5'58 MARY L. DROSER AND DAVID J.

BOTTJER

A SEMIQUANTlTATIVE FIELD CLASSIFICATION OF ICHNOFABRIC'

MARY L. DROSER AND DAVID J. BOTIJER

Department 01 Geologica/ Scíences

'­ University 01 Southern Ca/lfornia

Los Angeles, Ca/¡fornia 90089-0741

INTRODUCTION 1) No bioturbation recorded; al! original sedimentary structures pre­

served.
In order to document variations in the extent ofbioturbation recorded
2) Discrete, isolated trace fossils; up to 10% of original bedding dis­
in the stratigraphic record, we have designed a semiquanlitative field
turbed.
ciassification of ichnofabric ("al1 aspects of the texture and inlernal
structure of a sediment that result from biolurbation"; Ekdale et al. 3) Approximately 10 to 40% of original bedding disturbed. Burrows
are generally isolated, but locally overlap.
1984) based on pattern recognition of the percentage of original sedi­
mentary fabric which has been disrupted by biogenic reworking. Six 4) Last vestiges of bedding discernable; approximately 40 to 60% dis­
ichnofabric indexes have been established. When used in conjunction turbed. Burrows overlap and are not always weH delined.
with descriptive ichnology and sedimentological data, trus methodology
can be used to determine changes in the nature and amOUnl of biotur­
bation in sedimentary rocks. la 1 b~_-..... ¿;4-_:~~j3;'~+-~--~;
APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE ICHNOLOGY
Several approaches to quantitative ichnology ha ve been successfully
>~-::;:::+;i\:~:'~~#á:-~~.::

applied in studies oftrace fossils. For example, general burrow size has ·r. ":-:-=-:.::;;;..... -..:--':""'-.-: ~
been shown to decrease from sediments deposited in aerobic to sedi­ ~~~~. ,,;:~ .~1:;~ '; :~t·~.' ::~';~;J~~' .~~ ~:('~r. Á •. '_*-cs*ac ....
~-~~--"""'-~
rnents dcposited in anaerobic environmenls (e.g., Pratt 1984; Savrda et
al. 1984; Savrda and Bottjer 1986). From sludies of Zoophycos web
. .., :..' .
aD .'JI.""
diameter and meniscus height, Marintsch and Finks (1978) postulaled 2a ~,,'.~.,,~ \ .'

that size oflrace fossils decreases away from the center ofthe geographic
range of lhe organism which made the trace fossils. In addilion, quan­
titative ecological methods (e.g., coefficient of dispersion and nearest­
to-neighbor techniques) have been used for understanding lrace-fossil
~ • ....

distributions. in order to determine trophic strategies as well as lhe

~ ­
possible identily oftrace-making organisms (Pembenon and Frey 1984). n .S
Attempls lo measure the cumulalive amount ofbioturbalion recorded
in strala have also been made. Frey (1970) documented varialions in
burrow abundance and distribution in lhe Upper Cretaceous ofKansas
in order lO determine changes in sedimentation mode and rale as well
as benlhic communily structure. Shroud and Levin (1976) determined
"-­ tbt changes in the densily of Chondriles in thc Middle Ordovician of
Missouri reflect variations in sedimentation rateo Bascd on the as­
sumption thal increased depth and extent of bioturbalion results in
increased overall thickness of dislinct beds prcserved in a unit. Latson
and Rhoads (1983) compared bedding thicknesses in similar lithofacies
of Ordoviciall and Devonian strala from New York stale. With lhis
mcthod, variations in sedimentation mode and rate are minimized
lhrough comparison ofsimilar lithofacies, but any changes in lhe nature
of bioturbation which are not reflected by a change in overall bedding
thlckness remain undetected. Indeed, Larson and Rhoads (1983) inler­
preted their results to indicate that depth of complete reworking in the
Ordovician was esselltially zero but increased to 5 cm in the Devonian.
Classification schemes of ichnofabric based on the amount of dis­
turbed original sedimentary fabric have iJreviously becn proposed
(Reineck 1967; Howard and Frey 1975; Frey and Pembenon 1985),
but none have included a standardized field methodology, such as that
described below.

A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME FOR ICHNOFABRIC

Bioturbation disrupts primary sedimentary fabrico Therefore, indexes
of ichnofabric can be obtained by measuring the percentage of original
sedimentary fabric that has been disturbed. In order to construct a­ FIG. l. -Schematic diagrams of ichnofabric indexes 1 through 5 with
classification scheme based on this premise, ichnofabric was examined representative examples. 1a) Ichnofabric index 1 schematic. 1b) Ex­
in numerous stratigraphic sections from lower Paleozoic carbonates in ample of ichnofabric index 1, Middle Ordovician Badger Flat Lime.
lhe Great Basin region of California, Nevada, and Utah. Field photo­ SlOne, Mazourka Canyon, White-Inyo Mountains, California. 2a) Ich­
graphs were taken of 50-cm by 35-cm vertical cross-sectional areas. nofabric index 2 schemalic. 2b) Example ofichnofabric index 2, Upper
Using a planimcler, the amount of disruption represented in each pho-' Cambrian Nopah Formation, Nopah Range, California. 3a) Ichnofabric
tograph was determined. These data feH into six natural categories based index 3 schematic. 3b) Example ofichnofabric index 3, Lower Cambrian
on percentage of disturbance and on visual recognilion of similarities Poleta Formation, White-Inyo Mountains, California. 4a) Ichnofabric
of pattern as described below and illustrated in Figures l and 2: index 4 schematic. 4b) Example of ichnofabric index 4, Middle Cam­
brian Bonanza King Fonnation, Southwestern Nevada. 5a) Ichnofabric
:ro...'~al "f ~~·...,t.I..,.t.itr7 "fefrclo¡'7' V. '5',"'.'" "8'. index 5 schematic. 5b) Example of ichnofabric index 5. Bonanza Kin~
Formation, Southwestern Nevada. Ten-centimeter bar scale in 5b is for
\.....­ I Manuscript received l February 1986; revised 14 March 1986. 1 through 5.
 RESEARCH METHODS PAPERS
FIG. 2.-An example of ichnofabric index 6. Upper Ordovican Ely
Springs Dolomite, Nopah Range, California. Bar scale is la cm.
5) Bedding is completely disturbed, but bUlTOWS are stiIl discrete in
places and the fabric is not mixed.
6) Bedding is nearly or totaIly homogenized.
Enlargements ofthe schematic diagrams ofichnofabric indexes 1 through
5 (Fig. 1) can be used in the lield as "flash cards" to rank bioturbaliol1.
For ichnofabric index 6 (Fig. 2), no such diagram can be made, as it
represents completely homogenized sedimento Utilization ofthis "flash
card" methodology is analogous to using the charts found in Terry and
Chilingar (1955) for estimating percent composition of rocks and sed­
iments. Because the primary physical structures and bed thicknesses of
strata wiIl vary from those presented here for Great Basin lower Paleo­
zoic carbonates (Fig. 1), different schematic "flash cards" wiIl be nec­
e~sary to study different types of strata. However, they should be con­
~tructed using the same definitions for ichnofabric indexes utilized herein,
so tbat the data are comparable.
) CONCLUSIONS
By using these "flash cards" in the field, supplemented wilh descrip­
tions of disrupted bedding and types of trace fossils presenl, the nature
of bioturbation from different units can be compared easily. However,
in order to use this method to document variations in ichnofabric from
units with different ages, similar lithofacies must be compared beca use
of the obvious effect of variations in sedimentation mode and rate on
ichnofabric, as outlined in Larson and Rhoads (1983). This method­
ology has proved to be extremely useful in documenting changes in
ichnofabric in Greal Basin carbonates from late Precambrian through
Ordovician age, and thus has provided the means to develop the first
substantial data base for documenting changes in rates of bioturbation
in the early Paleozoic (Droser and Bottjer 1985), a topic which has been
lhe subject of much recent discussion (Tháyer 1979, 1983; Sepkoski
1982; Miller and Byers 1984).
This research has been supported by the National Geographic Society,
the Theodore Roosevelt Fund of the American Museum of Natural
History, the Geological Society of America, and the Department of
Geological Sciences, .University of Southern California.
REFERENCES
DROSER, M. L., ANO BOTIJER, D. J., 1985, Early Phanerozoic devel­
opment of infaunal metazoans: trace fossil evideoce from the Great
Basin: Geol. Soco America Abstr. w. Progr., v. 17, p. 567.
559
EKDALE, A. A., BROMLEY, R. G., ANO PEMBERTON, S. G., 1984, Ich­
nology, The Use ofTrace Fossils in Sedimentology and Stratigraphy:
Tulsa, Ok.l., Soco Econ. Paleontologists Mineralogisls Short Course
No.15,317p.
FREY, R. W., 1970, Trace fossils of Fort Hays limestone member of
Niobrara Chalk (Upper Cretaceous), west-central Kansas: Univ. Kan­
sas Paleon!. Contrib. arto 53 (Cretaceous 2),41 p.
FREY, R. W., AND PEMBERTON, S. G., 1985, Biogenic structures in out­
crops and cores, 1. Approaches to ichnology: Bull. Canadian Petro­
¡eum Geologists, v. 33, p. 72-115.
HOWARD, J. D., AND FREY, R. W., 1975, Estuaries ofthe Georgia coast,
U.S.A.: sedimentology and biology, n. Regional animat-sediment
characteristics of Georgia estuaries: Senckenbergiana Maritima, v. 7,
p. 33-103.
LARSON, D. W., AND RHOADS, D. c., 1983, The evolution of infaunal
communities and sedimentary fabrics, in Tevesz, M. J. S., and McCall,
P. L., eds., Biotic Interactions in Recent and Fossil Benthic Com­
munities: New York, Plenum Press, p. 627-648.
MARINTSCH, E. J., AND FINKS, R. M., 1978, Zoophycossize may indicate
environmental gradients: Lethaia, v. 11, p. 273-279.
MILLER, M. F., AND BYERS, C. W., 1984, Abundant and diverse early
Paleozoic infauna iodicated by the stratigraphic record: Geology, v.
12, p. 40-43.
PEMBERTON, S. G., ANO FREY, R. W., 1984, Quantitative methods in
ichnology: spatiaJ distribution ampng populations: Lelhaia, v. 17, p.
33-49.
PRATI, L. M., 1984, Influence of paleoenvironmental factors on pres­
ervation 'of organic matter in Middle Cretaceous Greenhorn For­
mation: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 68, p. 1146-1159.
RElNECK, H.-E., 1967, Para meter von Schichtung und bioturbation.
Geologischen Rundschau, v. 56, p. 420--438.
SAYRDA, C. E., BOTIJER, D. J., AND GORSLlNE, D. S., 1984, Development
of a comprehensive oxygen-deficient marine biofacies model: evi­
dence from Santa Monica, San Pedro, and Santa Barbara Basins,
California Conlinental Borderland: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists
Bull., v. 68, p. 1179-1192.
SAVRDA, C. E.. AND BOTIJER, D. J., 1986, Trace fossil model for re­
construction of paleo-oxygenalion in bollom waters: Geology, v. 14,
p.3-6.
SEPKOSKI, J. J.. JR., 1982, Flat pebble conglomerales, storm deposits,
and the Cambrian bollom fauna, in Einscle, G .. and Seilacher, A.,
eds., Cyclic and Event Stratification: New York. Springer-Verlag, p.
371-385.
SHROUD, M. L.. AND LEVIN. H. L., 1976, Chondrites in lhe Upper Plallin
Subgroup (Midd1e Ordovician) of eastern Missouri: Jour. Paleontol­
ogy, Y. 50, p. 260--268.
TERRY, R. D., AND CHJLlNGAR, G. V., 1955, Summary of"Concerning
sorne additional aids in studying sedimentary formations" by M. S.
Shvetsov: lour. Sed. Petrology, v. 25, p. 229-234.
THAYER, C. W .. 1979, Biological bulldozers and the evolution ofmarine
benthic communities: Science, v. 203, p. 458-461.
___ 1983 Sediment-mediated biological disturbance and lhe evo­
lutio~ ofm:mne beothos, in Tevesz, M. J. S., and McCaIl, P. L., eds.,
I3iotic Interactions in Recent and Fossil Benthic Communities: New
York, Plenum Press, p. 480-626.