The first training-related article was published in 1918 in the Journal of Applied Psychology.

This
article explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.[2] World War II
influenced the focus of applied psychology research to be on effectiveness of training programs,
particularly in military contexts. By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and
conducting theory-based research because up until that point, the field had been rooted in trial-
and-error intervention research.[2] This era also brought along the development of new training
methods such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.[2][3] The scope
of training and development also expanded to include cross-cultural training, focus on the
development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development literature
to frame training programs.[3] The 1980s marked a shift to focus on how employees were
receiving and implementing training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for
evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs.[4] The development piece of
training and development became increasingly popular in the 1980s and 90s, with employees
more frequently being influenced by the concept of "lifelong learning".[5] It was in this decade that
research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive
culture (including management and co-worker) was first conducted.[5] The turn of the century
brought more research in topics such as team-training, for example cross-training.[6] Cross-
training emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.[6]

Practice[edit]
Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and
development.[7][8][9]
The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The
sponsors of training and development are senior managers. The clients of training and
development are business planners. Line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and
performance. The participants are those who actually undergo the processes. The facilitators are
Human Resource Management staff. And the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these
groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the agendas and
motivations of the others.[10]
Especially in the last couple decades, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows
those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities.[11] For example, these active
learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning,[12] error management
training,[13] guided exploration,[14] and mastery training.[11] Typical projects in the field include
executive and supervisory/management development, new-employee orientation, professional-
skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and
health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in high-reliability organizations, which
rely on high safety standards in order to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment,
or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants, operating rooms).[15]

Benefits[edit]
Training has been used in organizations for the past several decades. Although training and
development requires investments of many types, there are cited benefits to integrating training
and development into organizations:

 Increased productivity and job performance [1]

 Skills development [1]
 Team development [1][16]
 Decreasing safety-related accidents [17]
However, if the training and development is not strategic and pointed at specific goals, it can lead
to more harm than good.[18] Needs assessments, especially when the training is being conducted
on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it
should be trained, and how extensively.[19] Needs assessments in the training and development
context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new
employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations
needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs
(e.g. career planning). The degree of effectiveness of training and development programs can be
predicted by the needs assessment and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the
training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive
abilities).[20] Effectiveness of training is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few
studies investigating the impacts on organizations.[1]

Occupation[edit]
The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) cites training and development specialists as
having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job
openings in the next few years.[21] Related professions include training and development
managers, (chief) learning officers, industrial-organizational psychologists, and organization
development consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to
conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the needs of the organization by using a
variety of training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training
programs.[21]

See also[edit]
 Adult education – Any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling
 Coaching – Method of development
 Education – Learning in which knowledge and skills is transferred through teaching
 Industrial and organizational psychology – Branch of psychology
 Mentorship – Guidance relationship
 Microtraining
 Organization development
 Training – Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of teaching or
practice

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Aguinis, Herman; Kraiger, Kurt (January 2009). "Benefits of Training and
Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society". Annual Review of
Psychology. 60 (1): 451–474. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505. ISSN 0066-
4308. PMID 18976113.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Bell, Bradford S.; Tannenbaum, Scott I.; Ford, J. Kevin; Noe, Raymond A.;
Kraiger, Kurt (2017). "100 years of training and development research: What we know and where
we should go". Journal of Applied Psychology. 102 (3): 305–
323. doi:10.1037/apl0000142. ISSN 1939-1854. PMID 28125262.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b Campbell, J P (January 1971). "Personnel Training and Development". Annual
Review of Psychology. 22 (1): 565–602. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025. ISSN 0066-
4308.
4. ^ Burke, Michael J.; Day, Russell R. (1986). "A cumulative study of the effectiveness of
managerial training". Journal of Applied Psychology. 71 (2): 232–245. doi:10.1037/0021-
9010.71.2.232. ISSN 0021-9010.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Birdi, Kamal; Allan, Catriona; Warr, Peter (1997). "Correlates and perceived
outcomes of 4 types of employee development activity". Journal of Applied Psychology. 82 (6):
845–857. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.845. ISSN 0021-9010.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Marks, Michelle A.; Sabella, Mark J.; Burke, C. Shawn; Zaccaro, Stephen J.
(2002). "The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness". Journal of Applied
Psychology. 87 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.3. ISSN 0021-9010.
7. ^ Rosemary Harrison (2005). Learning and Development. CIPD Publishing.
p. 5. ISBN 9781843980506.
8. ^ Patrick J. Montana & Bruce H. Charnov (2000). "Training and Development". Management.
Barron Educationally Series. p. 225. ISBN 9780764112768.
9. ^ Thomas N. Garavan; Pat Costine & Noreen Heraty (1995). "Training and Development:
Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues". Training and Development in Ireland. Cengage Learning EMEA.
p. 1. ISBN 9781872853925.
10. ^ Derek Torrington; Laura Hall & Stephen Taylor (2004). Human Resource Management. Pearson
Education. p. 363. ISBN 9780273687139.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b Bell, Bradford S.; Kozlowski, Steve W. J. (2008). "Active le