A channel is an allocation of the spectrum (channel frequency).

A link is connection between two terminals, formerly cabled, but now quite often RF. A link can support
multiple channels.

In the OSI model, the connection would involve both the physical layer (i.e. the channel allowing the
transmission of raw bit streams between endpoints) and the link layer (i.e. the synchronization allowing the
transmission of data frames between endpoints).

"In multiplexing, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a link that
carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels."

Compare Telephone Network vs Internet

Similarities:
• Both are public network.
• End to End transmission of data.

Differences:
• A telephone network is a connection oriented circuit switched network.
• The Internet is a connectionless packet switched network.
• In a telephone network, call signaling of some sort must be used to establish a circuit before any information
exchange can take place
• In a internet network a connection does not have to be established before information is requested or exchanged.
An example of a connectionless application is the Network Time Protocol (NTP)

1. A telephone network is a connection oriented circuit switched network. This means that a
connection must be established between the two endpoints. Bandwidth is reserved for this circuit.
The Internet is a connectionless packet switched network. This means that packets can be sent without
following an established connection and bandwidth can be shared with other users.

2. In a telephone network, there is a dedicated connection established between the two end users
and it is a fixed line also the it has got a fixed monthly rental for the connection but call charges are
extra based on the duration of the call and region(local or STD).
In case of Internet there is no dedicated connection but the all authorized users are connected to the network
using a unique IP and the cost will be dependent on the data downloads being made.

3. Telephone network can only give one to one connection only using a dedicated channel in the
network.
Internet can have one-to-many connections through any channel which is free at that point of time.
 4. In case of Telephone networks the billing is done based on the duration of the call and area of
calling.
In case of internet the billing will be mainly on the usage of the data in bits per second.

5. The telephone network will be able to connect to internet network using a dial up connection and
a dial up modem, but the data rate will be very low.

But in case of internet the connection is made to the network using a broadband modem and hence the data rate
will be very high.

The Nyquist–Shannon trying theorem, immediately after Harry Nyquist along with Claude Shannon, in the
books more commonly termed as the Nyquist choosing theorem or maybe as the trying theorem, is usually a
basic resulted in discipline of knowledge principle, specifically telecoms as well as signal running.

Q1. The Nyquist theorem is one of the deciding factor in data communication. The fibre optics
as well as the copper wires are communication mediums. Do you think the theorem is valid for
the fiber optics or for the copper wires.
Ans. Nyquist theorem is valid for both fibre optics and copper wires this is because the Niquist
theorem is purely depend upon the mathematic function and has not any concern with the
transmission media for communication.

According to Henry Nyquist, a perfect channel has a finite transmission capacity. He derived an
equation expressing the maximum data rate for a finite bandwidth noiseless channel. Nyquist said
that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a low-pass filter of bandwidth B, the filtered signal can
be completely reconstructed by making only 2Bsamples per second. Sampling the line faster than 2B
times per second is pointless because the higher frequency components that such sampling could
recover have already been filtered out. If the signal consists of L discrete levels, Nyquist’s theorem
states:

Maximum bit rate =2* Bandwidth log2 L.

For noisy channel:

Capacity = bandwidth * log2 (1+SNR), where SNR is signal to noise ratio.

Q2. Noise affects all the signals which are there in air. There are some communicating modulation
techniques. Noise affects which of the modulation technique the most.

Ans. Noise is defined as the disturbance in the signal. When data is send over the network in the form
of signal, due the various natural or unnatural circumstances produce disturbance in the signals which
is called noise. The noise is various kinds such as thermal noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise. Noise
affects all the signals but there are some modulation techniques which are used to reduce the noise.
These techniques are:
 1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Phase modulation

The amplitude modulation is affected most by the noise this is because there is the change in only
amplitude and the amplitude is affected easily by the noise.