement at every occurrence of behavior
- Intermittent reinforcement – reinforcement given every now and then.
- Ratio schedule – reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Interval schedule – reinforcement after the first response made following a
predetermined period of elapsed time.
 Punishment – any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior.
- Aversive stimulus - a consequence that a person avoids.
 Shaping – teaching of new skills or behaviors by reinforcing learner to help him reacts
goals.
 Extinction – eliminating or decreasing a behavior by withdrawing the reinforcement.
 Cue – signal as to what behavior/s will be reinforced or punished.
 Prompt – a reminder that follows a cue to make sure that a person reacts to the cue.
 Discrimination – response to differences in stimuli.
 Generalization – behaviors learned under one set of conditions can be carried over to
other situations.

Principles of Learning in Operant Conditioning

 Principle of Consequences
Behavior changes according to its immediate consequences: pleasurable
consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it.
 Principle of Reinforcement
Any action taken following a response that increases the likelihood that the
response will occur again.
 Premack Principle or “Grandma Rule”
Less desired activities can be increased by linking them to more desired
activities.
 Principle of Extinction
When reinforcement for a previously learned behavior is withdrawn, the behavior
fades away.

Some Applications of Operant Conditioning Theories in Classroom Teaching

1. Arrange for adequate practice of behavior learned.

2. Recognize positive behaviors from the student’s perspective.
3. Reinforcers have different effects to different students, hence, use varied reinforcers for
different children.
4. Assist students in making appropriate generalization.
5. Continue reinforcing desirable behaviors.
6. Extend continuous reinforcement to enable students to acquire new behavior.
7. Carefully and systematically praise students.
8. Give deserved reinforcers and punishment.
 9. Exercise extreme care in reinforcing undersirable behaviors.
10. Use negative reinforcement instead of punishment.
11. Avoid comparing students’ performance.
12. Be fair and consistent in applying punishments.
13. Focus punishments on student’s behavior not on her personality.

B. Social Learning Theory

1. Bandura – Observation and Imitation Learning Theory

An individual learns through observation and imitation of others.

Model
(attractive, popular, competent, Learner
Successful, interesting)

1. Models the behavior pays attention

2. Demonstrates the behavior

Concepts in Social Learning Theory

 Observational learning consists of four phases: attentional, retention,
reproduction, and motivation.
 Vicarious learning is learning acquired from observing the consequences of
others’ behavior.
 Self-regulated learning – occurs when individuals observe, assess and judge
their own behavior against their own standards, and subsequently reward or
punish themselves.

Models are classified as:

 Real life – exemplified by teachers and parents.
 Symbolic – presented through oral or written symbols, e.g. books.
 Representational – presented through audio-visual means, e.g. films

Components of Successful Modeling (Omrod)

 Attention: Make sure students are observing and thinking about what is being
done.
 Retention: Provide mechanism to help students remember the behavior.
 Motor reproduction: Students must be physically capable of performing the
behavior being modeled.
  Motivation: Students should know the reason why they demonstrate the
behavior of the model.
 Self-management: help students gain control of their own learning.
 Goal setting phase – setting higher standards leads to higher performance
 Recording and evaluating phase – students record performance
 Self-reinforcement

Some Applications of Social Learning Theory in Classroom Teaching

 The teachers are always regarded as role models by students; they should
therefore model behaviors and attitudes they want their learners to acquire.
 Modeling demands close attention from observers.
 Check student’s capacity to cope with the model performing the behaviors being
imitated.
 Students should be aware of the reason for imitating a behavior.
 Expose students to a variety of real life, symbolic, and representational models.

C. Cognitive Theories of Learning

1. Atkinson and Shiffrin: Information Processing Theory

The individual learns when the human kind takes in information (encoding), performs operation
on it, stores the information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval).

Learning Paradigm

EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESSES

Sensory
Register

Short-Term Learn Long-Term

Memory (save) Memory
perception

Working Active
Memory retrieve
Memories

Encoding Temporary Stage Permanent Storage

Sequence of Information Processing (Slavin)

1. Sensory registers – receive the large amounts of information from the senses and holds
it for a very short time for initial processing for transfer to the short-term memory. If
nothing happens, it is lost and forgotten.
 Long term memory – keeps information for long period of time and integrates it through
rehearsal, elaboration, and organization with information that is already known. Executive
control monitors and guides the whole process.

2. Short term or working memory – holds the limited amount of information paid attention
to, organizes it for storage or for discarding and connecting to other information. Rehearsal
or repetition facilities holding the information in the short-term memory for transfer to the
long-term memory.

Basic Concepts
 Perception – a person’s interpretation of stimuli.
 Storage – putting information in memory.Encoding – changing the format of new
information as it is being stored in memory.
 Rehearsal – mental repetition in information.
 Retrieval – finding information previously stored in memory.
 Dual-coding – holds the complex networks of verbal representations and images to
promote long term retention.
 Episodic memory – a part of long term memory that stores images of personal
experiences (Slavin).
 Semantic memory – a part of long term memory that stores facts and general
knowledge (Slavin).
 Procedural memory – a part of long term memory that stores information about how
to do things (Slavin).

Application of Information Processing Theories in Classroom Teaching

1. Hold learner’s attention in all cognitive tasks.
2. Assists learner to asses materials considered most important to learn.
3. Concentrate on few key ideas.
4. Establish the apperceptive basis of new materials.
5. Limit processing to few information at a time.
6. Organize all information to be learned.
7. Develop skills related to elaboration and organization.
8. Employ interesting rehearsal strategies.
9. Develop skills of students in forming images of information they meet.
10. Check on the background of experiences of learners related to topics under study.
11. Begin with existing knowledge base of learner.
12. Check accuracy of student’s interpretation of information.
13. Present accurate alternative explanation to correct student’s misconception.
14. Employ mnemonics when new information cannot be meaningfully learned.
15. Ask challenging questions.
16. Give corrective feedback.
17. Focus on meaning.
2. Gagne: Cumulative Learning Theory
Learning occurs at the individual develops higher level skills that build successively on lower
skills (Klausmeier)
Learning Paradigm

Problem Solving

Concept Learning

Multiple Descrimination

Motor chains Verbal chain

Stimulus Response

Signal learning

Basic Concepts

Types of learning according to level of skills/capabilities

 Signal Learning
Occurs when two stimuli are nearly simultaneously presented and the
response previously elicited only by the unconditioned stimulus is also
elicited by the newly conditioned stimulus.

Illustration: Hand command for “sit down”

 Stimulus-Response learning
Response to specific stimuli that has been discriminated from other
stimuli.

Illustration: Verbal command “sit down”

 Motor chains / Verbal chains learning

 Two or more separate motor / verbal responses may be combined or
chained to develop a more complex skill.

Illustration: Writing the letters of the alphabet

 Discrimination learning
Discriminating a specific stimulus from other stimuli

Illustration: Recognizing sound of a fire engine discriminated from other

siren sounds.

 Concept learning
Making a common response to stimuli that are different or dissimilar in
various ways.

Illustration: Concept of “triangle” discriminate triangle from other

shapes and deduce commonality among different shapes
 Rule learning
Learning of two or more concepts.

Illustration: Making a correct response to information contained in this

statement “Equilateral triangles are similar in shape.”

 Problem Solving
Learn to recall and apply rules.

Illustration: Solving mathematical problems using given formula.

Some Applications of Cumulative Learning Theory in Classroom Teaching

1. Observe strictly sequence in teaching in terms of level of learning skills and
capabilities required.
2. Check student’s capabilities in each level of learning before moving to the next
level.
3. Make sure that prerequisite learning skills are acquired / developed before
proceeding to the target level.

3. Ausubel: Meaningful Learning Theory

An individual learns by relating newly acquired information to what he/she already knows.
 Learning Paradigm
Dimensions I Dimensions II Forms of Meaningful
Learning

The way by which The way the learner incor-

Knowledge is made porates new information
Available to the learner: into existing information

Reception learning
 In final form Relates to existing Meaningful
knowledge = reception learning
Discovery learning
 Learner identifies Relates to existing Meaningful
and arrives at the knowledge = discovery learning
information himself

Basic Concept in Meaningful Learning Theory

 Meaningful learning set – that attitude that one can make sense out of the information to
be learned.
 Relevant prior knowledge – contains information to which a new idea can be related.
 Organization – finding connections among the various pieces of information one needs
to learn.
 Elaboration – expanding on new information based on what one already knows.
 Visual imagery – forming a mental picture of information.
 Advance organizers – initial statements, activities, and techniques that provide a structure
for the new information and relate it to information students already possess.
 Cognitive structure – refers to the stability, clarity, and organization of a learner’s subject
matter knowledge in a given discipline.

Other Related Views of Learning

 Constructivist Theories of Learning
Learners must individually discover and transform complex information,
checking against old rules and revising rules when they no longer work. (Slavin)
 Metacognitive View of Learning
- Awareness of an ability to capitalize on one’s own knowledge and thought process as
applied to some specific task
- Knowledge, awareness, and ability to monitor one’s own cognition
- Thoughts of what we know and what we don’t know
- Learning how to learn
- Knowledge about one’s own thought process
 - Active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of one’s cognitive
processes

Reception and Discovery Learning Theory

 Meaningful Reception Learning Theory (Ausubel)
1. Use advance organizers
2. Use a number of examples
3. Focus on both similarities and differences

 Meaningful Discovery Learning Theory (Bruner)

1. Present both examples and non-examples of the concepts
2. Help students see connections among concepts
3. Pose a question and let students try to find the answer
4. Encourage students to make intuitive guesses

Some Applications of Meaningful Learning Theory to Classroom Teaching

1. Assist students to remember information that provide the basic building blocks for new
learning.
2. Build meaning by connecting what is to be learned to what has been experienced earlier.
3. Utilize meaningful mnemonics and other memory strategies.
4. Present each lesson in setting and vocabulary that make sense to the students.
5. Make frequent associations with familiar experience and vocabulary.
6. Provide plenty of “mapping” experiences through noting causal connections, comparison/
contrast, and examples.

IV. ACHIEVING DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
A. Achieving Cognitive learning
1. Teaching Fact, Factual Information, and Knowledge

Basic Concepts
 Fact – something that has happened, an event or an actual state of
affairs.
 Factual Information – information discriminated by many individuals
who share the same cultural background and accepted as correct or
appropriate.
 Information – anything that is discriminated by an individual.
 Knowledge – factual information that is learned initially and then
remembered.

Types of Knowledge
 General – knowledge that applies to many different situations.
  Domain-specific – knowledge that pertains to a particular task or
subject.
 Declarative – knowledge of verbal information: facts, beliefs, opinions.
 Procedural – knowledge of how a task is performed.
 Conditional – knowing when and why the need to use declarative and
procedural knowledge.

Three Categories of Knowledge

 Knowledge of specifics – isolated facts and remembered separately
 Knowledge of ways and means – conventions, trends, and sequences,
classification and categories, criteria, and methodology
 Knowledge of abstraction – laws, theories, principles

Application of Principles in Teaching and Learning Factual Information

Principles Applications in Classroom Situation

1. Organizing learning
material through
meaningful association
facilitates acquisition of
information.
2. Transition from old to
new materials facilitates
acquisition of
information.
3. Proper sequencing of
materials facilitates
acquisition of
information.
4. Appropriate practice
facilitates acquisition of
information.
5. Independent evaluation
facilitates acquisition of
information.
 Group items
- according to common attributes
- by relationships
 Organize the material to a higher level of
generality
 Use advanced organizer that is more general,
abstract, inclusive, and comparative.
 Utilize related prior knowledge of students as
advanced organizers
 Order subject matter
- according to regularity of the structure
- according to the responses available to
the learner
- according to similarity of different
stimuli.
 Provide adequate practice through
- use of knowledge in situation
- relationship
- distribution of session
- review of small amount of material, then
at increasingly larger interval
 Reinforce practice through confirmation of
correct responses.

2. Teaching Concepts and Principles

Basic Concepts of Concept and Principles

 Concept -assentially an idea or an understanding of what something is
-a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people.
-organized information about the properties of one or more things.
 Principles –relationship among two or more concepts
Classification of Principles
 Cause and effect – if-then relationship
 Probability – prediction on actual sense
 Correlation – prediction based on a wide range of phenomena
 Axioms – rules

Instances of Concepts
 Positive – specific example of a concept
 Negative – non-example of a concept

Attributes of Concept
 Learnability – some concepts are readily learned than others
 Usability – some concepts can be used more than others
 Validity – the extent to which experts agree on its attributes
 Generality – the higher the concepts, the more general it is
 Power – the extent to which concept facilitates learning of other concepts
 Structure – internally consistent organization
 Instance perceptibility – the extent to which concepts can be sensed
 Instance numerousness – number ranging from one to infinite number

Four Levels of Concept Attainment

 Concrete • classification
 Identity • formal

Four Components in AnyConcept Development (Joyce & Weil, 1996)

 Name of concept
 Definition
 Relevant and irrelevant attributes
 Examples and non-examples

Simple Procedures in Concept Analysis

 State attributes and non-attributes
 Give examples and non-examples
 Indicate relationships of a concept to other concepts
 Identify the principles in which concept is used
 Use concept in solving problems
 Application of Principles in Teaching of Concepts and Principles
Principles Application in Clasroom Situation
1. Awareness of  Manage instruction by
attributes facilitates - guiding learners to identify the critical attributes
concept learning. - using examples and non-examples which the attribute
of the concept can be identified
- utilizing activities where instances of the concept can
be directly observed
- providing for over generalization and undergene-
realizing to establish the limits of the concept
- providing the right amount of variation and repetition
- varying irrelevant dimensions may be identified easily
2. Correct language for  Teach relevant names and labels associated with
concepts facilitates - concept
concept learning - attributes
3. Proper sequencing  Concept development should proceed
of instances facilitates - From simple to complex example
concept learning - From concrete to abstract
- From parts to whole
- From whole to parts
 Present concepts of:
- Larger number of instances of one concept
- High dominance than those of low dominance
- Positive and negative instances of the concept rather
than all positive or all negative instances
 Present instances of concept simultaneously rather than
successively
4. Guided student  Guide students’ discovery of concept through:
discovery facilitates - Encounter with real and meaningful problems
concept learning - Gathering accurate information
- A responsive environment
- Prompt and accurate feedback
5. Concept application  Conduct meaningful applications of concept by:
facilitates concept - Drawing on the learners’ experiences
learning - Observing related situation
- Encountering life-like situations
6. Independent  Arrange for independent evaluation by:
evaluation facilitates - Creating an attitude of seeking and searching
concept learning - Arranging for self-evaluation of the adequacy of one’s
concepts
- Assisting learners to evaluate their concepts and their
methods of evaluating them

3. Developing Problem Solving Abilities

Basic Concepts
 Problem – felt difficulty or a question for which a solution may be found only by a process
of thinking
 Thinking – the recall and reorganization of facts and theories that occur at a time when the
individual is faced with obstacles and problems
 Reasoning – productive thinking in which previous experiences are organized or combined
in new ways to solve a problem
 Problem Solving – creating new solutions to remove felt difficulty

Steps in Problem Solving (Klausmeier)

 Felt need
 Recognizing a problem situation
 Gathering data
 Evaluating the possiblesolution
 Testing and verification
 Making a generalization or conclusion

Principles for Developing Problem Solving Abilities and Their Applications in Classroom
Situations
Principles
1. Recognizing difficulties
in a situation facilitates
problem solving
2. Delimiting the problem
facilitates problem solving
3. Using new methods for
arriving at a conclusion
facilitates problem solving
4. Generalizing possible
solutions through applying
knowledge and methods to
Applications in Classroom Situations
 Assist students to:
- identify solvable significant problems
- state problems themselves
 Guide students in
- analyzing the situation related to the problem
- determining problems of immediate concern
- delimiting the problem
- stating problems with opportunity for securing
progress towards a solution
- deciding the form in which the solutions might
appear
- using information processing skill of selective
attention
 Help students in
- locating needed information
- acquiring the necessary background information,
concepts, principles for dealing with the problem
- developing their minimum reference list
- identify various sources of information
- drawing information from their own experiences
- deciding on a uniform system for writing
bibliography
 Lead students to generate solutions through
- brainstorming session
- processing information in terms of the larger
 the problem situation
facilitates problem solving
4. 5. Problem solutions
through inferring and
testing hypothesis
facilitates problem solving
Developing Creativity
problem
- incorporating diverse information
- eliminating overlapping and discrepancies
 Develop the skills of the students in
- drawing hypothesis
- stating hypothesis
- testing hypothesis

Basic Concepts (Woolfolk)

 Restructuring – conceiving of a problem in a new or different way
 Incubation – unconscious work toward a solution while one is away from the problem
 Divergent thinking – coming up with many possible solutions
 Convergent – narrowing possibilities to the single answer
 Creativity – occurrence of uncommon or unusual but appropriate responses: imaginative,
original thinking

Characteristics of a Creative Individual (Klausmeir)

 Has a high degree of intellectual capacity
 Genuinely values intellectual matter
 Values own independence and autonomy
 Verbally fluent
 Enjoys aesthetic impressions
 Is productive
 Is concerned with philosophical problems
 Has high aspiration level of self
 Has a wide range of interests
 Thinks in unusual way
 Is an interesting, arresting person
 Appears straightforward, candid
 Behaves in ethically consistent manner

Principles for Developing Creativity and their Applications in Classroom Teaching

Principles Applications in Classroom Teaching

1. Production of novel
forms of ideas through
expressing oneself by
figural, verbal, and physical
means facilitates
development of creativity
 Model creative behaviors such as:
- curiousity
- inquiry
- divergent production
 Provide opportunities for:
- expression in many media: language, rhythm,
music, and art
- divergent production through figural, verbal, and
physical means
- creative process
 - valuing creative achievement
- production of ideas that cannot be scored right or
wrong
 Develop a continuing program for developing creative
abilities
2. Associating success in  respect
creative efforts with high  unusual question
level of creative experience  imaginative creative ideas
facilitates the development  reward
of creativity  creative efforts
 unique productions
B. Achieving Psychomotor Learning
Basic Concepts
 Capacity – individual’s potential power to do a certain task.
 Ability – actual power to perform an act physically and mentally.
 Skill – level of proficiency attained in carrying out sequences of action in a consistent
way.
Characteristics of Skilled Performance
 Less attention to the specific movement (voluntary to involuntary)
 Better differentiation of cues
 More rapid feedback and correction of movements
 Greater speed and coordination
 Greater stability under a variety of environmental conditions
Phrases of Motor Skills Learning
 Cognitive phase – understanding the task
 Organizing phase – associating responses with particular cues and integrating
responses
 Perfecting phase – executing performance in automatic fashion
Application of Principles in Developing Psychomotor Skills in Classroom Teaching

Principles Applications in Classroom Teaching

1. Attending to the
characteristics of the skill
and assessing one’s own
related abilities facilitate
motor skill learning.
2. Observing and imitating a
model facilitates initial
learning of skills and
movements.
3. Guiding initial responses
 Analyze the psychomotor skills in terms
of the learners’ abilities and development
level
- to determine the specific abilities
necessary to perform it
- to arrange the component abilities in
order
- to help students master them
 Demonstrate and describe the:
- entire procedure for advance
organizer
- correct component of motor abilities
- links of the motor chain in sequence
- skill again step by step
 Provide verbal guidance to:
 verbally and physically - give learners a feeling of security
facilitates learning of - direct attention to more adequate
motor skills. techniques
- promote insight into the factors
related to successful performance of
task
 Provide physical guidance to:
- facilitate in making correct responses
initially
- correct immediately wrong responses
4. Practicing under desirable  Conduct practice of skills
conditions facilitates the - close to actual conditions where the
learning of skills through skill will be used
eliminating errors and - from whole to part arrangement
strengthening and refining - through repetitive drills in the same
correct responses and materials
form. - by distributed rather than mass
practice
- with interval of rest long enough to
overcome fatigue but not too long
that forgetting occurs.
5. Knowledge of results  Provide informational feedback on
facilitates skill learning. - correct and incorrect responses
- adequate and inadequate responses
- correct or incorrect verbal remarks
 Feedback may be secured from
- verbal analysis
- chart analysis
- tape performance
6. Evaluating one’s own  Self evaluation of learner’s performance
performance facilitates through
C. Achieving mastery of skills. - discussion
- analysis
- assessment
Affecti
ve Learning
Developing Attitudes and Values
 Affective – pertains to emotions or feelings rather than thought.
 Affective learning – consists of responses acquired as one evaluates the meaning of
an idea, object, person, or event in terms of his view of the world.
Main Elements
 Taste – like or dislike of a particular animal, color, or flavor.
 Attitudes – learned, emotionally toned predisposition to react in a consistent way,
favorable or unfavorable toward a person, object, or idea.
 Values – inner core belief, and internalized standards as norm of behavior.
Defining Attributes of Attitudes
 Learnability – all attitudes are learned.
 Stability – learned attitudes become stronger and enduring.
  Personal-societal significance – attitudes are of high importance to the individual
and society.
 Affective-cognitive contents – attitudes have both factual information and emotion
associated with an object.
Application of Principles in Developing Attitudes and Values in Classroom
Teaching
Principles
1. Recognizing an attitude
facilitates its initial
learning.
2. Observing and imitating a
model facilitates initial
attitude learning.
3. Positive attitudes toward
a person, event, or object
facilitates affective
learning.
4. Getting information about
a person, event, or object
influences initial attitude
learning and later
commitment to group
held attitudes.
5. Interacting in primary
groups influences initial
attitude learning and later
commitment to group
held attitude.
6. Practicing an attitude
facilitates stable
organization.
Applications in Classroom Teaching
 Guide students in:
- identifying the attitudes and values
to be developed
- defining the terminal behavior
expected of them
 Teacher provides:
- different types of exemplary models
- opportunities to examine carefully
instructional materials in terms of
attitudes and values presented
 Teacher sets as a good example
 Provide for pleasant and positive
emotional experiences by:
- showing warmth and enthusiasm
toward students
- keeping personal prejudices under
control
- allowing students to express one’s
own value commitments
- demonstrating interest in subject
matter
- making possible for each student to
experience success
 Guide learners to extend their informative
experiences by:
- undergoing direct experiences
- listening to group lectures and
discussions
- engaging in extensive reading
- participating in related activities
 Facilitate interacting in primary groups
through:
- group planning
- group discussion
- group decision making
- role-playing
 Practice context should:
- regard the teacher as an exemplary
model manifesting interest in the
students
- be characterized by positive climate
- confirm learner responses with
 positive remarks, approving nod, and
smile
7. Purposeful learning  Guide learners to engage in independent
facilitates effective attitude cultivation through:
attitude acquisition and - providing opportunities for them to
modification. think about their own attitude
- allowing them to question or change
their attitudes
- writing about open-ended themes

V. DESIRABLE CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

A. Motivation
Basic Concepts of Motivation
 A number of ideas that direct n individual to act or do something.
 The desire to approach something or avoid others.
 Statement of desires, goals, likes, dislikes, wants, and fears.
 Something that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior
Theories of Motivation
 Instinct Theory / Genetic Pattern – Motivation is built into everyone
through heredity. It is the result of inherited and innate instincts.
 Association Theory (Thorndike) – Deprivation of need will cause the
individual to act to satisfy the need.
 Psycho-Analytic or Drive Theory (Frued) – Individuals behave as they do
because their early experiences drive them instinctively to do so.
 Humanistic or need gratification theory (Maslow) – An individual does
something to satisfy deficiency needs.
 Cognitive Theory (Hunt) – Man is rational and consciously decides what
he will and will not do. Motives, curiosity, intention, motive to achieve
success and goals activate and direct the individual to action.
 Attribution theory (Heidereck) – People seek to understand why they
success or fail.
 Self-efficacy Theory (Bandura) – The key to individual achievement lies
with the learner’s own belief in his ability to organize and execute actions
required for successful performance (T. Borich).
 Self-determination Theory (Deci) – An attitude of determination is the
foundation for motivated behavior.
Kinds of Motivation
 Intrinsic – an individual’s internal desire to perform a particular task
 Extrinsic – promoted by factors external to the individual and unrelated to
the task being performed such as recognition or a high grade.
 Application of Principles of Motivation to Classroom Teaching
Principles
1. Student attention to a
learning task is essential
for initiating learning.
2. Intending to achieve and
to experience success is
essential to realistic goal
setting.
3. Attainment of goal
requires setting of
learning tasks at an
appropriate difficulty
level.
4. Information concerning
appropriate behaviors and
correcting errors are
associated with better
performance.
5. Observing and imitating a
model facilitates the
initial acquisition of pro-
social behaviors.
6. Verbalizing pro-social
values and behaviors and
reasoning about them
provide a conceptual
basis for development of
behaviors.
7. Rewards direct and
sustain attention and
effort toward achieving
the desired behavior.
8. High stress and anxiety is
associated with low
performance, erratic
conduct and personality
disorders.
Applications to Classroom Teaching
 Guide students to
- focus attention on desired objectives
- verbalize information
 The teacher must capitalize on the
learner’s need to achieve
- level of aspiration
- motives
 Assist students in goal setting by:
- providing a variety of realistic and
attainable goals
- minimizing social pressure
- encouraging them to compute
against themselves
- making sure that the pupils know
what to do and how to do it
 Provide learners with feedback regarding
their behavior and performance.
 Correct errors
 Be an exemplary model.
 Provide variety of real life,
representational, and symbolic models.
 Utilize deserving peers as models.
 Assist learners in developing skills in
- verbalizing pro-social values
- discussing pro-social behaviors
 Reinforce desired behaviors
 Give deserved reward
 Provide
- supportive climate
- success strategies
- techniques to divert attention from
failure
- happy environment
 Avoid
- stressful procedure
- reprimands
- reinforcing wrong response
- unrealistic requirements
- undeserved punishment
B. Retention
Basic Concepts
 Retention occurs when learning have been incorporated into the learner’s
behavior pattern, retained, and remembered.
 Forgetting occurs when the brain trace which is the physical record of
memory fades away.
Causes of Forgetting
1. Disuse – deterioration of connections in the brain when not used.
2. Interference – recall of certain information is inhibited by the presence
of other information in memory
3. Retroactive inhibition – previously learned material is lost because it
is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information. The
interfering material is encountered last, e.g. difficulty of recognizing M
when N was introduced.
4. Proactive inhibition – when learning one set of information interferes
with learning later materials. The interfering material is encountered
first.
5. Reorganization (distortion) occurs when an individual does not learn
well certain materials or new patterns when he has to use it. e.g. a child
learned to spell “believe” and when he needs to use it he spells it
“believe”.
6. Motivated forgetting occurs when the individual decides not to
remember.

C. Transfer
 Basic Concept
 Transfer of Learning – application of knowledge learned in one
situation to a new different situation.
 Types of Transfer
 Lateral transfer occurs when the individual is able to perform a new
task of about the same level. e.g. Solving word problems given in the
textbook and later solving the same (not identical) given on the
board.
 Vertical transfer occurs when the individual is able to learn more
advanced/complex skills, e.g. being able to add and multiply; being
able to read and write.
 Theories of Transfer
 Formal –discipline-theory – faculties of the mind such as memory,
reason, will, and imagination could be strengthened through practice.
 Identical-elements –elements such as facts, skills and methods
present in the original learning situation must be present in the new
learning.
 Generalization theory – use of principles in new situations
  Transposition theory – understanding of the relationships among
facts, processes, and principles become the bases of transfer.
e.g. Recognizing “Lupang Hinirang” in the key of G after learning it
in the key of C although no individual notes are the same.

Application of Principles of Transfer and Retention to Classroom Teaching

Principles Applications to Classroom Teaching

1. Setting realistic goals that initiate
and focus activities facilitates
retention
2. Perceiving the relatedness of
components of a task facilitates
the initial learning and retention
of all types of learning outcomes,
3. Feeling of success with initial
learning promotes retention.
4. Attaining concepts and principles
and developing abilities facilitate
vertical and lateral transfer.
• Guide learners to:
- Set realistic goals in connection with school tasks
- Be thorough in initial learning
- Analyze conflicting ideas
• Manage instruction by:
- Using meaningful (rational) method, instead of
mechanical (rote) method
- Emphasizing meaningfulness and avoiding thoughtless
repetition
- Providing repeated exposure
- Conducting frequenting review sessions
- Providing distributed practice
• Provide learners with
- Activities within their level of performance
- Positive reinforcers / rewards of correct responses
• Apply effective strategies for learning if concepts and
principles and abilities
•Capitalize on the high transfer and retention value of
concepts by
- Providing exemplars in varying context
- Asking learners to give original exemplars and non-
exemplars of concepts

5. Applying newly acquired • Provide learners with

concepts, principles, and abilities
increase retention and transfer.
6. Productive learning over a period • Provide learners with adequate
of time is essential in developing
stable abilities and comprehensive
knowledge which increases
transfer potential.
- Plenty of opportunities for use of concepts and
application of principles and abilities
- Practice with variety of similar problems and situations
rather than identical or exactly the same type
- Alternative intensive intellectual and non-academic
activities.
- Period of time for mastery of knowledge and
internalization of abilities
- Sequential and cumulative learning