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Archaeology, Cultural Anthropology, and the Origins and Intensifications of

War

Chapter · January 2006

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Archaeology, Cultural Anthropology,
The Archaeology of Warfare and the Origins and Intensifications of War

Prd, istories of Raidil1g a"d Co"ql4l~s t

I ... n'A'" . nC..,'ON

tD ITED BT
I W...e...". "",liln", th< ICCOnd dead. uf .rc...,..,I"8Y" diocovcryof ....... To
jIod", f...... ,lit moen' oa<Lcration of pubUnti(ln• ..,d te\<"",h lop;.:.. il !l«m.
«ft.in 10 become . "'.jot- 6dd of study (Bray ]986, Camw. 1m, Camun ... d
Ha,dln& 1999; ~urnn and Fnycr 1m, <>-sky andJum 1994, RI« and U-
ELl l..t 8f.TH N • .t JU;:US H AND M A JlK W . ALL EN Slone: 2001 : n>auk and ViYWI 19l!9). n.. ~ if no) k>ow:' whcthn. bo"
whither, .... -haroIos7 of war! How ...aJ archaeolopcal m.o.y and finding>
dndopl How will dwy.w..: ro..ublw..d inl<rcu In ",1Nnl ... duopoioc;] I
Whao: """" ioou<s,..;ll archaeoIosY ...... 1n.. pounri>I ""'oodi..1 iml-"' of aJ".
chIotoIosY is Fat. AI ... ..., in this >eIwn<. .,;min and 0C1'0tI rqional KqIIOII<"
""'.. is lI<m<:ndouo ~ vo.rUbiIi<y-in ........... m.." ...... Ioro(..... or
Uttlt ''' ........ ~ from raid. 10 imperial conquest. and In d.ufydiKinniv<
• pluto of mmW'l' ~. Thu mlliury nrUbm.,. pi' alone; .. imnri.oon ;n
maloriol cimunounca and _i.al ... d political otructufft, proridins abun<Un.
BOO matcrl.ol ro. thtotr on w t • ..,.. ... d <On><qu<n< .. of .... t. While ethnog-

raphy .. m.i", murh ri<h •• In cover'Se and doraU, <lp<d>.lly In non_m..,ri,]

.al..... mt.acolosY hu th< odv ... ug< of,«, k>nfI ti .... "",n .. <omp . .. d to ,II<
....w .<hnopaphk blink of... ..,..
Although • ~ .....". ide.. ore rai .. d in this YOIu ..... tM _ . -arching o:on-
<em .. th< o:ol''''"rion bn .... m ...... and poIitic2l conodidmon. l ...w <Om< brl
... w. In <Iooing. 80." thio dupt<r 8"'" in • diW........ dif'<Crion. While :ill the
, ...... in tho. voham< iOcuson p<dtistoric .;......uon....h<ft..ducolocrohows __
.. UNtIioukably f""'K"lo thio chapter is con<crncd -..;th twO rruui<iom, from
the ............ "'" POCXliC< of ....... and it-. p<dtittoty ... " ...."y. I ""'" ....-0
• pooition<: nhnogr>phi< ..-pan> """" "'" JW' 1M em' ....... do not rqtrc><nt m.
humoni..,...
lnuntity of ...... in far distanl pan. and """ ...... Itur:al pno«itt did
not oI-ro <lI1". This is no ....moo of some utopian Idyll. of prirn.<nl 8"",.. ,
Uni.<nif)- Pta. of F1orio:Lt children. Onrly. C¥id<nc: .......... in. <fJ'<n<IrI.ll 'I'Iokr>« In some ...". .,rly h",
G.;"",.ul.rr >ll""-JT.unpolllou boo .............in.....d o:olle<riv< ktIuJ viole",. "f'in.. other poup<_ ......_ h..
""nuc¢Wom..do/ M i>mi,!J..:L-mIl</Ft. M;<n al ....,.. b<m. pos.ib~i..,.. l'c,1upo numrnoth hun«,. had probl ........ i.h <ach
oth", nt.l)·be N."ndenhal. >nd C",·M.gnot" reaUy did nO{ 5'" along, w. do
;;l O~ 6 >

I.~J ~ ,.,... I "r-_
...,. know. Sm, [ will "'gu<o,I>< pr«on.!ioion. that m>de ..... [ikely""'''' [>eking
fOr m.,.' of hum:u>i.y', ..-.Uy o.ncion. h;,,"'l" If...., >rick wim <Vide",,< ""her
,11m . upp<»i.ion. w•• w.. >bstn, in ,"""y plK<. v>d prnoJ.. i, I><e ..... much
mor< eonunoo """ •• i ..... {.hhous/> 1>0< in > >might Ii,.. of inc..:u<). ...J in
moot ""J culy ;orehatologlc;tl tn<!ioions .h... ;ore II<> li5"" ofl' >< aU. "Th<K wao
I (19%20-ll.16J.203).
o lime IxfOt< n t (:doo ... K.1ly 2000).
Th ... <I.illl>...., ""J con ......"l>l. In <he I"" do:ad< •• 1>< moot l"""'iDrnt
"""'by ... archxo!osi" iI u.. ...... Kttky', W..,. &forr(""J,..Ji=t,,,,,, n.- "fJIb
ojlkh-fiJ s.",d lm ). Thil'" m>jor ........, II iI rho to-. _romp«-
h.cmio< ,"" ....... , ...."of.....,"""uof.,.bynon,ouu ptoph.Iong....-crdu<
~n' for T", ... y-H;P', ( 1911) /'nMJJ,,~ 11#. II .......""tite ...,;dot.
'0 rho ide. thu sIKh ""V _ • """"lao rinIaI. al,hough ~ Ihil nw:»ag<
..ill 1'<"<''''. thotc ~icrircln wiler< ...ch mi ........p<""'''.uu run is
• ...,.Mr quesrion. And i. t... '-" 'IV""" ..
unul ... ro. dcv<1oping~'
cal fOau on war.
Su, <he", . n: probk_ with .spects of "'.ky., book .nd od><... ~..t pub,
hc:o.tion<,,,,.,.. nootb/y I.dlll",,'<. with RcgI ... r (20(3). C-Ulfl /Wt!n: 1bt
Myn. ofrIK hMtfol, !WJIJU s"""I'. Guilain<: .nd Z=unit', ( ~) 1M 0rW~'
.flf~r: V..u",.I~ Prrbill4? and O... rb<in·, (~) H.", fI~r Btg~~. 1hr<.
import ... , SCn.",J i....... rc how ,ho ",,,h~ of w..- I. .. I><<n portray«!.
d..: thro ... icaI ,ipi!ican« of \t'<orcm «>n",e, in .1f.Cling indigo""'" wufo ...
.nd abov. all. tl>< imp .... ion ,Iu, lou I><.n siv<n .bo", . rcha<ologic.lo .. i<jerw: c
for war mroogllou' ,1.0 I'rthi !fOI"k r«<><J.
Th' /i", o<c<ion of ,hi. ch.ptc< <lttln.,," m. I..u., .. fram.d by Kott.y. u.
BI1nc. Guif,ino ... d Z.." mi,. O".. I><;n.•",1otho ... 'Tho !<cond diOOl<SC> ,h.
1Il'hropology of",." anJ why ,h. i.. u. o(W<I,.,n con=' h.,
,ioen to prom i.
n.= In ,I. .. jj","Iu", ,),. 'hl,d. ,he 'u~,an,iv< co'" of ,h. cit.p,er, i •• P"'-
liminal, """ni<'" of ,h. ud... otogr ••1,«on! On 'M inception of wx in m""y
.re.. . round 'M wo,ld. 'llK f(,u .. h " 'WIU ..::",K", fOr ,he Ofigi ....p,...! . ."d
int<n.i~=iM of",,,, i""ludlng ,h.
imp." ofW..."n contaC' in Anuzonu.
.nd wim 'p.d.1 .. f.",n« to tho y.........,..l
,,~. &jim Ci~Ji""iM is . ",ncrol indio"".n, of tho ""~ of....,.
K«ky (1"'- ..... _ K.. ky ZOOI :332, ~l) cIai_ ,h:u ... ,h~ Iu"
WJdy ipor«I ...., I>< (".110 -prim;''''' ntf""'· ( 199~H. 163). ond hoY< mil-
reprncmcd i. whm they do d~ II, .....r. .nd inelfKtiv<· ( l996: 170). ·un-
~ .. ",*rious. .. yliud. """,,,Iil<· ( l996.~ I ) • ..,.J prop<»ir.g -that non·
...... _i<ri<o we .. ..,.....,.,..Jy p..:;6 .. ic- ( 1996:25). He add. tIu<. n.ndfol of
--------
.w....Iot.(-..!....,."'O':• .-I,J.~.-II_.."''"._'fIL;,.- n
><>cia! anmropologil .. lu....<.<ndy codified ,hil ~u. prejuJ;.. in,,,. ,h.<>-
",tical ".n« ",-" amoun .. '0' Ro'......,i.n dccbn'ion of uni.....uI prehioturic
1"'".0«. ( 19%:20). K«lcy iJ<nliMt me .. . prime enmpl. of ,hcoo tendencies
MOl< «>nK<[U<nrial .tun ... Iw he .... to say .bou, 1Itthrorol~ ... iI tho im·
"8< M """"" about 'M ubiquity and In,m,lty of -na.. in tho oarducolog:i.cal
r=>rd. I .-ill "'" dilpu .. iIer< lou charx.oriution of n~ rcporn for
,ho paS< couple of «ntUrin. "There .. II<> do<tb, dUI tho \'HI majority of DOn-
>t21< ~ pr.."io..! .or. ond _ , .... produc.d h.ish mon:.li.,. ova rim<.
I do bd""" tho ~ of _ h.. b«n .,....nutically inlIa.:..! in mnd.rd
<bu "'" - " .. HIt.AF. Em,,", and Eml><. (t997:5) cui ... ,ha, n pcr«n< of
oon-p><iIXd prt" ....'e ~ nukr ...,......unr/yor: cw:tyyar-........blol<
J"'OI'O'i'ion. but thu is • ",b;m for ........... in_iption. Mo.~ to the poin'
for this ",,1wn<.1 .,;//tili iI<uc:,.;d. tho J'<Oi«tio<I of tho .. hnog>p/I;. pfC!'rn'
,h-sfo-c tho ~I JWI. ,1M: Idea ,.... n:ctn' ...taiura of.... bJ non·
.t2Ie propIa an: nonnaI fOr non·..... ~ throuY> pr<hi<ro<y.
Ko:c:loy' posi,ion on ,hi, poin, iI clouded by .... biguow phming... in this
".....-
[N )",h ing .uggtlt$ ... , .... preh i"oric non ,nrc -'eri ......... lign ificantly
.nd uni.".. lly mure pn«ful ,h.n ,hOK deoc,ibed cthnogr2phhlly. Th.
..chorologkal ..iden« ind",,,., in ...ad O:/U, homicide hu I><.n pr.><:ticcd
,ince ,he 'I'»< .... n« of mode ... humankJnd ... d ....n... iI docum.n .. d
in ,he ...lueologi..1.<.o,d of ,1M: 1'''' 10.000 y~'''' in .v..y ",dl-!<udicJ
rq,iO>1. ([996:39)
Signincm, AM" uni ... saI! A~J'i_ wi,hin ,he 1"" 10,000 ),< ... r
Keel.y no,"' c"<gotlcally "", ... II. ...... , got. b..d indcnni,dy in ,im •. Bu,
re>de" t~u rbi, to _~If 'ha' ....
r i , ,he: not'" ,htoughou, OUr prehiltoric p'"
(Gourc.itch 1m: 5i"""" 1m). for uompk .... den <>f ,he N"" Jm Timn
k .. ncd,
Th. wonde. of Llwren« H . K•• Ioy·, · w", I1<fure Ciwi... ion· i. "'" ,h.
cloq.. n, nt< the: autho< makCI tha, war hall><.n. t<rTibJc thing ..... ,inc.
»<OpIo .... ,~J kiUing on< .nne..... >I>ordy.r.:., tho, Ii..., Ixg.n '0 walk me
..<th. Th< ~ mlng 10 o:/u, ho lw '0 =kr ouch • <a.1C in tho hI><
pbco. (le ........ n.Hwpt 1996)
Tho< in'."' ..... 'ion iI "'pporu<i by 'I'*"' From J::«ky wch os. ·W.... ","",e-
thins liu ,ude or ... hanp. It .. .-."101,,, d.., .U hWIUIU do· (Pring!<
1998:2040). K«ky ..... dilmosou <he ide. tha, \tOr"", ton""" pbycd. auc:iaI
rok in ..... ~ .~, m:om..
oaying ic ....... ty brough, lOme now
•
Cl ~ _ I,,-
im
... oporu '0 ftgh, .. And new i'~"'10 light ave,; :u>d cWm. <Iw: th.torim who
"""'. til< impotl2tl«of ronroct "denythc: ,,*timacyof«hnov"phyo!,~"
( 199&21 ).
S,miW pooirions an: od""""'N by ocI><n fOIlowi ... K«Ie,·.I..d. !.cBLmc:
and Ri« (2001 :~) ope>l of"~ gcncnI n<>idanc< of"'" ,opk' of wu in .... tIm.-
poIog" U'a\ln (2001 >:573) 8'lC" from no","" til< genu",. t.d. of m ..n:h on
d<.>m< .... .nd other "inl<maI' ~ among "",,·ouo< peopLes '" imply t/u,
r.-.. an,hropologm' 1uY< nudicJ war: .nd d.iRU <Iu. "(. )h. ",arch lOr .... n<!i«.
Lest.viol<n' w.y '0 organi'''' OU' _W aK.i" h.. Ix<n frui,Lest. All Ute <VMttoce
,ugg"" .Iu. p<a<cn.1 period. have ...... )'1 bc.:n pun<tI!,,«l by epi.oo .. of "":l'.
f... and 'iol,,,,,. (2001> :590). Lc Blmc (1m: 10. 1l) .... ,,' ,h >< ", he . ctu.1
lik.hh<><><l of .he.. being a prchi"oric inl<, ..1of.....-..1 hund,«l yt".". duro,;on
wi"""', .ny .... ,f......"'. "".n," >nd foil""", Keele,:' dl,ml...! of <h. impar:t of
W."..., conracl .... ring "the colonio! impact expl.>n ..ion ><em. do.. '" being
.,,,!.on
I.>;d '" ...... Sevcral regil • .,. ntyi",d.gr<" of.... poicw.. .ho"" th< ';g.
nifKanc< of .h. """'P="'. arrir.d fOr indigef1O<U ..,,(or< ( !l.mfOnh Im~·
'17. Ill : t...mlx .. 2002:203: !.c1!Unc :u>d Rio« 2001:6, W..n:.r 2OO10:570{).
K~" pooitioo. on thc: ubiquity.,( pn:h im>ric: ...arf>r< tw IK<:n oJIimwd :u>d
uUn to I new Ic-vd;" !.cB1anc with ~<f (lOD}). This boollOru.c. IIIOC"<
on .m-ot"l}<."d is h critical.,( culnmJ .."hrop%&i,..· ..... n:h.1hough
in 1"""" . r<jcca an <mplusis 00 Eun>pan ronu" (2003:6). I" thro«tic:tl
pcin. i, ,hn rhe ida of non·,ut<: J><opLes bei", ron,,"alionilU is I my~ :u_
guing .hl. P"I"'I.>,ion growth",d r<:tOUn:c depktion is ",Iu, h.. made .... '"
common-I , i ...., hx lOod (2003:9). 1Iu, hypo<hcoi' i, no< ..b'.n, '" !hi,
elupt«. WhO! is "'y " lev"" h, .. is tho .... <lion of ,h. n.., uni ...... lityof .... r
'hroughou, ,h< .«lurological rerord (oe, .1", !.clllo"< .• hi • ....,Ium.).
When ,he .. i... g<>od ,,<!urological pic,u", of any _iet}' on £",10. .ncre
.. al"""" .......,.. .be <Yid<nce of .... rfa .... .. We nt.d ro rocogniu >nd
.c«p< ,n. o<k. of .. nonpca<<ful JU" fOr <he enri .. time of hwrun m,·
«n«. Though. thc: .. ~e rcrt.J.inly ,imes.nd pI.oca dwing ..... icn pna
pr< ...,I«I. "",,,,U. _h int<rludeo ...... .., Io.aw bt .... ,,-,.I;... d ..,d in·
!rcqu.n.. ... [ rc:diud <Iw: ~ Iud ...,,(.... in JJ ,im< pmods. .. .
(200):7.'. <m9luois in orig>ruI)
Ih< .dirorial lead in • nugWD< .. pooitioo of hio th<ois ..o,li: · Hunun. Iu",
b«n •• - " <>the .... ,h..,... .ince th< d...., of .... r 'f'<Cic' (!.cBUn< 2003: 18).
Guil.&in<:u>d Zlmrni. {200S:",-~ ZO·Zz. 06- Z40 (m ....h <><igirul ZOOl ])
foU ...... Keele)' in .mplu":r.ing pn:hi>toric .ioIenc •.• nd porm.yins .rcluoologr
.nd .n.nropology •• having .<lificiaUy p.ofied ,h... rord. Th.y do not ...."
.hat.:ll p..hi.lOric peopl.. h,d war. bu, '<gu' ,h .. i, waf .ery rommon. They
fixw on Ewvpt. <>p«i>.lly Franc<:.:and provid •• n .1""", "",,","hd.ning romp;·
!orion of dcWl«l bruulity. Akhough the: IV'-'" m2j0rity of thrir ni<lcnc:c i> from
the N«>l i.M. and b,«. ,h.,. ......-.pobtc <h .. >ioIe:nc< in... ...t.... ,i ...... when:
....h mdcncc is baing. with mooning...do .. thio: "n.. .heory d... onrf....
occurr«l in ,he Upper I'>lcoIithic _;'ba af th< 'lIb< occm, ",ri..:ly pbuoiblc.
in _ of.he ....... an' kYel. of oggrasion disphyd by p....nr-day hunring
f"'Pul.>riono ...do .. thc: American Indian. (200s:21). Thil il porn.cIy the rypc
of .unpol.tion .M. chaptc. argues Win".
Now ,hi, debar< Iu. been join«!. ."d complical.d.try> On.mein (2004: lO -
IS. 41. 4). 98. In_180. 199). • founding ~gu .. in ,he .n,hropologyof W:lr. who
''II'''' ,Iu, ,h... were two ><Kiological ''''''ing f'<Jin<> of war. ·Ih. follOwing i<
• very <impl... "i""
of . complex "gum.n,: Roiding and .. "bu,h """. a n. ru·
ral o.ltg<OW,h of m ...·«"tcr«l. big.pme hun« ....!>o ......1.. ><Iy orproitcd
fo< <oop<mivc killi"$- Such "'If ...... d fOr ",iIlion. af ynr. and In> .>p<ciilly
common in ,n.
P.alroli.hk. In """e oms.. 1.>... ohili '0 btoad 'pee''''''' fo<"f;.
ingbfOkc "I' ,ho, p""""mJ W>l dioappnn:d. "The abtcn<c of onr pruri<W th<
_.-.,. .oubiUty hx pian. dome>tication ... occut-~ion could no<
luppen ..uh wu. Snded I>rm<nrould b'er uk< up ....... fo< int<an« to corurol
,rode I"0Il''''
bu,.t.ac that wv ..... poac,"'.!. <"I1>Iucion ... I ..... ...,.,jd .....
ooout. For •• ,,,.. '0 <m<rg<. W>r mIlO< bt .bo<n. prior '0 the coruoIidation of
al""""" ....,..
-",,",imal <hod<lom ..• wt. .. h "'" · i.... hoaIe ou....•
ul< I'ioIcnc. in in.. ma1 f""rloruJ wugks. rcp<<WoM and fnodL When ><a,c>
typka/ chim
.""'W. ,hey «in"""' ...... ."d wor .p.. ><I, ,h"",gh .. cond...,. 1Orrnari<>", ex·
poocd 10 ,h.m. Among ,,;n.W>rring pmc h u",en. dorntS,;c" .., can 'P"..! fro m
,h.i, O,iginal .enl< .... ."d long·'ime form." can I..,n W>l try> in« ...... io" wi, h
hu" ..... ,hOI' upl.oining the w.rf..r. af mmy non ·)ta ••• grioulrurali< ... Underly·
ing ,hi, ,h.ory i. O".rbcin'long..",.bli,hed pooi,io" ,fu, _ial org=in,ion
fo< .onllic, .. ",.,.. i"'porum ,fun canllic, ..... ,.,.n:. '<IOU"" in gtnttating
~ .
Ot:,<rb<in·, po<irion .. ......, diflmn, from ,hOJC of Keclcy:and !.cBlmc. and
......up. with min<:. in tha, it rocogniuo "".. are:u .......... ithou, 0I"2f fOr.....,
long pcnook The big dillmna oownn III ... that ............... pncric..:J by
hi.·....... h"",cn,:u>d cndins with. ohifi '0 more .. d<n...,.~. while
l.ntl"""" .... ~: th.u ..... O«m> ab.uM in .... NeoIi.hic. :and ..... ,...,.
I 6... WIth more....w ~ (although ""'" of thc:m .... pcaccabk). Evidence
~rdlnl th.u disrinction 1I'ill be noted .. i, ro ..... up.
III >$I<r1i ng thc: deep :!Iuiquity of ...... both Onem.in ",d !.cBl""" ..ly he~.·
ily on til< wort. ofRi<1wd Wungham",d ",h... (IC. Wibon and Wr>.nglu.rn
I 2003, Wn.ngh.m 1m) "" inICrgrotIp .icknce .mong chlonpan"'L !.cBI.nc
mJ Regl'''' (2003:86) orguc: "1f chimp.... <¢> have. fOrm of warfare. then it
,
1
 ,
,;, ~_ '''t--
c.n be l""'umeJ th.t .,.., fo' ••Hl .....lling .""" •..,.. ('urly homin;'!.' 0, protO·
hum .... ) prob>l>l, do.! tOO. bccaux h"""n. and dumps.r< SO si ,nilu."
In«w""p ,,,,I,,,,,, .mong <himpuu«t. and ill impli<a<ioru fo,- h,omon"Y.
;,a ""., Wge .<>pi< ..... i<h i.~ua«d in abook I .... "',,'<endy pr<p>ring.ln tI...
wolk I ug... tI... the numbct of <himp...- ,n«'l""'P lriIlinp II» bea> ~
F"tod. that wh .... InNl .....,..n«n occu'. they pL"'sibly....,. be ...ri!:>u.d to
<itaim"""".. <rUttd by ..«nt human 0<';"';"" ...d duo tht.. .. no h2>iJ ""
pm;<ing beh>Yionl conri"" i., of in.srOOJpIout 'poup ~iIi')' and kilIinc i" ....
tnn>irion froon .pc <0 h..,....,. Thooe low.. nnnoo be di!CUJSt'd ~. <2<<p< <0
<>pin< tha, <himpanu< be ....... '" 1"""'..... li •• 1o support r... dtc pn<ti<cof w;>t in
lou"...,i.,·. di .. an, p.>ft.
An:.,..u.cu..mg the cloimp.vu« -.w. I.-Blanc and ~ r2i>< "" ide.
with nujo< oigoifia.nc<. "If wan_ ~ bo.n pm: of the hwrwI COR<iitlOfl r...
mot< dun. mmiorl J'H" (0 .... mm"", yan. dcpe""-in«on the run " -).
I
1
.., jun might bo .. kaod foe boh>Vion d... t mole ... W21iikc:" (2003,219-210).
Although oh<y I" on to qualify the ouppooition, tI... id.. succin<rly idrnti!ies
~hy the .nriqui.y of ...., it luch "" Impo<UJlt iJru<. AI ...d,. ""'" w!to ug...
I
for. human biolopcaJ prop<n!i'y foe ....,..., ciri"t! K«ky in "'pport (Fun ·
YO"'" 1995,26, G.. 2000,16~, low ZQO().lJ}, Pink<, 2OOZ:S6-S7, 'it'il"",
199K341; W=gham 1999:18)-dcspi .. tl>< filet th .. K«I.y (19%:1$7-159)
loim><Jf disavow. biology 01 "" .. Itv""t." Now the c;",k i. <ompl«<. While
,M" orch.. oIot!b<> »fob.b), would agr« ",'h Und"hiU (thiJ volwnc:) .b.. it
iJ mOf< prod",,;.. t~ f",~, on .It< <til... and """""lu.n«. <>f ....... ...10" "thrn
.ndklSly J.boting w,,«h., in........ K..1.ioKn« it . n inh<r=t p.r. of h~m.n
noture" - .h •• <l<b". il in<I.. ~k (0' arc/l.1rology. Like i. 0. n",. ,h< .",h:oco-
logiel r«<>rn i. « nt",1 '" thi< p<rennial <jlKlrion in \'(b«m rultw •.
I Lowit 1942: Sccay 19S3: Sw.deslr 1948).0 ...,bel" (Im,794-799}_who ori.
T it t ANTH ROPOLOGY O f W~ R .. I< I) T H . 1$$".
OPWUTU .NCONT"'CT
I i<><lf. ....J cann'" be ,,,,,,idored hot ..
And.ropologiel Vi,ion.
Wh<ther orchxoloa;1," a 6dd.1us wiUfullytum<d 'W>}' froon evkIclK< of... r. I
leo"" to archxologi>u coeval ...... In m, !nding. it _ nri>bl .. CIurIy tht..
\nJ ... iSt""" to .. knowk~ 0I'2f in .Ir.t Arn<ric1ot Southwc.o. (Solomno, thit
volum<). bu, ,h.i..... of p",histOtl< 0I'2f in tIr.t A"",rican s.",.heaK Ius bttn x -
ti~ly diocu>Kd r... IIUJI}' )'un (0,.. .• hi. YOIu ..... j. Widrout qt><>tion. ~.
! wri.ef> "'Y<
tht.. is much mon< ~"" •.d inwm in .... t<>pi< to<by rIurt <ftft • dcade
'I!O- My 6"" con«1'tl h... i, n", ",th ... ~. bu. hmr K.:d<ydwact<rl=
the """'''''anthropology of ",,,of the p.u< forty ~
~, r~, ~ ,....I ... u,;z-.-J"'-f<_'f!!;" r;
To " .... ",<en uk up the<!>I", ,h.t .."ltropology Ir.u ignor<J w;u. Th.n " ...
indud ,ru.-fony run ago (h'5"son 1984> ,6). no< m<>r< ",«nd,. CompU.
inga bibliogr~y of >IIb... n,loJ rn.~1 dixo"ion. of""", (i"dudi,,/!:
~y) in 1987; ... qui. >IOUnd I.SOO .i"non.. benux the .. wos no <rul
if..igh. (1'<rfI""'" ,..,th Fomgiw:. 1988). Th< lit<r.ntrc ~ grown by bps and
bound, silK' then. Even Ott<rbcin' ( 1999) him••yof ""thropoIogiallC1C2t(h
on W1I \nJ romctIy .riticiuJ by Sporud (2000) and Whil<hc.d (2000) for
~ <ntin: ...,.. of CW .. N .......h in,o 0I'2f and otha <oIloctiv.: Yioltntt
(and _ Fnguoon 2003). TdIUWr........ Ittum&rional ..hi",,,, tIororUtI.re
-looi:int fa, ~Is of ..... In ><Rh~. H= is hmr """ prominent
poIi<icaJ tci<rtri>. c~ ...,htopolop:al rfi<arch,
For dc.c.da. "'~'" " - bun .......in«. theor«icaJly ridt. Crt>-
piriaJly ..."'tonriol. and ..... hocloJoskaUy od(·."",<c body of .wi><icaJ
and nx-.dy ~...,h on tho "l"ion<hlp bawem W>r' and culrurc in
...we. ....let... and prt.indwuial""",hic .,....rm. (SnyOO Z002: II)
Hu ... th"'1'olo,,, ponr>)'<d .... by non ·..... pcopk< .. ~jlU" ri.....Jo<
• pn< .... im I'n.....wt ... , Apin. thi, OR« "'U truc.lon~ogo. ""...diet (1959).
Ch.>wI< and Coon ( 1942). Cod... (1m). lexh ( 196~). Mo.1inmo1w (1941).
N.roII (1966)•....J No:W<'OIt\b (196(l). did .. y m.. primitiw: comb ....... largdy.
.hou,
ritual wi &K" conl<q~¢"",. s.,,,,,ral .. her <o,1y wri«n. oo....a. portrayed
wor ...I<.dly .. rio~, ...uggk Invol~in8.; ..I....."",a (Hunt 194O;J>blow 19W,
'iqu.. K« k y; hi.,o,y ui ,n. anthropology of ""' ••• ina«um •. and for h.,.-
ing <...« .1 hI> own "myth of the WHlrk< ""'S'" ( 1997)_d<><. ><knowI.dg< •
"myth of the p<"".1i.J1 ...
--I"
>g.: p<nb,ing 01 I"... 1980. Bu, be,id" 0I'0s< .arly
<1,..lon. I jw, 1i.,«I. h'I',owid •• no 'no .. re«n,
",ulg,lOing!lu' my'"
'IX' o( . nohropologiru pro.
to qu",ion tho pco«.blo inuga about "Buslrm.n.
Pygrni ... and Sonui' (1999:79~ -798). Exh of tl""" ..... i• • m*,. debate in
In tho p~nt. tWO ""h,opologi<:tl 'p«;.I,,,. on wor and p<"". Reyn.
(J99'US- S6) and Spons<I (2000,8)7}_ and only ,no.. <wo '0 my knowl.
odg<-"'l'" ,/1.1, ""U.<.I...Iok.... by <omJW'U,..1y <soiliari1n non·... '<
pcopt.........ld be I<I'"""od «>n«p<uaJ1y ftnm .he C1I<g<><)' 01"""......li.J.od by
.... pn<<k< of ""'" <tntraliud rnd hicnn:hical poIi<i<o (ohough "'" n«...rily
......}. Sinc< the mid.196OI if no< .>..Ii.r. the n .. ....;on')' 01 ""thropoIogicoJ
ogre..,! , ..., """"'Il non' ''''. pcoplQ. "'21: _ ..,.., common and
'AIry <OttJ<'<]lK'nliaJ. both In ~.., and in io impaa on culrurn. f'eow if any
WOlIId 6. ,he <.... lIetmurion on " .... 1Itf-'c CitnliuritM. w.. ja<ln. th.u "fa,
the Iut Iifry)'<an. _ pc>pulM...d ><hobrty wor1:.1oaw ap;rccd rJu;: f"C'h;ru,ri<
~
,;. , R._ "'r-
......
wan,,.. ...... ""'. ""rnbs. u",ml"''''''''' ."d .. . a di>us< of <n-iliud JO<ietia
A. r.". my ""'" vi<w 011 .... , (N"'" ,hio .... I><<n ..,..l<.., i,,,,.). my lim pDf>.
[i>h<d ,..,.,"'!. (Fcrgu"'n [984b,Z69). 011 No.,h""", c.-. .... ~ ..... aplic·
idy in JOPP"'" ofSwa<l<$h·. (1948) view oI'i, a, kth.J ..,uggk for .... 'cri.J goin.
>pirnf Cock,..·. ( 19S0) .;c... tha< it ..... cnnn<M"li&l,..;dt fc... n.1U.Jties.
Nonbwo. c.-. wuf.o .. _ .... pme ..• onr -dc.dlr "";""'~c.
Sncak ....d<s. pi«h..! ... ,tIn....,buohes. ~ .uririonalnmpoignJ.
,rnchnow ""' ......... ~i< ,aiJtn,-th<>< .... ,.. fxu oflt&: room 1><.
for-. conu« '" -p"'ihation' in ,h. 186(1,. . .. W'n......... in Wg< put..
roo<<it <>on con,roI of v.J....,k mowccs. ..• U'.an ""+,
"""I]' to "'I""'"
<ctrnKJ<liol tid .. "'......, omn to """ been ,ac. dc:spi.. the prominrn«
g;...... to thi. _ in nJ.nosr>phi<t. (Ft"""", 1m, Lll-134)
"That wud ,I", cit .. art~ tvid<n« '" cWm dw_ • war rompla wen'
b.w:k '" >bou, 1000 S.C.-. llh""", now 1 would po ......., 1(1 2200 B.C...
I.... (..., bekrw). In .lion"..... the Ih<on:riaI .igroi~ ofWaum ",nu«
(199'lHJII) n:pdUt, .... , by Amuon,'" p<OI>ks.l_: ·/'IS..,. i,.,wpuuhk
1m rh.t, .....oju< uiJI.J ill AMo/U"'" i>rJ-,IH .m...J .j"~_. (omptw;.
in ,he otigin.ol), ,n" for Nonh ."" Sou,h Amerit>. "Even in the .b.eoc. of :my
",'c •• ",h_logy p<'O>"id<. "nmin.kobk nidt"". of...., >mOn~ ocdcnuty va·
["tic pc<>pko. """"01 ..... going b.o<k ,houun<\. of ye .... ( 1992: 113). Finilly.,prior
'0 tho public.."", of JI~, &fort Ci~J..I<1i"". [ (1997) hod <ompkfcd.., .... y ill
.bou, cvid<ru:e :u\d '''''''f .....
rding ..., befo... ",a.
Cont ..,
So. ", h.. i. 011 ,hio ..11 .bou, ,h. " i,ial ,ok of <on"",. wi,h " ..... "p<ci:illy
W"KfIl ...,.. 1 [wa,. gndu... "u<lon' O! Columbia Uni"""i,y in [hc 1970..
which w.as ,hen ,he "",boJ of .n,h",pologi<>! ,J ..".i,in8 on ..., (... F.rgo.
IOf\ 1984.). [n .ndl ... JiI<" .. ion~ i. beam< intr<.. inglppp.IeII' tIuo: a"ting
c:o:plan .. ion. of ...or w.,e in><l.'!u",. lhcy ..... "",oIy . b>, rart,."d do..<h.d
from i.. ~.t p~I< •. E.colopaJ hypoth .... luokcd bc>t from • dio"'n«. b.nk-
ing d....-n "n d_ inopccrion ofbeh.wio< (. point ~Levan. fO r-.ccn, m.001iltg
in _""'oIogy. .-be", .....,.,ki"tl -my .imilar '" ,bo old cultuul<coIou Ius
rumcf"Fd; .... Lt6bt><. mlo volume). Social "ru"'....! ,hcorin..-.:nt...,."...j
in cim..-...............!C _ial pat ....... "",h .. pottiIocali.y. 0< oke"",1
In the absen<e of compeIli", ,ke",y. the.. wa, • murzcr>« of the .... roJav,
tho, rul..lonthropologi<aI theory fOr.Jcadn-.........ill qui,. non='- -they
Iish< """"'" it is p.n of thei ....I<u",; '" tht -'""" ti ...... then: W208J"""ing r<:<:.
ogni,ion of the lmpon"'oc 01' • hlocorical p<np«<iY<: in pp><nL of the <ririal
impor...... ofb.-inging in ,oloni.Ji,m!lu, hod ro oIitn been ill>"'red. anJ ...
....."'...... of ,1M: burgeoning c-thnohis<oricl..,d rcgion.t litcruwa du, """"_
of·f•• ely do<wncn .. d ..or .. belnz hizhl]' ruponsi"" '" .... ngi"tl con .... cir·
cum ... n.... 6", hiofO', ..... paracliynuinll, ...!...J<tl from anthropologiaJ
theory OR ~. The goal of'BIood of rhc len.....,,· (Ft"""", (990):u\d W....
;" tbt TnAJ Z- (ft"""",...d Whitdon.! 2000.0<1g. [992) """ focw '0
•.,..n;"" OR hiMorial~ 'o~n thoomially =ppinschc-io dimm-
Yon. and ........ ....t brdoint! 00. =- the foundaciOll for. ~ ",.tisOc ......
fOr ""ploining wu.
Amons an~ the .. ..., Jisnificanc di!!"e .. ncn in " - the impo<t
of co[" .... ho. bc.:n conccpnoaliud 61ick ( 1988)-""" made the li.m broad
K2fftn<n, on the i - . I"0f'00<'. q""",ioarivc dirjou>ction. be,W"" Iimi,..!
<nmg< 6zh<in8 bcfon: conuct :md g''''''''.w ..... t... atta. I do "'" agee with.
cith .. hiJ g<ncr.t dunr:tcriurion. '" thc idn of. q.wi ...m brta -R<vc"ll"-
i, more ,n idiom d..n 0 C2U>< of¥,,,,, (FtT - I"Sa:J~ If. F<rgusort
ZOO5 ). En«mi"",'" ....."',.. """";m.. luppcn. """'" 1\0<1 ...... people..
.as in ,be -u,crn Grc>! PW ... (Bamfor'h. <hI' volume). and is ...marLbk evcn
alia ron ....... in ..... ruhtr n'rem< .... of the Maori (All<n, ,his volume).
The posi. ion ~ by NcU WhiKhnd anJ mpdfio ..... Wencrn co,,·
..., g<ncr.tly ,.....!formd. (req""n"r in"n'ifird. HId oomcci ..... gmc ..... d war
in .... n.i"" .rc.. we ..1I·,nb.:ol wn ••.·for ,h" rcuon. h 10 . miotili '0 Un '
critk.tly prot«< hillOn..I!y reco.dcd wa, In'tcm. in,o pm.im>ty. Any .!fo"
<0 . .pl.in hio,on< .... ,ra..•houlJ i""Jud. hi.. oti< <ondi. ion •. • hh""zh th ... by
no m<:oru <iimiru,.1o<:&1 f.. ~ .... ng<nd.rin& violen<e. '" imply thot ,hcr.....,
" 0 W>f I><fo" <on"",.
'0
Fo, th •• nthropology of w>r. ,h... fincliniP ,uggc" ,h. nod r<<t>midcr
<U'r<n' ,,,ump''''''' .boo, the <au" •• nd p.... 'k. of""" in non .... c >0-
'0
<ie.icr, whkh have bo.n fOnn"! <oIi,,,,,", [cftn:n'. ,hc contacr· ... I,,,.d
,0
....n.bles idocn,ifi«! he ... Who, .... 1><<It . .."med I>< "pri.. in.- ,....r..n:
now >«<n. more lii<cly '" be a .. flection of ,IK Ecuopcan p.... ru: •. Thio
...... no< me:m ,h .. ""''''n' .... I>< known .bo", ""M """ide .ke infl"-
.n« of Eu",!", '" otkcr ......,..'c_ A"J..coIogiaJ dot. ."d judi.ious
uK of early rcpotu from"""", .. n..,ion> can provide w.h info<mation.
Th< p"ilU .....n... i, ...., we .... _ di .. rimina,c pr<C0Ilt1Ct . . . P''''''''
-orit!touc • th<Orcti<>JJy infOrmed ..... i,;.iry '" the inAucncn 01 con ....
cYal in il> carlitr-t pha><o. (FnJ ....... and Whi"be>d 2000:21)
This io ..... mu<hd<if=n, from poIiDonI tilin by _~dea!ing
wid. <hI> Ioouc-. &mfon!.i ( ~: 112_113) thoujh<ful ptam<ation of cridnx:c
ofin_ wan... on tht pm.io<ori< G ..... P\ainj concludes: 'n.c.., iJ no oJoobc
•
 •
,,. , ", ... 1..,...
,..., con'''' p<riod pro<ase. Iud prolOwtdly B<5"n.. off«.. on indis=<>w
ptopIn u.d "'" an ..umHuDon of thooc ,ff<rtl i, _«I>ry in ""1""""1" '0
"'" pot<~taC1 infonnnion to iUum""" f"'<CO"DCI wop oIlife..· Lombrn'.
(200z,l08-UI9) 0YUTicw ofNortJ. Am<rican _Iu<oIop:al...;o._ for wu
.,....... ,I>< nluc oI.n:h>«>logy h<aw< i."r.:.:.....
on £ lim< bc:fon: We><<m
£wop<<>n .. pan';"'" roloni>li.m. and om.. procnoa "",.kcmI the ch;t.>«<t
..nJ ,..j«.oryof """y indiw=n",,' A.-...rkan .od.,i ...• \I:',ll.,. (1001 b) .... dc·
..U.d ,h.......iv¢, ,"Iy >ruI conlinui,,!!. dixup<;on ."d dcnructi<>n of N..i ..
... ,1><,.;.'>11 l"'''Pk ..,d JOCkli .. on ,h. Sl'",i,h bo,derlands ofFloriw. And <v<n
wl,h .11 ,he p"hi;roric ",.nl'" in North Am<Tic> •• m:cnt!y dct<ribod 'Il1dy by
\'t'>.lx<1' (1.""'"",,i 2002, A9) of OV<T 4.~00 .kcl«onJ:
found tha< ,h"", from .li., Ch'i!<oph •• Columbus l.ndcd in th< N<w
World lhowtd I .... , of ttau""tic injuries mom th>.n 50 ]><1'W't higher
than thooc f'ru.n before the Europ<:oru armro. "Trawna.ti< Injuria do in·
erfi$C «>1Ir sitlni!icantly. .... Th .... findings ""88"" ·N..;... Am<rican •
..__ ;n"",.. d ;n ......., viokncc ali« the Eu~..... orri • ..! rtun before.
. . .. Walke. >aid th .. .Jthoush 1»" of thc inc~ inju'1 "' •• doubt·
........... from .ioInK, by whirc. thrrn!e1Ycs. I. ptcI>ably fl:1kcts .......ty
.... ,"'..,..·.....i .. >ioIen~
All""," «>mmrnU rd." <0 NortJ. AIn<rin. The twO .hapun in th i. ""'WI><
,h.. focUI dlt«t/y on the im~ of'll:'<>«m "FW"ion mak< du: poin. fV<n
m<>rt fotc.fully. Th. 1>1..,,; ,.«, hi. wi.h ,h< fuU fins< of <on .." .If.«., ""'"
piAn .... nlm.I •. econontje oPP'muniria, .oot.. ."d ,bovc .II. guru. They end,,·
".."" n.... i.. l«iopolitic,1 ch.nge ,nd r<"'o.king of <u l,u",1 theme .. kuling
,o.n uploo,on of w"f... ,"'t kill.d Wou. on ... hhd of .hoi. popul>fion in
,hi,,~ ),<0'1 (AHm. thil volume). Propl .. of E." Af,;" "'cr. suppl;"! wi.h gum
lOr dovlng:and ,he i",.y ,....d •. ic..J.ing <0 no< on!y maui .. mort.Ji.y ;n .aid..
bu. fo<wI dispw,."",nu:and ,co!ogic.J dennocdon. o.Iong ..i<h funinn:and
d""'..... mad.: ...,..,. if""" =-l by thc...1wtga (K.uimba. thi. >O!ume).
'!he poont oflrib.J.zonc dxo'1 ;, th .. ""?"~ in thc """"'" ... h...., colo·
ni.li<m i. Irnplnsing. "",,<dod ... <hr< ""'''''' be •.r.... Of .. po .... ,...... of",,·
<OnW"l viole_ "",U ood ........ hiocotical r....... poooobly .............png coIIcc·
.n.. viokn« "'" in~ted. Th>< ;, • "'*" diff.r«>« ","","n the .pprooch
ad ....... d h... :and th.u of Kccky. lcBJ.nc. Gu .... l'" :and urnmi •. O"..bcin.
• ...1 •..any Ofhe . .. ...ho <OnMu. to .k.criloc ..Ju>osnpItJC.lly reponed .... <hr<
•• ifi, ttpl'U<n...n ...rIC. ph ... of "",iCtIJ evol.,;On. h may be , .... ,.11 ;, no<
dnrn •• i<olly incfl:-a by <en,ac.-.h< OJ'P<>< irc m.y occu.-bu, , t..cl of im-
p.>C' can"", bo .... m.d.
1<;, unf'mun ... rh .. tho qu<!tion odd, .... d In .<Ome I'«en •• «!urological
-
1n~.{A-I.~.-''''GOp.-''''''''_'fII;' ; "1'
d~iunt io whtthn Of no< W>f «;,ud befOr.t W<IU1'n contxt.Of bdO<-e ......
..io<od. To my koo""'dp. no one in rnntcmpocuy .... hf<lPOlogy oup;g<JtI tIw:
i. did not. Funha•• inc. I do no< J>O<i" quah, ..;,.. b.a1 in thc r...m 01 .....
befon: and ali" con"",. I = "'" .wpris<d to 6nd p.. hiHoric Ii..... tioru ..n,.
,............h Of <ICed thc .ioJcoc. >lirr concac .. Nom. ......erican _h>eology
(and .... ybe boJond) ",nil in<:vitlbly had..! for • conk .."", htlcd ",""",ing
ILk< • 1250 A.D." <0 .ontp...,:uinly 0llfI\'''' "''''';w
.he and ...;o.>pt<:..! viokncc
In ,h< ,h,.. «nturin 0< 10 brxhting ..... w«. Bu, ."en.ion ohould >bo be
v<tn to .h. period from 14SO to 15so. or .... ,o.,k ifth .... ....... k.,..ningof
"",u.1 vlolen« in bc:fW«n .hi! rim, .nd.h<: ~ ....!f« .. of Eu"'p.,n,. Only
.n:h.. ok>gy <>n I<"'''''ruCf b ·.10 of viol,n« f"'lIl b<h.>« :u,d th=gh con.
t . ., .... d <ould invc .. iga<o_lO. in".... e_wh .. h<:. changing kvell of viol.nce
><eomp.>.ny \l;h"tn guo<I. filtering in through 'r><k n.. w..... I11 ... M"d)on.Jd
(1979) did for fort.buildi"!! .....,.;,,«1 wi.h pro«>hisroric "",<land orad< '0 the
r;t<;!ic Non/tw".. eo....
Orifi...
Bu, the ~ of WU " " ' " bo VU)' ntd"ul no< to.on8ae ~ prehio<ory
In North Amrnc:o Of...,...hcn ......ith.JJ prehi>wry. wt... _me>
1000. in "".,.. _nion< .Ju, ""hio<oric ....ru~ could be pretty taribk io the
>«1ft'I
.u,
"""" """ll>can. 'f""'ion of em we idrn <ify .., oripn of w ... Of .... ; , ......,...
bccn wirh ",1 l>I..,yhow conduded .Ju...... ;, a ~luiv<ly u.. human Invention
(Ch ild< 1942; Fenilll985; O"Connclll99S; RC>p<1" 1%9. 1975, V.., dc. Dennen
l?9S, 18(1- 214, Vond 1984, ll(1_lll ). 1am cu,,,,n.1y followins in rh,i, foon'<p~
working on • global N' vey of Itcn .. ologiw .vi.un«lO....." from .ko .lIli...
indic1tQ" up '0 .h, .dvm. ofhiotork>1 tc<oni!.
So wh" ii no .igru of w.... r< found in ...ly "".. rio.lll, i. oli.n ,,;d rh ...:th.
sen« of <vidrn<. " "'" ",den" of .bom.:,: V.. ...... I.."" tc<ov"o.l>l. ,rxn,
lndimon of vioIenc •• or coIicaive violence. in ••"icm<n, ltId ili:ktal rcnwru.
....opons.l.IId ... how I>«n <CVi<wdruc...t.a.: (Fuguoon 1997,311-1Z6; r...m.
ben lOOU09-2U, lcBJ.ncwith JleKi.... 2003,S8-6-4). ilr"""" IhqohouJd bc
VU)' "PJ>U""'.0 ....den of <hi>...tumc.. Y... the .... P'cndo.,lot .... tioru obou,
... icIc"ce. G....... tIy. the cWlUnJ pcn<t>« of ..... is """'" visible tfy" .....wn. of
>C1lI.I.1oIcnce (Arl<mh. <hi> ...twne). Fonib;ons. ......... rion. and ~
to inocc ... ibk Ioa,iuntall cnuilc-.. and ....ybc for>akcn when wu aioto bu,
only .. low kv<1o (SoIomtro. Allen. ,h;, volu_). E• ." ... h......... is ;l\Ion.h~
• .,,~ tal ..... of """"iv< w=-milinS .od.J groups nuylad oIoviow .igru of war.
""..,in8 """...1><<1 .hould look .roon,d ,h. edga (11..,,,ror,h, Arltwh. Conn.n
.nd SUv<""in. ,hi • ..,Iurne). Sklctal mo.eri.J m.y be .bund.",. bu. uneum·
;ned f<." .r.l.u rn .... in ... Iy Chin. (Und.rhill. thh ",Ium.). i"t wnen ,kcl.",n.
>
"'" ... min<J. w... ig"l llww up. Of in .... No"h Am<n<'On Sou,h.... (Dye. ,hi.
n>lum<), and in New Z.aland. wh.", violence is ",ry d= in. rot:>J ..... pI< of
...... , than • hunJ",J (A1k ... ,hi. \'OIum<).
1M", . nJ ott- <On'~nj unMrsun..l.bI, ....k. many ...h;orologist> ,<IIK-
u rn to conclud. ,h", ,he"' ..... ,.. .....,"'Mn thO)' Snd f'><) ~ of W1L
Camion i> .tw." .... .;,«1 fOr an, Bi-.m ...... Wlu, 1arxu<;" thi>ch.pt<f i. that
.....arty .bsenc. of C"tId<n« II ............. It i>. gloW p..... rn. and .. otodt.. ga; ....
pt<>b><i", ....;gh,. Who< .. «fU.u, odJins. i> that uound the world oigru of ""'"
cvnlnWly do appc>r. 'karty. and ,htn <Onlin ... ,~ time • .-.m whm thcTc
is no ""","""""ins imp""" ....... in the "'«WefJ' 0( oJl I'hysic:>I ,onuiru. The
compkv ab$enu of ...or iMin,,,,, .. fQlJo,o,d by ,h';, de... pcncn«. I.oohd
......,...
,,,,,,Iudt:.
.. ftum !hac 1'''' .... 'Ii ..... I this ....."'" olCYidcna:!hou1d be """' ..
"'t"" ".. evidence. Th... mpk .. c.opWmion i, that ...... dov<lop"'" of • ....n...
Th. 11<:<' KCfion is • ...........,0("'" ....,.t, up 10 ... cur....." point. lhr"" ea·
.... '" ... in <>nkt. R .... the .........h brok< oIfbefOr. rompl<tins tIr. wei< ""'"
"f Non/, America. and ........1 '''"';0.WUfld >InS renu;" '0 be do.... S<.:<>nd,
thnc ... prdimiAuy lin.dinp: mo .. ..,....h and .. con<ider.uion i> anti<ip>t<d
for .11 "'gi<H> •. ThiN, ,hi, ,ummary is v«y .. ripptd down. le>.ving ou, <i<taik.
J .. ing l....... and tnO$t dunution of tnvi""'''''''''1. Jcmogr;phic . ...a.I. ,...d<.
. nd poIi,k.1 ""001' ....". AU ,ho, will come (! hopt) in • oogr' work. Thi' ",rn·
mary foro"" adu<ivtly on .~idtn« <"<gording ,t.. in"ptkm and •• rly devtlop-
m.nt of . iol.",..
Th. Ea,li." Sign! ofViol, n<.
PopuLa, fIOOion> of the an'iqui,yof .... r .rill $<Om '0 reRu. Ardrey', (1961: 1966)
d"matic po" .. y.I,. ~.. d on D.rt·, (11'57,21)7) ·blood.b",p,m<r<d ••bugh« ,.
gutt.d· vicw of our pal" Roptr". pioneering ",rvcy of I'ld,to«nc and Upper
Pokoli.hic <Yiden<c contradic .. d , .... view.• lrhou~ chc: .onduJed ·opocadic
intr~;ti< kiUingpt<>babI' ........ pi ... • in th.I .... , ptriod (1969:448). Sin"
,I=.. odd" io<ul. pr<>iouJly _.pted ..... of violence b.w bern .. corWdc....I
.nd «jc<tcd (BinfOtd and Ho ]98S: 80.>. and Ciochro<l 1001: linin 1981; Ury
1m,J,4, Whit< and T...n 1989. 19'91 ). No«hallcng«l (to my knowl.dge) is the
P.JeoJithic ind,.;dual Skit..! lX <ion 36J)OO B.P.-OfI« bu, no longer <hough.
to be Ncandcrth.d (Armobc'lond II<Iftt·eol=. 1998:312)_finm Moun< G>t-
mel with ......, >f>P<"'1O be .....u ,hnm ~ i", ",and hip (M.Co.m
and I(ci,h 1'I3l':74 -~). a.yo..J Ropt< ... Ie... ninc .itco &om Europe to In-
di>. from 34.000 S.c. '0 8,000 B.C. indud • •ipu of viokn« (&ch«hi « aI.
1m, 137: G"il.iJIc and Zamm i, 21)05,50; K•• ky 1'1%:31; '-"rndon ",d Schild
198&61. i~) ( no< iJl<tudlngJ.bel Sahoba(>t N(>tth Ame,,,,, below). A, I=t one
of tho.< is Mnulithic (Sh.>mu 1%) . !hac Sndo in .... ~c"'P'" of ,UI-
ctoI """in> ....",Wly "'pp"'" Ropt.', ••.tiu view_J<2la:",d in'crpcnorul vi-
olence. bu, in cim"""or,ce. 'N'
could i",lude xcidtn ... non·lethal '''''agtoup
conJlrcu. individual hOnlicidc1. or U«tttiono. N.......Jenhal rem..ins romplin«
the .illYrion. There b much skdmJ '=ma. bu, ......n,
no< lib: .Juc produced
by~ (6erg.<r >ndTrinkaullm) •..;", twOa«pIic>ru: ,ho putiillyh<al<tl
cu. awl; ORchc: nb ofShanid.&r III (50.000 B.I'.+ ). meh Trinhuo and lim-
...."".n (1<Jn:6Z. n ) all ·the oIdm ca>< of hu ...... in"'pthWW violence
and .... ...Jyposoibk.-""""'« .... ~., and the =tn.t, id""tiftcd
healed tnm.« fn>m 0 bInIt-.mp.d obj«r "" chc: ""Pof ,IN: .brIl olSL uwre
I. <in:a 36.000 11.1'. (ZoIlikof< . .. aI. 2001). Then I«tru to be .. leu, ..... ck.r
cue of carmi~ from ]00.000 11.1'. '0 ]20.000 B.I'. (Dc F1nu- 1m 1'1). and
....n ,h. nrliu H _ _ _ <ira 780.000 B.P. arpan 10 be canni""';";';
nm.n.!n.,.J... .. oJ 1m). The {""'ou, K.... in> """.in,,,,",,, jvdg«l ,,,It indic·
";Y< of carmib.oti>m by Trinluu< (!'Its) ond Rusod (19117•. 19117b). bu, Wbi ..
(ZOO] ) .'ll.... ,I><)' >"',
Yet annib.h.m 40a fIOO n«UOarily ..un im.rgroup rioIcnc•. The d .... """"
ax of A........ ",nnib.Ii,rn (below) i, ~.,-.u "Il",.-indiC1fi"< of...,.,.. And
iinc. the poll,;"" olN..ndt ,tluJ, as hu",," .,.. :c,,,,,, O«m. inct<.. ingly dou bt·
ful (.nd ,hIt, toO ,,,.,, ·an,«wor' [Whi« lOO(),499J). ,h. ",I...n« of N. >n-
<kn hal beh,rion for II...... ""i"" i. qu ... I"".bl<. R.garding the rcplac<mrn'
of N.. nd",h.l. by II,,,,. ",piln!. ,hef< i. no physJcal .. idcn"" 10 support ,h.
oS.n ,uggc".d o«""io , ha.h .ook pI"" •• h r(K,gh vioi< n"". rather ,han ,hrough
,«1m. OI h« fo,m of COlllp<Ii'ion.
Given the li.ni«d number and compl... n... of .. rly hum.n Or homin id
. .Ictal «nuins. .nd the omoun' of 'numo rcpormi_""'" 'I'p:oumly hurn.n·
indue.d. mo.. hOI, """" ",",ybc-p."C<N< of Paleoli,hic ,;.,len"" «main <nig-
","" ic. 1h< .oIwn< by Mart;n an<! Fnyu (1m: and IC. W. lkc 200Ja, ZoI·
likofcr« oJ. 2002) nuUs a romp<lUn8cue foc ,h.... cd ro.orui.dc, ,h. cu .... n.-
Iy ...p.ct.d i..... ofln""I'O<Ipviok ......uch .. dub ~gh"or domc.ti< abux,
.. . _ ... o( . .Ietal mo ....... DcWintJ prior '0 bwial or <rl>uri.oI .00 It....."
ptri ·mortcm tUtU and ..... .Juc hovt n...ning to do with. .ioLcnc.. t. i. poAiblc
u... """'" 0( chc: ...,.,..d ,numo "..". r.o... ;''''rgroup violcn.:.~ Ccruinly. It
is cquoJly poosibIc ..... non. of them did.
Othe, claimc<l ..idt"", foc hkoIithic homicide or ...... it F"''''P<'>n en<: ....
Thm: tcpt<><ntariono .. J>.c.h M.... ..,.j eo..p...luw Itnct wltich "f'P'"' ro go
UP'" (>t """"sh human·ltL: fa"", (Leroi·Gou ...... 1968:325. Im,or,o). To 80-
>
<Mchi. f.bbri .• nd Mukpl (1997,06). who «p«>dlXe dr,p,winp of ,M..: fitl·
ures. II,. Ii.... "'A<"., ...... •lulU. T" Ktlly (2000: 1S2- I~J). ,.., of .... 'mag<>
• « '. P"",r,p,rd of >ponu""",, <I", ..,.,IU.:
Aie, ow<' ... bu. by h,,,\ofini,ion. no<
wu. For LeIlbnc..;<I> R<p< .. (200H). ,hey u< "mdc""" of -.mr.: Gui·
Ja."",, .nd Zornrni, (1005 : S2-~) odd ... h.. rcp1 ... n .. ,ioou >nd..., evMl<na of
1iI1.np. For O".rbrin (z00.4,71-13). ,My u< proofolkilHnp. >nd "<he killinp
<on><", ..... p<aI: of <he h"m"", ...rh ... CUI .... oJ<h""", I>< ohm JUgat> do.,.
""l' r<pK><RI on anurion ..,he • .t..n b.at<k.
ObYiouIJy.a'O'<"" u..;,xopen 10 in'np ............ Laoi·Cow/utl ( 19680323-
32S) IUO th.mo .11 • 111m "run ~ ....... opnn." GinI_ (1962:.(63_464)
IUO rwo of .... rn .................. ont of Wlopt<'Ir...i oa. ..... condudoo, "n....
~u .... dcpit' no fish. of ....., .plrut ...... or of ...... ~ .. <O<thIy foe. n..
...,..,...... th .. mn,ln <h. bod ... of tht nu.ud or 1><".:IIe. ficu ....... 0Ngi< p....
;.cults." Ei ..... <>pini"" I.. of <IXIr><. wnj«'lunl. For rwo fnoono, J..o..nn.l
btlit'« .1>< ..... iLrnj>I< .....on 10 ""."Ion ,he wnlelUW ,h... theso Ii.... rcpre.-
..... ...,. _ . of P"'i«ril< .. :011. ~1n'. dot< uuninxion 01 .... repracn .. tioru
(fu.-p><! pho."tI"I'h.ond d....;nl'- ... Gkdion 1%H62- ~67) obowJ <hat
IIOrne lin .......... i"..,·i.... bu. oth<rs ... d«idedly cu •....! or wrfJ. Comf"K
tIIu.o ,he .... ,gh, 1I"",..;m ""'""rated Y" ;P' hi",,,, 10'1" Vm< ..... h ....
Ni:lw (Ginlion 1%1:401-402). s..«>nd. in OIhe. ave .n. from 1.0 Roche:. La
ComMr<lIe..... d Abtl M"", •. ,irnlb. II"", I" ""e'. 'hrough.• nd 2fODnd .n·
'hropomo'phk figu~. In ...yo th .. ~i •• "" !uggt,,;o., of proj«riln (GiM;M
I962: 4~ 8. 4 ~9. 497). I'<.h.ps ,h ••"Itt .. pracn, .. ;o." .« of. ph y>iaJ ,hooti",.
I"'.lup • • ,h,,,,,nit ""e. 0< pn .... p' ,hoy ... of ""","hin8 "'" "m"" ;m.gi .....
l"<y do nOl P""'" .he "I"'n'" ofh"rn.n kUling ... nd ",,,.in ly "'" of w...
F", <vide"". of coIlroive viole"'e. or ""'. <he ,,,Ii... ""cop.oJ " .. ,.m.i",
,he N ;le Silt tl7. nw ],btl S.h.b•. ""' y toughlye";nu,,d •• ,bom 12.000 II,P..
wh ... l.( of 5~ wdl' p,nc,wJ . kcle. on ........."",(",J "";,h ..on ••"ifocu
in",pen,J .. par .. of proj«1li<1 (\l'.nd""f 1%11:90- 9); \l'.ndoof .nd Schild
19U,AI~- 824). lhi. io • " ... ""r!i«... lthou, """'in .... ion, .. th.. 1"" of.he:
Nd, "f'!'<'" to have b«n .b.ondon.d ooon.n .. (ao.. 19%,.(7- 50; Midan ..
Roy<> 1992,63-64), n.. oohe:'''«prion:ollynrly""iJcn< •• omd nom """".m
A_nib, .. he: .. rod. or, "V'" In,.",..-.I.iokn<e bo.we<ft indi'l'id.w. or
• kw p<CIf>k fro... p<rfIopo OJ nrIy OJ 10.000 !J.P.. ....t glOtlpd ...... from.bou.
6,000 8.P. H... .....J.no:....... to """,inu< ,he:,nf<u (T...... 'OO Chippin<W<
"",.
O"nboln (z00.4:73-74) <I, .. both e.... In "'PI"'" oIhu m.ory ,Iw~-
pm< hun, .......... _Irion """'r up .... , OJ m.,.""""! into ~
funsjns. n.. IIlISfl'ali&n.,... _LeI "'PI"'" hio"""';',1on "";,h bif;.f1"'" hun.·
.... ~ ,Iw ,he: ot • ....,... I Pft'S"'"'Ion from ....... Iishu to ~ <rIgag<'-
,".n ... Si.e 117;, .dilfc.. n. ,tor)' 111<", we .. ",mi·",d.nury people. ol........1y
Ubekd Ep,p.>ko!i<hi< or M....J;,hi<. "'" ..,...r:d thou""" yo .... peopk of <he
Q.d.n <uhur< ....1 ..liM "" ... ~lh. ""'" fowL and ... ild gr>"'" on .he: Nil ••
brood Rood plain. lhco< ...... bro.a.!'!p«ttum f'onsr ... "'" ~.lP"'" hili" ....
and .he:i. ""n 10 ............ to "''''' o«ur«<i .. <he Nil< cu' • nc-<I' 11"" ..,d
.llffii... 'M .... Rood pWn (o - 19%;oi7- SO: Mirhn,. Rcya I99HJ-64).
1"" Mldolk F..... ..... 11 ...
7IH MiJ.& E..Jt
lhiJ 1"" of the: world it ....,. ....U known through ....... '*'P<ol..,.,a.. In ....
M...,Ii<hie ...... N...m..... p«>pIr:. """j . ..,w,oary hun ..... pthc:ocn from 10.300
B.C. to 8.SOO B.e.. Lc~ ",.. n.ive ..main.. in<iud",,370 carefully arulrud okc~
«om. Only """ """"",, ony - . of ... u...... ond "", ....... th_ nor ...}'thln,
01 .. "'lIF'u mUiu.,. acriuru (1Idft<·Coh<n e, aL 1991,412. ·UO-441: H<nry
Im:376). Rope< ~ hn- ""kLc on <he PLciH«<n< ....t Uppe. Pal .... ithi<
wi,h • "'"'rof..i<k""" i.n <he Middl< E.uo ( 197S). She: >«<pl<d ,he: Prnailin8
vie .. , .... , 01,. fin' <1<.. ""NIt"", of ..... i. ,he: initial woll of}<ri<ho. ci..,. n.oo
8.e.. ol"-'gh .... ""'.. ,h", ,hi. u ,t..: 10k ,..;de"", In ,hel..cun, ~ until
........ ,h milknni~m ( 1971:301_310). SIn« ,hen. howner. B.a, Yooc:f(1986) Iw
''8\Ie<l 1"'....... ,;.. ly <hat ,hi. fin'....u ... m.lnl<ndcd for IIood ronrl'Ol .... <h ..
I th.n d.fe" ... [Oft> Koeky (19%:)8) .. knowledge> ,he ge" ....1.btcn« of ,.,,,
"iden«;" .h. Early N.olimit.• I<hough he,J"." ''''' <on,i&, the 'is''ifican<<
of ,h., fae •• i"" ..d .... tlng I, ••• cun...u, oddity.
Rol"" (197~,)10-311) . ur .. yd 18 .1 ... fto,. ,h • ..".en.h millennium .• nd
.h, .. il!ingd.im! fo .... r In ~ve o(,hem. She ..."duolu none .how """""Iu.i",
"id<",." t'oo- w." [ 'g"" ....<p. for C""JH""uk. in Turkish llru.oli. (6,2SO~
5.400 B,C.). wt..: .. ,he: ,",n of evklcMC - p',,",ulatly bu,iu. w;,n d'gg<" and
mac.. (which Rope, d.xI not m<n!lon)-oloeo "'PI""" I" p..... ""e (~Il.",
1%7:68- 69. 201. 2O'jI). Th ... olde. Nrolld.i< unvacloru from norm<m I.. q.
h~. """,.do,ing Roper. ""vcy. dudy ;nditor< ..... lh< url;'" i. Q<rmn
0. .. (Bl)()-noo D.C.). ,,"h mac .. ....t cnl>'1I"d pro;.c,iLc poin .. (IX'.din.
199L6S. 68_69); ,t..: orhc: ... f.um fOtI8hly ........ W><l ,...n 1.11<......... i.n ont.
• ""io< dcfnu;n:....u. and In <he ......,......... >nd okcLcm.u in......u.ion with
•.,o.I....do (Kod_ok< 1989:27, Lloyd 1914:33). [,m 'hio ""'" and place ..
the: otTn of. ~ ..mof ~La, warf... "'"' hat <""rinucd down to .... pmo<n'
...,.
Rop<r' ( 19750317-.114) "'rver Indicot .. ..ponaI dilf• ..-:a in ,I>< .... h rna.
Lcnn ....... s.." .......... aruund brxl-.ljordon """"in with..." 'OW" of ....... bu,
.....d>tm Turby...d northm> 1nq ond Sy,;. have oncnI ckuly fOnlfiod Ioca·
->
--------------------------------------------------------------
"" II.JIn.oo '''xo-
rion. from S900-Sl00 II.C. oome of .'kich. ruch .. HaciW II. wen: d«<roy<d
"';!h other indk>,;"n, <Of .. ",d (0« Mell.ar. 1m, liS_US), In "" fifrh m~_
knnium. u... rnblguou. Indication. of ...., b«omc common x"," ."J ."""'"
Ana,"'i., brth. mid.millcnnium forming . """in...,..,
.mp from northern Iraq
~ _<hem T.......,.. In contrast. <he Ubaid pcopIc of dx Mcwpo«>mw.
pbjll> did know """'." O"ridt....d bJ' _ hu, "",ui.....! wi,hOut m. fo"j/iQ-
tiooi, .... tkmcn. <kKno<clom,..,d m~"ariMic ar' la'erdunacmricof that:orca
(Rop<r I97S:323-32.8, s.c'n1994,»-40). A..,.....J 4.\00 B.c.. on oh.t An....._
lim coaJt .. Mcnlft. m.... oppun ' " b< • IN< rut. .w... dun • .rnJcd YiIlage.
...hich w;U ckMtoy«! .ftu .bou•• ,m""y and ~pi<d by Ubaid pcopIc (ICc
Mdlnn 1m: 126_129). ITom th.m on, "[fJo<,;6cuioN beam< dv: ruIo: rxh.t
dun dx unp<ioo,' (Rop.. 1175,329), Sign> of....w ¥Iing mnoin ntha
limi«d in u.. (poorly aao'ucd ) ........ tion to Utuk >li •• )800 B.C. (Wright
I~S). bu, by If>< rim< of riYal citT" .... ", • <'-wwI yean later•• nrirtyof
...;drn<:< ;..,JOt.. inl""" and /Teq ....., ...... (Jacoobt<n 1976:77_79. 224).
F""" tb. N;k", H."'II<'
By 4WO B.C. if <10< ... Iia". d>tr< .... '" $CWnlln,cracring""" of urlw>iurior>
>1Id lUI< «",,,.non ''''''hi''/l from Efyp< fO ,h. Ind., and in,,, G:nual luia
(lambcrg·K.rto..ky 1981, Rowbnd, .. al. 1987: TMi 1m). Along ,he NU ..
k.ving ..id<Jcbd S.... b •. tho initial ,xv.Iop",.,,, of ""It i. DOl .i.ibk.pvcn th<
abocn« of.n ..,Iy ''''~ "'rord d"" '0 ol'O$iun!.."d d ... icaJ .rdt....!o-
gi,,,' inlO'cru in 1>10' period •. E.;do",c begi"" """,nd.(.lOO B.C. wi,lr xttlc<l
limning . ill'g<>. In 0'" of 'h< north<m Nil. tr..ti,ion~ Mo,imd. p<opl .. Iud
p< ....h.p<J. Mnopotam;,,,·.,yk m" ... Far '0 ,Ir.lOU'h. peoplo of 'lro Kh ..-
roum Mnol l'lric of 'hc m;.!·I... ",,,n,h mUl.nnlu,n "",d. StO'" di,h ",hich.r<
•im il., '0 dl;k·.h.tp<d """c. US«! In ior u,e, Neolithic (S600- ~300 B,C.) TIut
"yl. 'IIM:C W>O obo found in a I«ond "lIricul,urai (iOOO- 3SOO B.c.) trodi,ion
of 'he mlddk Nil •• ",hich WAS ,he «"1(' of Egypt'.lr.te, unific,uion. Afier JSOO
B.C. the pe...1iupcd """. I(pIoc<J ,he dio>; (f.ogc ond Oli ..... 19750'199- 510:
Mid.n.·Rq-"or 1992:92-94, 127-131. 193). How mu.r:h ac,ual6g/ttlnjl; WU g0>-
ing on io unkno...n. .....1 mnaln. highly con,rovc..w (Y<" ro.. th< urcr d.ovdop-
""n, of Egyp< (S .... "K< 1997). Bu' d.orly..., ora< prescn' •• houg/t whether it
~1op<J IonJIy Of vI> "" .... nal inA ..", •. :and ... h.cn, C1ftnO( be :r.1CCfUin<d.
Eao< of the Cupi ... Sea wu ... riou>l,........J .... [wiU .mt to .. N......
.r... lor be.. ar<1I>coIogi<ol ocqu<ne<. ApcultuK ~ into tltio .... -nmc
befOre 6000 B.C. >tid <mall. unJofondeJ r.....in& communirin F'" up..,.;,d.,
mlJCh mOf'e " ...... row Maollthi< Am (CloIukhu- 19860: L2~. L2l1-129:
,tk_....
KoIol 198I.iI). Ind ... ,ionJ of .... _ .. witlt ditcl>n:and «>Wn>_>p-
pe..-only in the CIWcoIlthi< (radioatbott doc .. nry (V'my-).;- bdOO: major
-----
u.ban. growth (Gupu 1979:$6. 8i-8S). In 'he Bronz< Ag<. from >bout 3000
B.C.larg< defensl .. wall. b«omc eommon ...... b,- 2300 B.Cl«T< sp.udlng
••..-..rd .Ion. md ...... ,.. to T.jUti".n and perh.!" beyond (Kohl 19&1:ilI.
'''_oii, nis).
Further _th. in the high coun,ry of MiIun. <>rly f.at ..... n ........ nrrting
.;11agc walls bt' 4000 B.C (Mill .. 1985:39). To ,ho ..... d.-n in the knvI.nd.,
.. bot 10m< pn: .H>r.~ ~tI.mcn" ...... will. SO up in ,hc;.
12= pIu>a.
3100-t900 B.c. ..... ",,:t• ... boc"""NIy oeaIpi«l bt' peopl. of the H>r;oppm
""Iou", (S>r>bll. 1974ill8. 342.. 3-«. 3S7). Fot- III""", H>npp. (2'\OO_ISOO
B.c.). thcK io .;pUianr ochoI..l,Jifl"at-nn 0V<'r the imporunc:~ of Inf. Some
... 1i,tk. ....... 11oo(r..."".mpIc.~ 1986: 160- I62, Mar.. I98S:~). My
rndingof d.<nid<ntt Is that orgu>iud wufaR ..... known. bu. Itto.w.o.-d
..... ~ ,han in ...,..em Of <m,ra! Nia. In bI. H=pp>. ........ an: india·
tiono ofinumifying .maR.al....... gh duo n1dcncc;, xcomparOOl bt' ito own
dcb<.ta (Oyoon 1982.... 21, Sinch I96S.88- 9O. 121). Sm .. ~ <iYilizorion
d<dlncd. ni<kn« of ,,·idcsp<-. .d . ... ry.x..nI<rivc w .... b«omcs """,i,,21:1I>k.
as natf,,,ed In <I.. Rg Vro. (B.uh.tm IWI,31-45, Singh I96S).
Or;.... """ '" ~
Like ,he Middl. Eas•. the: Chi........ h.teolopul tceO<d I, m...i... .l,hough. of
eoun<. moody "",itt ... in Chin«<. and much oflt Ir.u"ot becn Kru,ini .. d for
,hi,
ind .... ors of ....... (... UnJerhili. volume). From ,It< ...1,.", N."li,hK Pci·
lihngphaK. m.nr villag<. and btrri.!o h." b«n ....nted. with no .igru of vio·
lence. A~er SOOO B.C. Ji"i"",il'< «Pon>l N<OIi,h ia ''''e<g<. Among ,n.: Y.ng-
,h", in ,he «n .",1 Ydl"", Ri.....1I.y. many .m.geo h.... urrounding di'che •.
f""",,,o,, i" '''1'''' ,I><", ., Jofon,i"', ... d tom. oJoo h.t"" poJ i<adc •. A, I.... on •
lot< Y,nSlIuo .Huge" .'mounded by. nmmed'<Ol,h w,lI (CNng 1986:81- 90.
101_116: N«Jhom and Y.,<l 1994:HI_24 2: Undc,hiU 1989:229- 230). On.
Y'ASlh>o ""cle,on Iw on embc<lded .""...h.,d, ""d ><lO,h •• h.. be.n fOund
from ,n.: O'.... nkou Neolithic f",h .. <ort. .im SOOO B.C. Underhill <:aIlJ thi>
.,h.c only <on.incinS o1.lc-toJ ..ide",. [r........n.r< ) from ,he p-long>iun pe.
riod ' ( UnJt:fhiIl19119:23L). oJ,hough .pln. r.w olek,on. N .. b«n ..udicd.
Regional Ncolithin dcvdop<d:and .. por>d«l rhrougl>ou, th< fourth mil·
ktrniwn. By 3000 B.C. many distincti ... foam..,. of ChiM>< <i>-ilillrion OJ>-
pcar«I in theaKmivclonphon int<D<1ion oph<re. In 10m< r<gIonsof d.< btcr
t.onp...n. ,h... wu .... ~ F;,.. locao:ionJ.Ii« 1600 e.C ....... IIlrTOtIOdcd bt'
tMnmcd.nr;,h....t1s. wi'h ..... and • ......u-.... (Chutg Lno,234-288: liu
t996:264-m~ Wolls oppar ><OWKl ... tkmo:n .. in Inn •• Mont;<>Iio. y",p;D.
:and S/unJocrtj ~........d the -""",.ime, indudinga huge «n ... in the br-
'cr:. with nujoc "'!'Pies of _hudo (Ow>S t986:2~8, lJndcrhilll99"U02).
,
 E.. n mot< unmi.."hbk hgnoof ..... :oppoa. in Hm.u\, lkuU. wi"'lC>Ip mash,
u..
bod ............ n down ... new ond.bdl.icr _apon"'" (Clu>og 198&2iO-
271, liu 1\196,264, l/ndcthiU 19!1~2JI-2J~. "'i>YOIum<). V........ of ...... Hill
.how 6""" nriuion. abundm. in _ _ ............... in ......... lhm coma ....
6". ~'n ...... &Ii"", (.Jthoogh Underhill....iI ........... ~earli.. aua
....yb< foun,J). A..... 8m_ Age proco:edcd m.he Shans ...... btnme 1 W1yof
life (Y..., 1999). Ot.C'fbcin (2004J61_166) qUdtioru mOl< of.he....;dn,cc for
"'or b<ror. ut,,,,,!. ...ing w.II ....ffi>ru 11 IIood .on'ro~ and o,he. indic>ron
of .i<>k""••, indk>ring imenul poud",,J fiv.I~.
On ,h< Kor.. n pen;",ul •. ,~< ••nyI'<curd i, tlim . I found no infe<m>rion
w.fing on "'.. f<.> •• ~. C~uhnm cul.u«. Me><>li"'i< p<ople '" ho btnm< f:um =.
An .grkuhul\\l Bmn.. AS' people <,m, in totnc1im. be,"'... n 1500 II,C .• nd
700 B,C .. br;n~ng ).{>nchurw,."yI< w<.t.ponS (lI><n<> 1999,26, 160-161: Kim
1'178 ). Th. J"'I'....." .«oro U be.te •. ~m:oin' of tcdcn, ••y complu hun Ie.·
V'''',,,"' th.jomon. d..< from 11.000 B.c. onwM<h, 'n ..... rim .. pracridng
....... culti ..... ion. Ar<>w>d )00 B.c.. OVC'I rice culu..,on tune 10 Kru"'u ftotn
Ko.......... ng .... th IoaI culnun «> brcornc .... Yoyoi. From .... beginning. ....
mip>nt..JIaga~nu ............ d<at,im~~f=utuandwnp­
or..,....
..... of .... '. 5.ooo)omen >4I<<<'n.. ,m >how .ipu of rioIm< dead.. or
.bou. 1.000 V.yu<. d.cn: ..... more than 100 oictinu. Acco.tnu f""" .... <Of>-
temporary Chi<>eo< coun"'" do<:u"",n. in ..""........ in ],>1'......... ,ime of
thi' .ruti.ion (llama 1m: 168_171. 218_220: F.rri. ]m,}7-~]. 1999:49.51,
Im.m .... ]9%:179-]85).
[UIOp<
V.nd . who .no,. ,h.n anyone d .. h.. diu.,..! .... ndon to . «h>.colo>gicol ,igns
of war in £urope (1984).•"""Iudc, .h.., , ...... i> no ronchu iv< e.;d.t>« of war
up .0 .nd ,hrough E"lOpc', Uppc:. p.!coli.hk ( ]999:58 )... doe:o Do/uklunov
(]m 77). dt.pi" tlu: mrmi.. :uclt""oIogiaJ <ccotd ....J ,I>c roruidcnhk oociaJ
complo:;'Y of , .... p<riod. Keeley (19%:37). leBlanc .. I'" 1kJi"" (200}: ]4).
...d ",hm.. howcn •. do argu< dut: ,I>c ... i> pc""..i.. coidc .... for 1nl in ....
Upper PoJeo[,d, ir in.a.dcuJ ond otI.... .......... from C-~i .. lhi> .. .
<rirical poin. for d>ri. gorncnI "'l!""'tnu about ........iquiryol ....... Camp>ri-
- . of ,,,",i, ct.i .... with .I>c empirical =ord. ~. dmoon...--. dut: ,My
. f< unJUpported.'
A. ,,,. hcnh of ",,,...w. d~ .• ""'1'< .....1ed fongtri lif. dco.-doped
through .... nin'" miIlcnniwn. At a numb.. of m... M..... i'hi< loot""", indio
_(dual re",.in. h.v< t..,.,n found ,.."h "J91' of viol.nce. e... n killing. Co ... ,andtc-
Wel«"n.n .., d N ... d! (1 ~82, 75) IUrv<y<d M<>ol ith;~ I kel ...1 m.teri.!. and
found of 5~ mo.rly <ompl<<< . kd .. o" ~ ~v< ...."",,;.ttd w;,h • ·pro;.e,ilr;
bu, roncludr ..... oth.. tt1wn.:t.1 "'" prob;tbly :accidenul. Th .... of .... plOjc:C'
rile .1111 ...... "'" ftotn....,.,nd 4100 B.c.. ...bioh i> ..... y 1m for Mnolo"'ic.
>n<l _1I.1i....... gorncnI Wfi: ro . . . dionuo«! below. Cuu..ine ... d Zammi.:.
(~:~-77) ....... y ........ right M..... ;,"'" .. ..,. in F,u""l'" >n<l IOu. """i<\c
;, ( inc~odingJ<bd s.h.bo). bu. ICVCr.oI of ...... Ju... ..-. ........... buri>l .. ith
projc:<tik injuritL One .... worth specW menrioo I' .... tnigmIDc ........ of
....... }1 .lrul!~ ochcrtd >n<l ocYCul with large ~ioft hero ..... from om.,
in B...rio d .... 5SOO B.C. (m yer 19'J7). oltltougll Ou.pm ... (1999: ](5) ""n-
"hodel,lu""',, · ind"", .. oneco",01 ..btiom .. the. 'h"" • bloody i .... idrn •.• The
tcp.l\\non and op<cw int<rrn<n, of ,he .ku ll. i, not 1. .. lfevideno:eof WO'• .. . ""h
sp<ciol ...... men. of on<". own dcod h•.ru i. rommon both .rch.. coIOjlk.llyand
cthnog .. phially (Wrigh. 1988). Bu •• h. dcp ..... ion frae ..... .IC<m' difficul. '0
upl.i" .. oth<r dun from viokn«. In rum. while it ,.c"" Hholy ,lur: >Orne .....
..... pnoriced In ,It< European Mesoli.hic. many find. Of< .mbi8"""~ .nd}ocof
.. nglc in.!ividua!.. and trill tq>rnat • • ,m.1I frx.i<)n of ,he OH~ ..rotd
(CNpman 1m: 105-](6). So .mile Vond ( ]999:'9)...,. I b<o.td. gtnenlohitt
.~ ...... Do/uktwt",,{tm:lIO) sea _Iinri..d ... d highJ,locoIiud de·
....IopmtnOl in ""P""" «> panicubt a>nd"ion~
"""""''-
Alie. IU'OUtId ~500 B.c.. ;gri<ul",~opoad at ..... «ntnl Ewopc from .... Blod::
Sea «> HoIlMtd, For an a,ensi.. time..,d ..... moo, in_etrig>«,... >« no ,ndia-
,;on. of .;oI.n. conflict. bu • ..u,,, <>,h.nll'....J Micn. 1m000g .h....., ... d
LIII( (........ >tid M<..,li,hic peopl. all ."",nd ,h"n (fI.>rk« 1985:139-]47,
o.nneU ]98~: 135-136: Thoma. 19'J9: ISO) .• lthough Keel ... ( 1992: 1m) ,h.l·
or
Iongt> <lu, .i.,... From . round 4~00 S.C .. . gricul.u .. ,he Tripo!y< cul.ure
'f""ad. ItmU .. ly w;.h"", .ign. of violence w;,h loco! M• ..,lhh l"" .htOugh <a",
ern fon: ... ...d '''PI'''' (DoIukJunov 1986b, 111. 1999,81). Bu, peac< .... not '0
..... By ..... LBK ri ....... in i .. f" ....... penemo'ion ..... (Belgium). p.>Jisodn .....
pu< up ...,..,... <U50 B.C. (Kcdcy 1997:J12-}14: KeeIey ... d CMocn 1989). En·
e.... "'"" of ondcn>tnu beevne common atfOOI .......... .....,..J Enrop< ...,.,nd
thc ..... ofLB K.<ira4<lOOB.C. The pwpow...dmc... ingoltndo...nnhody
deboted. "'" a ....."bc. in.coq>o<au <btt)r defctu ..... In,um {\,.nd tm068-
(fJ; Whinlc ]98S:8S-86. 1988: ]....). M_ .ip>ificantly... Ie ... four and poo-
"bly "",... Iat« LSK ",... pcrlupo abo<>< WOO S.c.. indude ...... bwiili .,..;th
n... mbiguous to".. ofriolen.c<~tl.ug/''''' (V<n" ]999:60-6~). To ,,,. ......
Tripo/y<. had 1Qn;[;n tio .... m>en....d ok"'om .... h '''u,n' betw<'<n 4400
B.C. ..,d }810 1I.e. (Dol uUuno-.- 19'J9:81) .
l ltu•• """"" muclt of no ..hem Europe: ........ ,hili.d f""n a ..." ... d and ro«
phenomenon ro. <c,n,non "",",.. nee be''''«n SOOO B.C. .nd 4000 B.c. It
,
 -
d "'''UM •. N..... .1, .. ;11<';" «gioNl cul,um ,Jc,-.k>pcJ in ".."y..,.
11<'1:' ", . . .
~,.. in",. fo",,11 m,lknniutn. Th ... p<opk Ixpn buildin!! hm·fOrt. md burying
,""it d~.d wi.h 1».. 1< ...... (Dolukho.nov 1999:83: Schur> 1983,75 ~n, V<nd
19?'i',66_10). Simiw dndopm."..1.g<J byccnturia in ,I.e f.. the.- rcad.aof
""".h"", ;I./1d ..-mom Europe. In o.nmuk. 22 ""dOlOfU r""" • M...,tithic ~
""Yfrom >bout 4100 S.c. ,,,dud...... with an appumdy Lcdu.I urow,..,...,.j
ond fW<> with h.al«l rn...wa • ..gt<ri'o'< of!Criou. riolcncc. T"", .mturic> btcr
>gkultu~ Iud ~ ......fi"'...d P'Jo.erins. By 3500 B.c.. <hoy Iud .tI <he
dmnsm Inn=< and hat, ....... of «nOra! """"'" (Alb.ttlua. and Prt<fXR
1976,14, 20; Andt .... n 199):100-10): Pri« 1985:351 ). In -wm Enghnd.
.£,
n..;o. n:Uoncc:on agri<uItur< .!omirun, by ""'KNr 3'500 B.c.. ond r2mJ>2rt.
cd .~bga"'''' common by 3000 ac. Around 2600 ac.. the hu<Oly p.;lis>ded
hill-IOn ofHMnbltdon Hill_ Ju.""",d in ..Iur "f'I"2" to bt Iicrcc romb.n
(1Ir>J1q 199I:SI : M<tCtt 1,88," . J().4.I989. 1m).
s...tbm. Un>fK
ao..., <0 the M,di..............., m.n."IOIU ... ~ture and v;okn. "",,~;a seem
'" be mon:..nabJe, ond lCKJ'Ittima ,*,""c<, P&ru ofGrt«< had • fun Nrolidric
IU"hge by 6000 S.c. In Mx"u.,ni•. early ,mill·f:urnins communities we",
und&nJcd .nd nn, to ... tcr in Jo,. and$. B~ the 6n.o1 Neolithic .bOIl[ 4'500
B.C. ond 4000 !I.e. ..,ok"","" wi,lI lWmi<hbk <""Iosures b<g>n '0 appear in
d .....,cd. J,f.".ibJ< Io<otio... (II....' 1985:71- 72: Koldinidou "".I Niko!aidou
1999:92- 96). In ","thern haly. nund .. d. ofN,olo,hic .."rl<m<nuon ,he T.V<)·
Ii ... plain and docwhne w ... ""god by very , ul>$ ..".;.1 ditch" from bcfo",
5000 S_c. '0 3000 B.C. (WhirehOUJ< 1987,3S8- 359). r.pr...",ingpe,hop' ,h.
fin' !",,<m of "'gulAr .... ,f.'" in l;uf'Opc, How."",. funh« north in hair oyer
,iii, ,ime...,d,m,nu off..m... int«miloJ with hunrer·gath ...". without",",h
dit<h .. (B ..rl<" 1985:6S- 67).
Ibtri1 Iu. dr.un .. ic .vidence, but 0 <ompk. I>'".,n. The fin.1 pha", of.
long tnmitioo to. N,oIithic life O<<um<! br th, mird mUknnium. 0 ", av<
or A4..... Sp.in e<m,.l"... nuin. of about 300 Ind,vidu.ts. 'PP"mody depo<·
,t<d =< tim< bet,.,.,n 3800 S.c. .nd 2800 S.C Nine hav< .mbedded 10"T0'Jr
poin ... ond """Y loose poln" ... in the fill (Guit..in • .....J Zorn",i, 2(;0';: 152-
lSoi). A muo"..: foru60:d lire u~ted .. los Mol4m from 2';00 a.c. '0 1800
B.C.- bu, who, e,..my "'I"ired ""'h fOfmid.obJ< deferu<>l Uur .... 'km<no<
.-.:n: .",.II.t. 00 rutur2llydefend.bk ".." ( Ft............ Cunu 1m: l7- ll 73 ff"
Monk. 1997,U- I7). Subsequ.." N<Oli<hi< .tnd Chalcolimic ,<trWm display a
-'«1 of ..;.,kn •• ma ..... ""d thete..., .. t ........ wall p&in<ings ch.c. iI'I <on"""
ro Nrolimic .... ulWllbipowIyckpic, ...... d·P'P<Wheo (An.....datit« al.
1~4,2IS; Botell. Lope • ., aI. 199';,70, f~ •• be,,"" aI. 1m: 141_143, Guu.in<
ond Zammit 200S: 103_121. 116: Mo nb 1997,23- 24).
Fr:anc. pnwid .. p«'haps mo bes< ..id...... 1Or • 4« 0"'" of ...... .IOth ..... ha,
ironically fine. "'is u the Uy .,•• £0. GuiWn< ond Za,n,ni<. Bn:nnan (1991 )
m><Ie. 'Y"....... ic di ........minarion 0( oJI ..... iUbk Middle {Nt2ndcr.haI ) ;mol
Uppn Paleo!i"'ic ......un! &om _"'""", .. n Franu (100.000- 10.000 B.P.).
1heJ< I"ngncnn r<pn:O<nt 209 indlvld........ indudi"l!' few ..... /y known OJ"'P-
poo«I ~I<mpl." 0( ..,kn<c. (n,.,.., other f"""'lbk tnmpln 0( viokn.:. w=
not ... iloblc r.:.- aamlnacion). Of .... touI. oh.t found • total offiw f=cur.o
0( ... , oon. T_Uppcr P>1col"hic >p«i1fl<1U Iud hnl<d dept ....... , fia<tura
on m. okulb, but In. form CotUUten ..... th ... accident. Bn:nn.n (1991,206)
condudeo:
Tha.: u Ijnlc: <vidence in my.u.. ,Iu,
tnunuric injuM< in m... wnpks
of MidJk ... d Upper PolcoIi<hic .1«1000 ... we .. commotI. 'The fc.. """.
nw tlw ... appo.tent can beOJ mil, opl.in«ll".- .rodenul inpry ..
by 1n'<fJ'<n'"u[ viok ...... In f... ,I>< ~ 0( • oingl. P""Y rr.....,.,
or
...,..nd '0 the kk . id. of the head in m, wnpk otCrnt '0 bdX ,,,.... of the
ptr<iowIy hdel notiotu In the II ..... ture ofbeMW behmo< ond violence:
£0. ,his ,im. period.
Gul!.in. ""d "Zammit (2m:49- SO) IIClmowlcJg< rI... "udy.• nd COmmen'
,Iu, if"". W<~ '0 go from ,h< •...icl...... . ....iJoble.· on< """,tel ·<Of>Clud. ,hat ago
S""'i.. noo. ""'. uncommon during .hI, ""riod." How...... ,hey .hOM< .nO<hc:r
im"p' ...,ion. NOfing ,he r..... ,..",n.,i.. d Cro ·M,snon·, found d..wn.re ,n
Europc ("'I"' " ed .boY< undt, " The Earli.., Sill'" o/"Viol.n«·). d.. y <","dude
th., i , w.. unlikdy ,h., ,hor w<,., ""... Iill.
Soom"n Franc. "",Ii.
to " .. aI cul,lva'ioo in the ro,,,,,, milknn,um. ""d at
the , .." of ,hi. t~,i,ion. "'''' . i,." ,how pc,," .. lve ,lgns of cumibalism (Villa
1~2:~; Villa" 01. 1986). SuktoJ t... ,IN from p«*<"u.. bee""", fairly <om·
mon iI'I "'" Nro!imic (Cordi« 1990). Guilai,...,.d Zammi. had ,_ r<J<ardo·
.11 ",mpilc.n nhaO>JriV< 1100 of all Nro!i.hic _mIIicttol.........,u in Fnnce
(200S,xi~ l.l\ 141 _2SI). 'Th< ,Otal numb« found from SSOO B.C. (Ia« Mcso-
li.hic) to 3700 s.c. b)out ,h .... incIl.-iclua!, .. ,hm: oi_ But from 3600 a.c. <0
llOO s.C, the", arc 41 Ii _ _ ....'" multipLe rim ..... Alclo.ough they mil'li·
m"" ,ho- sipifican« of this dt-amatic ....... h ~ndl''S I".- oI.r.ving du. mnaizu
beromo: .-.: abun.hnt .. tim< goa on. the much ~ <>«Urt<n« of riol<nee
....... diHicuIc to Jrn,. N.... d.d. ... .... pauncg<> of ri<timo ~ quit<
.....n comp.utd to ....... burial F""f"IIuio<os _d In this ......... In tomb. from
48."... oompri>i"fj .... wun l.OOOand 3.000 indiriol...k. ~~. Of wodn 4
JO(} .( _ , , , , . . . . .
ptr«n' Iu.... """'" WOWId .. indouling ....Jrd one<. Cu,\.a, .... and ~i' at-
5"< du, ,h........ y urt<km:pR>aI' :octu.oI .;.,Ic:nc~. C."alnly "'''' ",_igh" "'"
dw """"" "'Itt
i",un<<t in ..toch <h<ot ""~ ugu< ~ the: ~ ro
>p«"I ... on "'" 1"..... «.,.
in«nOiry af ......
BT-u"sr bt•
0.... ro. ,I>.: Ch.kuI,thi< and Bronzc Af!<> diff", ..""" Europ<. but m<JItIy r..u
In,O , ...... nll< of2300-700 B.C. ,.i!h <h< Aellun ., •• ,u"inS ."vn:rJ «nuu;',
urli .. (11<. SIo ...." 1m). Much of the meto! ....u in !hi, period wmt into
weapon<. >O"'e for .li .. dispuy ... ,n« Uun comb". >Om' "ri"Lilly .... ,(I\c.od" by
boeing d<p<»i«d in w.w. Weapon. ci,t"Uu«d ove, wid •• w:a,h< of Europ< ... d
Wtn, .hrough • ,u<<<"''''' of form. (Harding 1m: Kris,;''' .. n 1987: Olgood
1998, Rand.bo'lI992), It i> flO. door ,ha, ,hI< <VIden, mill .. ';1m i. uoociu.d
wi,h.., i.... "'at.
in.ctw.l fighri ng (Bridgoro Im,1I3-114: Robb lm,06).
Eorop<·' fi .......... in C"'« and M)«IUO" developed .. the.nd of the Broru.<
...,.. abou. 2000 B.C. and 1700 B.C rcopernveiy. wioh <ttUd> men: emphasis
on ..... ;" My<<nxa (NiloWdou and Kol1cinidott 1m, w..dk 1"14). Bodt
coIl~ in m. ..oft or • idcopcw .-ioIc""" u.... -"'<qI< (""'" !:gyp< '0 middk
Europ<, .fOIInd 1200 B.c.. .. the Iron "3<. >ppUC1ltly, btoufh' new and JrIOK
J>O""<'fful fomu of maills ...... (0,"," 1993, O<good 1998,n- 83: Poplum
199-4: Randsbo'11992: 199_201. 1m 19\ ).
Nonh Am.ric. • """'"
A few prelimin.ry <ommen" mun pt«.de d,K .... ;"n of North Amnk•. Fi,,,,
'ny rt,O f."h «a.scJ .. I W", worii ngon ,he P.. i~c <0., •. That "I')' ..",,,,,ivc
"",«h will nOf be co",ide",d hcre. no, ~·jll 'h' G", .. Bilin. A"'i< .• nd lUI>·
A«ri<. S«ond... r .... , ..ruing <hi. ,h.p'" t loar ....J of Lambe,,·, (2002) ex-
«1I.n, o",""iew ofNonn Amcrieln """.rial<. I ~"J f>OIhing to disp",e in her
• ...,lmen". bo, we: do diik. in dt., myom. ic. ;, .. pliei<ly inrcndcd «> high-
hght ,he In<te.,,, In .igru of W>I over rime. Thlod. ,he Noo-oh Amcrian nw..w
;, mOr<: ...... plj""od <han ,Iu,
of othe, OK. . o!rady discwxd. wi'" ""IJ' di<-
.inni.. regiono! ""...... and in ""'" """~ _ <igo' of •.,II.tti.. Yioknrt Of
.cl.o,mly uri)' "-'«s. Fou"t., much of the IOUowing hao been ~ in ~
d..ail by e/up<cn in thi> ..,rum<. Thi> ........, k>ob fa. .......Ji.. OOtu <ompa--
.->bJc.., lindinp from other "",rid u ....
Aboo, d", .~rlic<t hUnwl inh:ibitann of .......",incn,...... ha ... been giv=
'wo ..ry Jiffi:un' ,......men.. of pte"""". and pre •• I.r>« of .k>Icrw:•.
Thr .",h.acologk-,I r«<m.I givt< no .. id.t>« "c '«,;'orio! beh •.;o, .,., the
pm of . ny of ,h.,., fi .. , hum." and g>.,h ....". Rath ... ''''y
I«m '0 ha ••
d.~<lopcd • very opcn network of ",... munie. tion .nJ (n .."",ion .."'"
M-"I:, (:.JauI·~-'-";o".--'--+-_~l';'- ""
"'" rontin<nL , .. [W I< find no sign atI)"'"+.m, in <h< o.rclu..olop:o! Kcord
of....... h""af<;Of\Aicco<~ {H ... 1999: 14)
I'topon<n .. of simpli>ric m=rioIis!/~ mod<b dw ",dun..-u_
f.", to <OInpotition OW< Iu.d and fOod will ~nd li"k <OInfon in ,,,....;_
<knc~ fa. ~ ... ", vioIen, ronAicu """"'I! .ul~ imm 1&=>.. '" "'. N ...
World. Tholl< prop!< lived ., low- "'n.iria and h.>d ....pI< OJ>POnuniry to
avoid >ioknn by moving aw:ay from i, bu, opp.",ndy ..... '" u",ble '0 do
10. (W. lkt. 2001 0:591)
Two '''''y~'rly indic:"io"" of violcn<c . rc .. soci, .. J wi,h ohe ('n",", Konn .... ick
M'n. f,om 7()O() B.C. '0 5500 B.c .. with. n.. l.d ........ ptoinf (McM,namon
1m). and hi. Ie .. f"""", .pprm:;'ru.« c<>nlCml""""Y fftlm G,im .. Burial Shcl-
'" in Nevad>., ,..j,h oWdian .mbedded in hi, rib (Owsley and J""~ 20(0).
II6iok< Kennewick Mm, Walktt (200h:5118) p<'O"ides rd"cta.n '" only one
pi'bliwd ...... sugg<>rinp; group vN>Icnce. fi-om A••n.u. F1orid.o (D;dd ef ...
19811)-. ftl)'ftgn;fiao, ~ 1M ...... ",d linrlar ~,for hiotm=Jization_
Still gI"efI the odoli"" o=ti<yof>ldruJ rem..;ru thUoId. <h< number dw ha",
figI. of <IoIrnu ....... be tal:cn .. signif.an<. >nd • nun: "&';"" "'" p<f'IfJC<ti¥C
I 0'1"" htre. The Ew.m An:haic \lI'<>odlond! iI our ....XI '"'P-
Miln .. (199~. 1m) .... botn ",'veying d,e ..It OI .. II ....,,,", for thi. "'won
(."J Dyt. ,hi, volume). He (19'19,120) nOl'.,o",o indk.rioru of vioknce for
oh. Early A"h.i • • bo", 8500 - 6000 £I.C .• b", ,helC"do no, OCCU r wi,t. .ny
' '1l"I''i'r" un,il 'he Middle."d Lm A«hak (6000-4000 B.C. .nd 4000_
1000 S.C. [Fogon 1995:3481), An impo,,"", .. rly .... i. ,he onc iust menlioncd
(Dkltcl., 01. 1988) fium >OI>oher" Flocid.. which i, <:Ioh.r lot. at .bou,S400
B.C. '0 be d ..,ific.l •• urly A.-chaic. A 'Ofal of 168 indlvidtuls .... "'p",.. n,e.:l
in ,hi. _y "" ....... Uy we:U·p"' .... ved botid p<>tlI'«I. and • dcarly,uggesriv<
ofin,"'p'....o...1Yioknuomor in nincaf them. induding~ fi-oau .... cnniol
frxnt .... and one .... bcddc-d point. Anodoa .... ;. Mulbe.ry Crttl in Tcnnes-
«c. 4000-3500 B.C. (Ore. ,h .. ...Iome). fIu< ......., >« .......»ing0lCl of moJ.
<ipl< ""......,;ud indmdtuls only in "" Lau Ardui<, olit. 2SOO B.C. (Gf2D11y
1988:16: Munson 1988: 12). Many ca>CI of , ... ,,""" .r< only lingle indi.iduak,
>tid JO .... y f>OI indic« ..... (Wilkiruoon and V." W"i<'I<" 1993: 198) .
A, Ie . .. ,h,.. late Archaic ...... do w... tk...... idcnc. of """ . Ind'''' Knoll
in Ken, ... ky (4IOO-2SOO B.C) h.. 48 of 880 burial! wi,h "",bedded po;'",.
rn,,<lb,lo"~ (lr multiple burial, (Webb 1974:147_1SS. 173- 20S). A ~ .i«,
in e~'''! New Yo", from .J:.ot" 2SOO B,C includ • .Jed.. o", with point> .nd
mi ..1n8 body p.a'" (Ritchie 1980:n. 120). Th. 439 inJi.iJttal, from T,nnelS«
1Y1 ~- mz.-
(l500- IOOOfWO B.C.) include 10 nW<' wl.h .irnUar "5"" of vioI.nco. monIy
from one "",,,ion (Q,.. ndorfSmid, 1m, .nd 0« Dye. ,hi, volume). Yet Ma-
n•• ( 199~:136) concl"d.. tIu., ..en I.... Archaic viokn< ... limi .. J ''''''p;orui
ro ..,boequ.." p<riod!..
1h< II?oodl."d p.,;,..j .ft•• 1000 B.C. «&i"'''''l=c dodine in 'igN of >io-
knco in ,t.. grat number of dtclmJ mnoUu un....hod (~ and Heiple
19BI :~: Ma .... 1999: In). Bu • .-did no<diJapp=.h"fi""l>a.and Dye (tim
..........) "UIXd.nrf1l1: .. '~ad andtnd<mi<." E..... ...-.ongl-lop<w<{l
p«>pI<.......U,. c... ~.,.,.-fuI ,.-.dot.... wluc:apptarto b< tropIty;bJk
"'" fOw"l (0-->1<7 and Ikny....... I97S:~ s..m.n 19811). In .... rniddlrOh;"
Valley .bou. A.D. 500, .h... ;. uhili from di,..n«I to n""hIed and dmnd·
.bk sl<a (Oancty 1991). 1t.. orrivoJ of <ht bow and arn>w ........ uoociuo;/
,nth mot< fiWnins in the ....... th =tury (N.......,. and Pyle 1m). and >ita
in WC,HftltroJ lJIu.ou ..............y .igu of >riokncc: from 'M L>rc Il'oodl>nd
umcon ( Mil""" 199'5:229). lhio Ions~ em.... proI>I<m< for Oncrbcin'.
ocuurio of p<"'e beu.c OUlKturalIy conn<em:l '" brood·'f'«tnIm fOngns and
pw.t domc>tia.rioo. lh< Lat. An:kaic ..... rimt ofin<r<»i"fj and mor< ..,dod
«Iiance "" "'I1.UDc raoutca (Moln.. 1999:21). and m.lUbotqu<n, Woodlmd
P<:riod ,.w 1M domc,.;c.tion of "'mpwced and ",,,Bow ... (M"n..,." 1988: I~-
13: w.t>on 1988:40-43).
y" ,he emcrger>« of the M,,,i,,ippi.n ,...didon by A.D. 800/900 "UI shows
"" Iy limite<! pr<p=tion, for .iokn, confl i.t .•1'houglo lOrn< .."d.ment Jd':mo<>
>pp<" " e.rly .. ,he eigh'h con,,,.y (Mo,.., ond Mo .... 1983:237: Smith 1990).
In ,h. South..... ,. loa". by A.D. 900-IOSO .h"e.r< indk,uion, of .,,<kmK
worf.." (Knish' >I,d St<pofLI itj, 1999: 10). A m'jo, i nc~ in nucleation. p;oli.
•ading with IOphiltie",d d. f.n,;"" f..'ur<, ..... d •• " empty are .. b<,w«n «n-
"" b<gin ••n.. A.D. I!)SO (Gnmly 191!l1:91-9J: Miln .. 1999:123-124). "'im
,he .hicQy politi.. d",u ... d by Dye (,hio ""I"mej. Around A.D. 1200. war dub.
come'" dornln ... ove, ,10, bow.",J .nOW." 10m in comb.<.round rn.jo. «n·
.. IS (Dye 2002: 128 ). In thc t .... l~h «n,ucy.• imiw der.",i"e eon<cnU>.,ioru.,.
Ken in N.w York (CNpdelin< 19'93: ]91_Z01: T""k Im,3Uj and oround olu,
,,,,,e. in Virsinu.{Roundtrcc andTum .. 1991"179).
Lot< Prehi"orie burial. y;.ld many inJi";duaL. wiolt cmb<dded pain .. and
ott.. .......... (Grunly 1988:87: Ri«hie 198(l,294). A"""nd A.O_ LJOO.l>wUk
from lUinoi> of264 raul)' .ompktc .... kt"". in<]0<1< H with ,",eh inJ~
(Milne< .. .t. ]9';II:Si13. S9<4). In a Michip """'C'rJ. nine: p<,.:e", oCindi-ti,d"..
oJ. """" ....... kthal ~ f""'u ........... ,Iy in fcnW .. .ho ..... y ...... bcro
apti ..........,..,...,gc. men .... noubIy .....dnrqrmcn,e<! ( Wdl1""", 1997:23.
3S-)8, W~l1ruon and V... W....... 19'9)']9}). 1n .... Cftla:a! MmmoppiiOhio
aru ali .. A.D. I3W. (oom an oI ..aJy n,.d.... d baoc. men: _ • ..J.Ii,ion1I roo-
ccnrn,'",n of popul",,,,, .. and .band""m.n, of (>11K ....... Crc1ting' ''''' •C"'p'
ty qU'ff«" (Cobb.nd Bu,l.r 2002). P...Jki .... i... " arc ... n ,hroughou,.1.e
So.oth...,. gi.ing ri.., to ,h. oophi"ie,,,ed chie9y .... of.rc recorded by.M Span_
Wo •• Iehouglt by Ihc" i, .. i.n:d In ."........<1 form (Ande,..,.. 1~:139-ISS:
Dye 2002, Moneand!>lone 198.H 7]_283).
1IH C...,u nuN
I found .... infotnudon abou, ean, ri ..... ro. ,hio om. bu. 0 ... dcuiIcd ..... f'\<q
of mnaim from T...... OkWoo ..... Now Muico. Kansao,...d CcIot-ado~
.Ia.. ""... of ..... (o...ky 19a9:01- W, o.."SIcyct a.I. 1989:116_119). By my
«Jun' £rum d.u e"'"" the .. Of< 173 indiold...J, from .u period. "" tIuough
Woodland. and +41 from ,10, .... pru,iKOric (ali .. A.D. SOIl (f>g>n 1995, ]39]).
Ofdu: Ii> ....... tho only indieuioo of.Iok .., doth i> "". _...;th.,....
hi..... '" tho had. or doc Loff ... if ..... includes indi.id...J. in mulriple burial,
where """" indiv.d...J. ha.c .... b<Jd. d poinu. "'= ... 74 ..... of prob.tble
YioIcn. dc:uh. in 0 ... ",. accomJWIled by dcliborate .;!loge dtwuction. Ali«
A.D. 1000. aIonf; "'. Mil>OUri and Min;,,;pp~ Mio.isoippw. ~plco AlITO\Ind.
cd ~ .Ulogcs...;rh dl.<I... and p.>l.sodco, and buricd It lour on. chief..,;m an
""'""'- ftI.1><e. There ....,' fun"'" nucleuion """"Plnied by >b.>ndonm<n<.r...-
A.D. 13W (O'Brien .nd Wood 1998:288-292. 318-320, 331-333. 3H). fortin.
alion.nd Mi,.i.ippian ",,".-..erion, «",IKd in,o nonk..,cm I""" from A.D.
1100 '0 A.D. 1200 (Ak:x 2000: 134. 155. 182). but (uClh" "'''t in K:on ... ""d
N ,b....h ,h'r< 0" no indh'ion. of Ii>«ili."i"". or d,k ... ivc I.,..';on, (K,.."..
19iO: 106. Ill, vr.del 1986: 1(0).
O n.ct. peopl. exr. nJ,d ftom 1O",hwc,I(m Minn"ol1 ,htough 10000 0nd
much of I>1i.. ouri .nd llI'nuj,.nd en.;ron •• ~., A.D. 1250. • nd <>p<ci,lIy .li..
A.D. I3S0 ...comp.ni<d by fi"'ilicd .1'<$. ~d<",l '''"urna. .... d ,hundc.bicd ico.
nog"'l'hy whi.h in hi".".;., tim" i, :woci.«cd with w:u ehi.cf. (Alex 2000: 182-
188. 200. 207~209: 8''''(0,,10. ,h i. volume: O·II.;. •• nd Wood 1998:345_347,
3S7). Wh,;" '"' individual dtcle,on ..... _ 'i8n, of vioknce beli>... A.D. 12W
o....wy
(1-IoIIill1On ... d 1994:351: Ol .... ..,d Ship","" 19940384). WOI>< ri .....
wcnoroming.
In ,t.. grncr.lly _<pie<! pic'''''.immignn'' r""" tJ.. C<n...! PI.in. "l<Ii.
ti"" ........e<! n""hward. Inhi.111y wi.hou< forrine,,,,,,,,, <H" othn indk:u:ioru of
...... 8u, in <he century ali" A.D. Uso, .... y and ,J.. P"'"1owJy ,nidcn, !nitW
CooJe>«nt p<-opIc ~ In ,n'ier for, bul\ding. some d......,-..d ...1oik un.
.... comcn><rion. Mmy, nun, -!hI ..""" indkuc: viole", d<:><L.. ",caninen. be.
i"fj doc c.- Crn-k ..t<. con ...n,iofLllly d.c..I .. A.D. 13K ~. minimwn
of 486 individu.W ......b~ ..,e<! (H<>IlImon ..... Qw.ky ]99+. K2y 199'5:
Pringle 19'911,2039: wm.,. 1990: ~ 1m). &mforth"«>nniburion

- "'"-'I, (~.......,.., •...J.(kt--'-+_'f""
[0 'hl",oIum< "'I""':' m.jo< ..,,<ion ohM••ic.... War is dc.« •.bIc /'rom A.n.
1000 on, :u.oci...d w;,h I"";"ul,,, in,nnb of d<OUfh .. no< on< Ions period,
.nd c..,.. e.«n d... <~nno< b< opc<lfi<d mot. p.edxlr ,han in ,II. broad
ncini. y 01' A,O. 1400.
7ht 5.Nthrvnt
A p"" dul h;u betn publiWd on "..hilU>ric....m.. in ,,.. Southwut. <>pO-
dilly - . m.. pa>t drnd .. ... "1....·, book (1m) b tho....,.. rocn"........~
joinnI..,. a O<t of cut....did (Rk< .........BIanc 20(1). Oapi.. an ttknIi¥c
.mi.. m:O<d. tho lim d ... ......,.,... of ...... 1haw '"" dom fro.., oownI «f\tU.
..... ft ... tho bopnnln,of ....u...... "'fIU'h ...,....,re. which <>«UfKd........d
1500-1000 /I.e. ( Will. 1988, I~'). kI
am. 'II'cathrnlr.
_"'wac.... Unh, ori,hin <he AIwui
ea.c 1 ton, ..... rrnv"ru of....... 90 indiriduak....,.. i ( no< ill
of ..hom """,.tal... oomt mu ...... d, A... ir.c.. rb« <ltl. ori<ltin ~f 11.
or be ....... SOIl B.e. ...... A.D. SOIl {Hwoo ...... Twna 199),161. 11O-17I,,J.
<houtI" I...BIanc ( Im,) IOJ ..... <It;"f ..........0. O. one! t..a.nbc<. J2OO2,22O]
1"''' i, at •.... 0 . 4001·). lhr<cotllt. Bukt,mal<n II si ... may ..... betn .......·
c..... ond ,litre .,.. nu"",,,,,,, od><r.ig<. of Judly >iolcncc C",fllMw: Im, I40-
14~). Wusign' .x.:.tu.ln Ib,"'"n.".. , III (A.D. SOIl- 75O) ....... comtbad in
~ •., •• freque ... )' in P",bIo I (A.D. 150-900). For MogoIloo proplt, thu..,..
0C>Jn< dm.\,;i>k hill"", m.1oo. before A,D, 600 .nd mOK indic>rion. of ......
• Ite. A,I). 8SO: fi,.. Hohohm. ,h... "' "".hing """du.ioe fi,.. ..... until .... , hi ..
...n.h «"'"'Y (...nl"". 1m,129- 149. l000,9~-9S, Ne11011 l000,3U-3Z7,
SoIom<'o ,hi. ""Ium.).
VInJ.,," .mong A~.·,i from A.D. 900 to A.O. USO/IZSO i, ambiguouo.nd
....."",Iy e"",,,,,,wi,]. Although 0"" (rint!" Ioca,ion ...... fOnifi«l.bo., A.D.
900 ,I\d .b,ndono,1 .~ ... ma_re .bou. A,O. 1000 (Eddy 1974:81). in tho:
«0, ...1..,..1 ofCt..<o.n An ..... 1<.It.,.. ,,,... Of' no Indlcatio<u of ...... ""8'
t!" .. inS .1It ui....... o( . . .... Ct..<o· (...kton 2002:613_614). 1"<r< .... ...,..
=r. ""n.Ie,,,"1 tr.lnw, .. peclally ILtnOng "",rn.n (Manin 1'197) and .igru of
lwuul kiU~ ""«pn:.<d .h..... riuly .. eannibo.lUti< ,<1"'" ptrprtm«l..,. the:
political <Ii .., orwyi,,,ond dilm<mbe •.,.,.n. of wireh .. (""lJnd 1998: D.tli"l!
1798, Kuun« 1m: Twnn ...... T ~tn« 1m, w.J1u:. 1m). Noon<, ~
..."" to quntion , ..... _ COMibal ..... oca" .. d, and ..... ohio .... _ in •
con.<D of ......
Si"" of .. n.ioN-,M:ab.u\donrnm. of a..co. optninl-'f*el berwttD
1""'1" """nd K'J'ft' .. - d......." In tht Cftuury:di.. A.D. 11W,I.ading..,<ribaJ
nucle.u_ ...... ....,... ....n' lmo<hlf'dwdllnp........d A.D. 12<;0. Abandorunm<
of northern and """" ~ Arwui araa...d clu",.... of R1II>inilrfj """""
-----
II'<
ma>ISO«U' ,1'1<1 A.D. 127~(H.., 1990: 1.< 81."" Im,264-Vo.2fl(lC,),45-54:
UpJum.nd RU<! L989~ Rk. and lcllLonc', (2001) """'-of",.. moJia, ..-iu.
• <OfICen".,ion on Hohok.m . nd Sin'gn> ~n ...11 rol>CCfn the "n>t,.......
time: f'nm<. from the A.D. 1200. 10 ,h.
utly ]400.' (2001,2). when tlw: .. ;"
.... ..-, ....wIo"'. of ...., throushou. ,he South_. .J~ prutd<d by •
.... turyofin< ......""'.n>loN. Hohobrn.m>. <00. om< at...ndol><d by the 1",.
faun •• nth em....,. (1'".... :and .uh 1989,119- 121; wilt ... 1989: 163). SoIomcto
(<h" vulu .... ) do:ocribct .lmUM Inkn/.i~ .... ion of <onRIC! on tho Mogollon rilt\,
/rom limioed indication> 01' ..... :om..
A.D. BSO.•" dnr inr<n>i6=ion in A.D.
UloO-ll:lO. foI ...... d I&tcr bt' ohan.olonno<nl, Fun"'.. _h. in ""ru._m
Chih.w.w.. the IattI< em,.. e.... G.. hd<o ..... bwn<d. with ~ bodic>
..nd ckl,b.n« dottuctIon .. ohm ~ in A.D. I}<IO(R..onIooo >nd Spa-
.,.J 1989, 131- 1.J4). By lh ••ul, ~fInn<h •• ntury. ..!w r=uift"! of ,I>< entirely
rc...-&ftI!<d population _mod 10 <"5"8" In Ieoo ..... mo...p ...... ..aJ..rn being
pncricnl .....n Coc-..do lIriYtd (e.......... and H... 19'111,55-57; H u...,.j
Cte.tmrt Im:24 1_243; l<BIoM 1S>9'H64,3(5).
The...'" nu""'l'OUS .. Jion. of .... ....,.Id .. lit .. KOO<l .........!o&ical d ... arc
:lVoi\ablc fOr «ntun.. Of .... n mUluni. bcfOt< ... y IUl!II"srion of war apptus.
Thi, i. 00 fOr ,lit Middk Eaot. Conn,] A.La, tho: IrrdD~ Chi ....... d Jap .... La ...
in u<h o( ,h... .... ~ ...1utoIogin.l •• ;Jmc. of ...at bc<o ..... dca. and """ .
tin"""~ For EgYP' .• 1I< ,,;.1011 de .. lopm.n ..1 pcrioJ 1,1..1ing. Eump< may be
rno", rornpll,","'. with "",,... d In ...."".. 01' (""",ibly) <oIk«iv< .iol<ne. in
,he M«oIi,hi •. ." ini.I.1 and ' P!"'",ntly ",...ful.p"'" o{Neoli,hi. ,radi,ion,
(wi'h 0"" .. ",b.W. <>«pd"" f'rorn luly). gi.ing ..... Y'0 • wid"p"'a.;I pm • ." of
w .. fare from the ~fth miU,nnium "".
NOflh Amotka I• • >t" h.nkr '0 .umm.Oli ••. wi.h dill',ren, and JOmttlmc<
conAic."'i! 're ...... in dill', .." ....... AI.1r.o.>u&h ,h....... f.....1)' <1<1y india.·
<io<u 01 >iokn«. In """" a.... ,lit...., .i,h... no .. t8ll""ioruof war in the .mi·
es< .....<ri.ol. .... ignt of 0I0I0: ...... hkk "I'P'" qui« Itm, .. d <omp:orcd '0 Ia«.
pn:hi"ori..i....... l.amb..... (20(2) review of ,he Nor<lt American li« ..,u .. in·
dico, ...,,", 11110 1'"".allu,ioon.pplit< .o "lIioru I h..... "'" 1<' fully IOC....:"«I.
I ......... """" in ..tvanc.. 01 ....... <Otnp ..... d1ocu ....... tha, the northern Not ...·
wat c.... .. oundo ou ... tho nrllut ..... 01. war p:o''''''' in Notth A"",oo •
.bou. llOO B.C. ..... then ""'.;....... in pracri« down .., hi......, rimn ( ........
an<! M&K""tf 1999:109- 210: Crbuloki 19'12: 1S6- IS7. 1"":80_BI • .l.to.. ond
Erlanclton 19'12:11 ). AI,,,,,,,,,, I haw yn '0 SO ........... all .he m.u,rial fOr
M........ma. South Amcrin (..,...hcd Of! below). A£ria. Melan.o4. and <he
 ,
Pac,f\c, my prelimin.., ..ad;"" ouw" 1;,,1. '0 <on".J"" ,hi. picture of ,
«Uti""l, ut< ......
S'''" of ....... m"uu"'IU of P.I ... (Lilton....J Tuggk ,hi.
volu,.,.) "ui New z..land (AikA. ,hi. vol""",)". coru,,,,m wi,1. ,h>'_
Ahhoup <pi>o<k> of..... art po,.;bIe atI)' Ii .... In huO'Wl p«1ili.ory. th.n is
n"<Onoincing <Yidtn« of ooIluti ... in,.,gtOUp .ioJon« "", .im< bdOrc 10.000
)"".11 0fi0 «""<pI)cbd SaNb.a). a.nd in ItW>J' pru of .... world m""h mort ~
crnt/y ttw. m... [ milo< ..... (.ide"", a.n be ,ud in d..1f<Tcn ....)"o and ......,.
wiD 1>01 bt <Otl..;nccd tN, w., .....bomt. Bu, J dunk i... difficuh to disogtn
with the: >H<'ftIQn th.o tht ",UCOK< of ..... oM ito Inmu.ity. it "~nri2bIc.
To .blm ,h., ·w.. h ........min« ... 1M! all h......... do," or' tIIn)I'W h..d .... In
JJtimc pciod>" is <Onmdic,cd by the ..;dmo ..
,."..,ch,. poin. of,.....,.>1 ....",.... ,hould be ,ha., .... n though tim.,. of
""'"' ........... 00III<'flIMS fOI ...... d by ri.-.of .... ....,. m.ovenJl.loo>g--<erm
,rmd was fur """" ...., O"ta rime, BaiJ.. m. ..idrn", I ......, pRO<J>,cd, dw
>imp!< ron is >ppOmr! in ,hi. ooIu ...... In Pilill, ...... appan In the U<O<d >I'OWId
A.D.600. The M~ i>roupu ......... ,h <hem ... Now Zc:.tar.d. but .... ime"';·
IicdsrndY >I'OWId A.D. 1m In ,ho us. South..... th.:rc ....". 0<Vtttl Longmp
in ..... dc:",Iopm<n. lqi ....in& by )SOO 8,C., bu, ,he intensity of wv ..,<g«I in
m. '!OO -600 yea!> bcfOn: con'><L Looklllfl" "",ire, tim£!, "" 0« in Ch,,.. .....
,h.
beumo mon: <om, _ owr tho """ ... of Neolithic. and .. ill mon: <oml1lO<l
in ,h.l:I"", U Agt. Ouaa I•• p.nicularly important ..... Ahhoough tM clup •.,.
by R<dmond .nd Sp<nc.. in ,hi. volun .. picks "I' .round 700 II.C .... hen thn.
I..
wc ... ady ,,·.ning chid'!omo, Fl.n""" .nd M."·.,, (2003) begi n th.ir .nkle
funM' Inck in tlmc: 'M 'im. f.. mc of 8000 ·2000 1I.e. I. chuac"riud by
·w",le.. "",i.,ies; .nd . ign. of .... fin. 'ppt'" .round IS'!O !I.e. bu, ... ,hcn
. lmn. ftum 1100 lI.e. «>800 II.C.-al,ho"gh Ot"rl>cin (2004: 12.3-126) quos·
tiono ,lut .. rli" .. i,I.... e of..,... La'er I'«h;',o,y inJi .., .. much mol< w:u dun
utlier prehi.."..,..
Thi. i, ••• i....1roin,. '[hooc ..110 "''1'"'' "'.. in ,.,10.. . ima ... n.n evid.:ncc
i. lIcking.n: n:[";n5"" ,..., _.l>ppinS bun. 0"" i. ,n.o<y .bou, ... hyWM oc·
cu ... 1~.n: J.sion, ond .. cotdl", '" 111>111. ..,..,. ..... r i. alway> up'''«I.
Th, 0< .... twi._ul"'" ... hieh n"", ,"'o<y i. <1" ..... - .. ,,1Inogr~ie ~
rioru of war ow, tM p.u. 6~h"ndrt<l yu ... A ma"" point of ,h" dupo: ....
of COlt .... h oJw. 1l'CI.. rn con,••" r.. qttcndy kd '" in .. n.i6t<!.....nn,""""'8
~ pcopI<o. lit" ........... '1"Clucolop:al m:ood d.:monJtr.ra ;, oJw. pn:.
historic .....n..... 8"" much --= In 10m p..h...".,.. /Mf- any oulSido ((ItIUa.
Thu ....... """"'I!,thnognphially obotrvtd pcopI<o" doubly u...pp~e f<><
form"" op,ni<Mo. aboot. h........ i'y·. di"an, p.u'.
n.. ha' K<tion P""""" my idus-,.nwi., 'rnp;riaI ..ncnlizatiooo-
>bou, how ..... do.clop,d ou, of • ...no.. ~, ~ why i, bcc:anv_
common ...... ,n. millenni •• nd on .... intcn.l6c-d wi.h W..... n COn"",. 1hcn i,
,i« aU .!w:o< i<tucl 'OfiCther ",th • di ...... ion of Venn ... lan pn:MI<O<)" and the
Y_mi.
TN ' S" .UO o. W.... ..,P T C)T". £ TH NOC ..... " ' C i'1l•.SENT
Why W.r lien.... Com"",,"
In thio cond.:.....d ... m .... ..,. of e.arty C\idtn., of ...... l !u.. "'" dionuoc<l tM
.... ,eri&I ond -at .on<iw:o of th.o ~Iop .... n.. I W;U "'" spcculo,. on d,tttt
eo ...... bu. tonn>J gtncnl faaon ...... impi;';',«1 ... ~00n0. which in
nri.bk combi .... riono, mW: .... oripn and/or ,h. In, .... lili=ion of ..., motC
likely. (Moot of .......... dioaaucd in ..,.... de<2ilin FaJuoon 197n3.(-li7.)
One iJ I ohi6 '" oodcntuy ai".....,.-thoua!> "'" necc:ooarily >gicul.....-o<
.. Ie.... <0 in<ncucd dcpm<\cncc on lU.d ,im. Anodocr iJ ~ incraJintI
population ","'in I:Kood ua. .. T_",h< ... al,hough ,Itcoc "'m leu .. I.,..", in
.m... North Amcrian """""'.. dun in .n. Old World.... the dcwlopmm'
of ""W 'ankintJ and i........ing mdc•• IptCWly of ...,,,, good.-oIthotogh in
North Arncria ,h< ambirion. of thief, '" nuj<>r fa<to<' in .... I... r in.cruific:a·
<ion of war. A 6~h II .... de"dOI' .... n. of ""1,lln""u';",,. fo, bounding group<
in connie .. Kelly (2000:.(.() and Boelun (1999:90-98) mike. mot. 'p'd6.
d, im. ,h.. i. iJ , ... dn,lopmen. of ..gm.n,al kin,hip 'y""'" ,h.I( ,rubl...... r.
Rkc (2001) hOI found .upport ro,. that ide, In .h, American Soo,h,...... and
Fl.nn.,y .nd M..."", (2003) In O ...ca. Fin.lly. I ocrio". e<ologicol <<Y<<ooI.
involving clim". ch'Mg< "r . n, h"'l"'II"nlc ..""''''' d'Sl"1d.<lon. " often impJi ·
..,«I in .... D<igln andlD< In"no,f;n,ion of WI ••
Th. g<M«al.""n« of th ... pcccondido". can opl"n why human popu·
I.. iotu did no' "".clop c.l,ural p...uiceo of war in .., Iier.imes. lIu, over ,he
m~ler>n; ........ pn:cond,tiono be...,n, mOl, wid ..p .. "", and ... , UOfC in mon:
region> of .... worId. .. dcocribed in ,n. p'evioul .... ion. WIut happcncJ.ncr
t1u •• olicr ...... b<vn in diff.... n' ..... bu, before ,..... ,...rt ""y ...... 1/"OU1\d t(,
inR",,,,,< "'ingo l
W.. ",<UtI. Nut .n.om • ....u,. Of quldtly... II ..,..,.ti ..... ' .... 5inc<1 in
p=bk> of ...."'hy (Schmookkr 1984). 1Iu. n .... " ..!ly•• p<Utl i. dod. through
"""" combi ....;.,n of """ ..... .. intnln.....1 """"'!"'g c<><><liriorto. l},io iJ
>«n in ""tt..., oJready di-.lln Ch ..... . ilP" of war bcnme """"" com·
mon through .... Oml.... t.-pNn Interaction sph<t.- ",d beyond (Clung
1980:270-271, l.iu 19%:264; Und.:,hiU 198'r.2.3I-2.3S. dW ooIumc). In.lap ....
_\><ough. by Immp .. /Tom Kon:.. bu, ,"'n optcao:l <htough the iobndJ
war
(&me. 1999,168·171, Furio 199I,}7·.( t, I....... u... 1996: 131 ). In f", 1'ntCfD
·nd mo« ..onhom Europ<. tl.< Ii... <uhiv.,,," .. pt..:cd hu""«'Vrhorcn 111<1
m3d< "'" ..·,thou, d.. p<>«ful «muries of uri;'. oxp.urdins f..mtn (Andn·
""" 1993:102: Bndky 199I:W-52.: Mere« 1988,89. 10.4. 1989. 1999). In tl.<
«ntel' of Non!> Amcric:i. the Mi>sis>ippim p<riod O>W rh. rio< of nude:ned.
fUnitiN ttnlo ........ oli •• .0..0_ 1050.111<1 .......... ...,.. C<'ll1utJ' 01 !WI> this p21'
tem ",read "",wan! in aU di=tiom (Oupd<lain< 199),ZQ(I-2(lI: Mon< and
hlon< 1983,2S6. 263-266: Round,_ ... dTu ....., 1998:278-230).0.. ,he Pa·
<in.: Nonh ...... COut .......... complc:: Jcvdop«Iln ,he north pu.olly =rIC
'" .hal"OCterit< "",'" di>p<n<d and 1m hi.",,,,hial """,n.. n grouP' (Amu and
hI...,hn« 1999:209- 210, Coupl.nd 19118,207_2 12). And .. deKribed by AlIt"
(,hi> volume). 1..t<r Poly".,i", o<.&'ren Grticd. ""nlor <ompl<x . Iong wi,h
<I><m '0 rI.'" 1s1",,<k So '''''n bef.", .1>............... btco,ning no.m'" in tv..
brooder ..... of ,he nib..! uni"",,,,.
lb<n ,,·n.. harr<neJ """. <Utes .pp<ll«l! In d.. OIr. """..ofuI ...... <Up-
p.nocd colle<li ••• i.olo:nc. within !heir .dminj"':ltion. olt!>ough thi •• .ned rn
1""'''' (Ft'l""'" 1999:404-405)_ Thou ... indiadoru ,n., _1m, ......
fum...,.j .. okno:. ""d ~ """"'8 " " " _ p«!pIa >tOW><! thom. 1hc: rise: >rod
faU of" .........Id '~If "'••",,ng wncs of ~ "The d... \opm< ... of the Zulu
...It w.,1011.:;to..cd by • ",=dins ..... i... reo<:cion of «rriblc ..;ole""". kn.own ..
tho "'fi<-. al,hough ,he growing European pmtnc. """ ...... pi.>.yo«I a role
in ,hi, hom>< (CcW>ins 1988; H>m~'01"1 1m). The coil""", of T.."ih"""",
led '0 dtstabUit21kon and ..... ciu-oughou' nortit_ hI .. ico (Ndoon 20(0). In
,he A"dun highllJtd~ Ari:u,h (this volum<) deKribcl·"..,ln ..action.· of WH
op .. adinguu, from poli,ia/ «men through peril''''' ......... ~
Rd .. ivcly ,ubi•. <tn' .......... ~ ,h. ""ure.. of .... r ..rli." hi",ori ... commonly
...'" ,h .... Kivu ... urroundrd by firret · b.. b"i.n,· (Ferguson 1999:418-420).
·Ihi ...... . no< >Mffly idroLogicol p"*,,,iQn. Su, ,he<)!igin. of •..eh m,U,.rum.r<
oboo:u ... How much wa.!.n im<fTul de",Iopmen. ! H"", ,nu<h from ...., ..im.. -
I".! l'rob..bIy ,h. bos. be. is ,Iw. pronounttd m,li ....., OIO< .. W;"" dtvdop<d
.. "".. ofLong·,erm rn"rxUon between eme'png ..... <u, ... ""d pcopIn <If
,heir pcriph.tics.. It isd....................... ancitn....... commonl, foot.....! ....•
""6'n.." >nd ,rib.oiiution. >nd rnIi<t<d ...... •.....ri ... ,rib<. . . .<thn., sol-
d....• to. omong ocher dtings, proj«. for« brrher in,o tlwi. hinrorlan ... dun
cn<Ulllb«e<l SUk armies rouId IIWU!'< tcO .... mially (GoId"'rz and Findlow
19114). I, ...... __ • uk brr dur <hi<. .. last ........ Imeo, .p..:wI inreruM....,-
f....... "'"""~
M,iiton"", ....... over 'im .. r<pb<nI comp..... i" .. y .... n·miliwi"je on<>.
In I'or" •• fttr 1000 B.C. >C>"<r:d :tpp.orutdy theocra, .. " ......... coo,!,....d.
inC<>l"l'<"""l<d .nd cultur:dly ".",!Vmt.d 'u~, ,It. moW of ",,,.,,ding mili,,_
rim (l'o1O.-..I:i 1987). Ali.<r <he decl ine of 'he ",I.,;vol, unmili .. ri,,;' H .... pp •.
rho Ind .. ,.pan bt=nc: p'" <If the rndln. .... oftht Rg V.,u (Sinv> 19M:
Srivur.,.. 1984). FI..aUy. >nci ..., $I:lU:S ~ .......... diJcam from their fron·
rim. FtonI ,he ~ ... century A.D. Ronun. Ar>h ond ocher dnrundo ro. ">vd
~ .......... of oioIm« .pradint! inhnd from ,It. .... ..,... of Afria (Ed!jCrton
1m 161, KusiI'rlN. .IIi, .... WD<: and "" Lo.<joy 1983). Sri Lanlu .. p<ri.n=i
«f">,od. "'....... "" .....f .... rduod .., "'nmol of ,t.. Gp>ndrd Indw. 0<:=
mdt of tl.< n 'nth and .. nth ccnrurits A _I). (Gu ,,",wordana 2000: i'8-~). So the
"'".ne< of .nck......... funhrr contribu.ed .0 tho prem'D« of....,- among
non· ..... p<epk •.
lh, .... m, ,he Europe:m ""pmoon. Over "'1. F.urol'u" .. p.... ioni.m,...,
m,," diSlUp'!i"" ... d ·wanMying· ,h.n th .. of .nci,n...... , (F'rgu",n 1993)_
Wh ......""i'n' " .. <> would mol'< in,o con'lguow " ..,.lUbjec, '" • long hi>-
._mou,
tory of in ....... ion. Eutop< .... ''''''Kd dist", .... and 0''''''. Doing
,ho, ......
this. ,hey In,rod,,,.d ...... di>ea.on. pIan'~ and ... im.1I I""1y dIsrupted
con,..wd IV""I"- Europe=o had uade s-b "'"'...... in 5""' dt-m.nJ. .nd.
«p<claIly 1..... In ,i-. mili....,. and ">n>pOrt>tion t«hnoIosr>rod tcchniqu<s
-n..-c.
oJ...t..ouId ,......... ionizc European apans-ionisu W«t "'" uniq ... in
... kinl""p"~ iabo<. bu ..... Y>SI . .,"'. of <hciropcnrions was. Tho ...... goes
ro.- tlw: Europe... q..... lOr land ckarrd of p<"<ViouJ inlubiWlrs. All of th,,,,
"'1'"" of European "p.oruionism ..... , "'" ~ ....... tlw -." fu ~nd
fion,.,.~.,.;'" prtUdingony W<!ttm "I"", .... lhif ...... oflmpact N<~ Wki,,-
head >rod I ",II • · tribal ron,· ( ~ and Whitchr:wl2000). While W<><<m
.on,.., dId no< "'''''''' k>d to mo«~. or de...,..,.,.". .... rfue_tom.ri"'"
,h. opposit< oc:currrd._C>!>< studi., eollec .. d;n IJ:', in tbt Trib"f unt ....d
mony o,h, ... I,.", li,,1e do.,b, ,h.. in ",.ny. m.ny pam of ,II< world. Europe""
"I"n.ion .fter A.D. lWO 1«1 ' 0 morr w... mong non· ..... peopl ... befu... ny
paclfying.lf.... se' in.
A",»oni .... d ,t.. '(.nomam;
To .....u this dJ ........... of ........oIosY. h"'oty.•nd ,he Ifmpotal inelt... in
wv ....... ""ilied >rod «>n<rtte. let ... «>mide.- ..... ......,.,. Amaaonw. p«>p ....
>rod p.otti<uJ.ufy tho y.........",j of ,t.. Upp<r Orinoco rtgion-longeoru;d.m:I
• ryp< C1Kof pristine. prim<vaI....f.tn:. Iniw.l hiKori<:ol.-epotts from tlw:..,.....
... d IIt.Ojot rive .. 01 nortit-..em 50mh Ameria. doa:unem Wg< JalIunon...
to"" ~d u ,hiefdom .. wuaIly rcad~y obk to tlt-mooutr". ",bounri21
m~'..". cop .... ~I,ia (I)cBocr 1981. 1~1I6; Medina 19}4, Morq 1nd M>rwin
1974: Mym 1988: Wltilt"">d 1988). How long h>d mi. 1""'''' w,od! &no
v.. ion. of major serdemen .. aIonS·d.c!OW« A~n and middle Orinoco, ,h.
w.,
r.,,« beginning around 2100 B.c.. an: re",,,bbly f... of .ign. (Rooocvch
1980). One good ><qLl<n<t<OmtS from, uibul1ry of ,h. Rio ApUff. which i .... f
>

fl""" inro ,... Clfinoco.• Iwu. SOO km f",m .on<e>er.o.l Y..,.".,.ml Land~ Her.
chkfdorru and .... , appear 'Of',he.- afi .. m.jo< popub,ion growth. alongci.·
",,,,,,,,ribcd >gri<u1t"",1 w.d, in ,h. ""''''''' >One bet ...... n 1owUn.! and And .."
pcopIa (.. hen: .... , ..... altndy ...l1· .... bl!she<l)-...,...nd A.D. 5SCL Chiefdom!
did not "P'J'<M "" the mi&lk QrinoC<l ""'~ AD. IIOQIIy A.D. 15JO and tho
/in. hiHorialocCOU/\!I ftom thr '''-anN Mar th< Aput<, ~ chid'. lived
in 1.'1< fOnified v i . wi,h ..... N"'" ifTiprion 'l"'...... and """",.ere abI.
'" ni>< ¥ring ro...:. ~ally ... udinS .. n tho.K.nd mm {ltooxnlt 1991;
5pn>ccr 1998:1Z7-129; Sponc.. and Il<dmond 19~nm-U7).
.... ~h< .. " - min. 1ong.<><&I«cal hi"oriaI docu .... n... ......,;.1'1
fo, V.ncmda and ...vi __ ...., ... I<',inl' much cleue, ~ of ..<CMiTC.
intc1'COn ...... ed pc>lirial 'Y" ...... wid> ria .....h;"g ...... to d>. Andel. _th
to """ Amaron. and nonh do-ch .... Caribbe.n (Af"do.Ji......aand IMotd
CuriIJo 1':I'9oi; Chcmel.o 1993; Whi.ehead 1988. 1':I'9oi). War _ «ruinly an
in,egraI JW1 of...... 'Y" ...... bu, how """ ..........aIru.c riw, chiefdoon< n:lucd to
"""" mobile ~b of .... In,erior JUch .. Y."onumi-...n.tha in oyrnbiooio.
conHict, or both- is .. p~' a vny "f"'n <pmiM. Wi,hin dcodes of Ii...
ron""". <hex ..pooord pcopla w... inYOl .. d in mdiury ....u..nc. ro the £Urn-
1"'.... and """".ru..hac ....... norwcd in im""rial rivalnc. and oLavc .. <ding
(Whitc ....d 1988:71 if, 1994. 2000), Even ....dy ...he ,ime of Har.. Sudm
(1928), marooned in 8 ....il in ISSO. wud...!y ..fleeted dc.:a.le. of ItUjo< Euro-
""... influence (Fcrguoon 1990:241). Theoe 'esionallodopolitical 'YO""" ~
d''''roytd .nd ,heir pcopla diminot(d wi'hin the fi .., cen,u,y or.., of con,..,
(Hemmin~ 1~78:29_42; Whi,ehead 1994, (999). 10ngbofO« ... y :ulIhropolo .
gin ",... round '0 ,h.()<iu: ,hd, w..~
The .. h nolo~y of ..... N' .. Uod h...,ly on Ama:zoni.n <He" bu... no«d
•• dk" our ,heor.. kal p• ...Jigml ",l" l hillo,y ou'. When i, ;, brough, b.. k in.
~II of , he key c. ... upon whk h ,h.ory fuo been buil, hove boen obviou.oly, d ..·
flUtically im~tcd by 'h< W..... n in'ru$ion . E~rop<'''' d;rtC.al n."i .. p«>j>ko
ro ....ck o,he .. who made ,rouble or .. ho .... « aIIk< of imperial rival~ 0. ro
prod ••,,. pu",ho ..bIc npci_.". i<u' ro di • .dc and conquer. Ncwdio<.... im«·
ptc.al .. w;tchc .. fi k<I '0 figh,inS •."d Indiaru di.plx«l from one «gion ......
""0 conA",. wldo <>th.n. 1Xc...,n good. "imuiual war .. ol.;<cu of plunde •.
and a,..,.,J d"p"'''OVCI' ,.....Ie <Of\(roI (Fcra<uon 1990). Which bring> '" to , ...
Y:u>omami sp«i6cally.
10 ;, V<TJ'<Omrnon to ..... i , pi<! ,ha,""" In .he ... ;d·196Oo, y""""",,,,i I,ved
w...Ifcaal to,. "civiliUrion.· Thil is why thdt warf'.,.. ;, ... oft... do ...... '" ~
rcrn. the hu ...... condition .. i, .. i"od in our ...,Juriorury paoc. 80th pn:miIc:
and <0<1< ......... .,.. ...,. wn>ft&. Y....,.,..",i ha .. been indirccly and dio=ly"{.
,,,~, I ,,"-,,~, -1* '""_....J~"'_.,.,;.- «lI
f««d by the Europe." .." .... Ion .Ina: ,hoy bcc:om< '''Ket. of o<h .. !U!.;.e.
1«k;ng<>p'iOQ ". ,...de 10th< Europ<.... ;n ,ho w. 1600s.
A Sp.n!sh cobt<".." In .... 1740. .. portal tha, :dong d.. Upp<' O rinoco. 00<
far from YlnOltUm; I>n<k local p<'OI'I<o ....... ·"..coful· <"""P' fO.. ,ho rcc<ndy
U1tnt1ffl: Cuaipu,..,..,._ ........ Ito" fa. ,I>< Portuguac_ who drdnurallocal
populn;or'll (a1""""" the poosibUi,y of .,,"'Ponups< bw m.... bo: <on.i(l.
~ In dois OIXOUnt) (Cdi; I96S l,~. U:57, 289). By ,h .. time. the highbnd
home of the: Yononuml w .. bang wgnal to,. sbv. moo. coming 110m n'U}' dt-
",aion->nd <hey ..... '" Mill be"" Yiccimiud to,. n.idc" on • .....na I<2lr a crn·
.....,.or IrIOK t.. ... (1'0....- 1ns.:77- 82. 181-(86). The: SpMtw.....t.Iw...d
the..- /in, au'P""' on tho u,.p... Orinoco in 1756. 0 - th< I><:J.' few r='o rh<y
wi~ tho diminishill(lj C ... ip" ...... m, .. in,o 1>< . . YioIrn, <Of\8icu wido
rnnnanI> of on« ,.,..cfuI ~b flOm d.. N<gro. wt.o ... '" lkring .... Po ..
"'S"">" thert. a,. 1761. all th< ... r...., .. ""'" a<2ping thr &uop..n. by rnovin&
in,o ~ futrm. kavi", th< Orinoco and other rMn D<u!y abandoned
(~ 1ns.,82- 8S).
AU carly KJ>OIUofYU>OINmi milingwarcom< ffOAl p<riodI of opccific and
in ...... di .... rhan •••• itha " '&r&<" of 1I.....;d.. or in .iruarlon. of nurkod
di.~ria in r=ndy inuoducod W.".m good. (Fcrguoon 2001). The bulk of
y~"".-...; m"fo'" (F,rg_ I99S.) ;, <kvoccd '0 druiJing rndrncr ,hat Y.·
nomami .... n 0.'" the pa" «n,ul}' 0. "'." «.ul .. of .. n.ion •• """,i . .. d wi,h
un"'lual di,uibu.ion.of nul tool$ and OIh .. W..um """ufacou.n Y.noawni
of tho Orinocv·M ....cu". in ,h. mid·I%o.-,"" oubj«, ofCNgnon', (1%8)
Y"M"'4m~: 7h, F;tr<' P~pl,_ ....... addi.ion.oUy . nff.. ing m.. , ive , broul·
'p«trum d;" "p';on uf ,heir liv .. n:1.«d '0 ,h. pn:oence of ",i.. ion.ri •• ."d
o,her ouuidrno. wh;"n di .. ctly .noour.tged ,hoi. un~!U.lJy high level of imc.·
pet>On.l.ioI.nce (1'<'!\I$On 2000). lhi, i, quite dilfc«n, from L<Bu"c'. d.;",
(.hi. volume) ,h.. Y.noma",! h.d c!tlonic w.,f... beca"", th.y Iud tuCh.d
,heir <>«ying ap.<i,y.
B....! on ,he conn=i"" of .1I1:nown figh,in! .0 .><errui f.. rors, and my
own h~tori<al ~ «con""""lon of ,hd. pre·"",] ",bo;,ocn<c .. more
mobile.nd I"",.. don.if)' (!'ers""'" 1998). I o/f.r<d ,he "hunch" thar hefor<
CoIumbu.. ...., ..t ...... , , , _ " ' ; <...,,,,,,";!in "".. "Iimi.al or CVCn """.
...;"..". (Feeguoon t99S> ,~). BtcauI< Yanomami built no ....jo< "",clUJ'<>.
w<d f............ impkm<n ... andconsum<d """ bon .. of thr;,dr..!. w. will nne,
know fO.. ...... ArdoocoIopcaJly. ,hoy;oK nrarly uwi.ibI .. Som.rim.<ll do ..,.,.
dn if due h"""h !iO"" 100 for. Bill nioing duo: poooibilif)' ;., I bdicn:. a ....,fuI
caution fa. ....... who would f'«'iK< ow..,...ph;" .... IUmrru imo d ....... ,
pn:hiHorJ·
 ,
CoNCLUSION
Th. w.u, il ~OI ",h<th.. Ih ... w .. w:>.r b<furc <i.;Ii",lion. No .. riou. «hoi"
.loub« tI.., ,he« W2<. The i.,.,. io how to oxpl.in "" , both 'p«ific wm ""d
P""
w" in S.".",I .u of 'he "um.n ""n,li, ion. 2nd how «hnology ond .«.....
<>logy c.tn join forres in ,hi. que". For th_ indigonow p«>ples ""« cli,,,,,t
p/>y>kaliy. ,«hnolog"'Uy. <CODOmkally. ""d mili,.nly from up ....;""i" £0.
rop<, .ho n«d to figure \11:'0.<.", contx' in'o explm .. ion of 1""'-'''''_' w,r
... m. dem.nu,),. AIT~logy n.. ,Ii< ahili')' <0 invc"iv« ~·con,,":t !inK$,
.nd to wi.n ... ,h. circe" of contxt from ill .arli... pI=n. 8u, th .. i. only the
b<ginning. Arch .. oJo,sy <-.til in,,,'iga" , he ,nili .. ry ,ffect. of anci<tl, " .... on
propl,' .round them :ond okmg thd. tndc rout ... Arrharology C2n .ddr... the
qu ... ion ofltow .nd why wor sp.-...l ou,..... ,,!! from its ori~n.ol «n ..... no.. iu
practn and dIDo,ati"" ch.nged ove, !im•.• nd ,,'lu, f.ocron .on.rib"wl ' 0 iu
g<n.,i. in ,Ii< 6", pi"" •.
Arrharologyond «IInOiogy mould ;oin, ",It..c .ppropriate. in 'hCO.J< A ro-
bo" 'hwry of ..... f ,flo,., td be "'pahk of .. pt.i" ing ,h, orig; n. of .... ,. i" ,nrufoc·
m.>tion in European ,ribal zen", and <v<rythins in b<tw«n . Rcg>rding North-
",..t Uus' w.. f:tr•• I d..... kopcd (I984b). p""con,,,,, mod<l "'" ground<d
war in gwgnphi< .nd tcmpor.oJ v>ri .. i"", ofcri,ical '" w; "mee «OOuf«S. Wi ,It
pom·""n'><t "';><>pUt.tion. ,Iw modd DO Iongtr appli.d Y.. W>J" w=, on. uri·
ably.• nd in "'m. c>oe> qui .. in 'cmivdy. Those ..mOOn' in pr.ICri« can ~ u -
pl.i".d prim.rily 2< <lrOlu '0 i......... ",wli<, or pro6, from ,nd< in \"('co«m
'0
good .. or fe.d "'" ol.v< tnd< which arned., "",<oc' but go< wnne 1...... An
apl,n,,;':'n of North .... " Co." .... rf.'"mu" .".nd '0 bo,h :u-chawlogy""d
h""".y.
Th.u "tody "'... n .lfor' to c...... I ..""". theory of war .. u... ,;"n •• irn<d
.. expl.ining whi,It grou!'" .. rook. ",hklt group,.rc .. txk.:d, pcri<HI. of in-
"!o" ...... , fld peri<Hl. of pc..: •. A S<>m<wlut modilUd. gu;dy eloho"u<d. and
•vowedly «i<ntine .." ion of.Ju< 'pp"",h '"'" dcvclop<d lOr the Y"""m>.mi
UK (Ferg""''' 1!?95o:21- SS, ond ... Jonu 1!?98, S,,,,I 1!?98). For ,h. No"'h ......
COO". eI pWw;':'n of prehio'''''' ~ w:u much moe< broad·b.mn dun tIu,
ofhi""ricaJiy oo..t.. d ... nu. in p'n b<"", .. ,h ........ mIlCh less .rclueology
ro go on in 'he early 1980.. But w< " " n.... "pee< the urn. "'!Oil of ><qu<n<d
."tough ."hae"log y " .hrough h;"o<y. and tlut 1'<""" proOl<m for the", .. iaJ
unific.tion .
O n. w.y .0 b.ing ,h. lo"g 'p'''' of p«hi.",'1 rog«"" wi,h h;" o'1 i,
'hrough • prog=nmatiruly modified "«"ion of culturu m.> .. ri.li"" (Fergusoo
1995b,30-32). Thi. m<HIific .. i"" p"' ...... ,h. poir.cipl. of infrutnKrural d<.
,crmini.m but in • n""·",duc.ion;,, ....y. StructUf< :ond ,upc"''''':!'''''''' ... n
as va" conjuncture< of vari.ble. "'im ruwumi>.l ..u...t "'"",omy. It .1.., .n.bl ..
• ,hco"'iruly <orui ... n. In'egration of.n .nonnow numb<. of linhge. be·
<w«n war..,d lOei.'Y' A .. ern' artkk (m gmon 1999) io. rompilarion of th ...
Iinhgu in • 'Y".m.. k rom porioon of w '" ."d oocicty omong no"· ... « pcoples
v;.·a·vi. among:ond. n•• nd mcdi<v>! ..." .. MOfc "",«marie comp.ri..,ns of at-
<luwIogiC'OJ oL .. wim .ne"n, and m<diev>.l " .... could bring new pc"pce<iVd
'0 qu<>OOn' rueh.., ' ho« "Wl in m i. volume.
For in"lUlu, 0,,. s.... r>.li ... ';"n from ,h...... h... i• •h.. w:o.. do<. no, .1·
'""')'I leod '0 pobticaJ ro""'ioL,;"n. I, <= .nlOre< 0< !cod '0 ("'gmcnta.ion ..
",dl. lha< iJ no rurpri .. from ,Ii< pcrsp<e<ive of .nci .... , na, ... whcrc unifi ... ,ion
""d bruk.up frcqumdy >.1,..... « ovc< «nrun... Lc81mc (,hi. volume) o/fen a
now and in ..",,,ing hypotn..i. ,h .. ronoolida.ion of '''''' poIi'i .. form«1y ..p •.
ra, ..l hy buff... ron .. con 1<..1 ' 0 • much larger .nd more pote". polifY ,n"" ito
fonncr pc«~ Som. """" in 'hi' 'olum<, "p«i.Uy .hat "f Mon" AlWn, .. <m
'0 ,uI'P"" thi. idea. though othe ... ,uch 2< the uppc. Beliz< Rive, v,'[I,), .nd t li<
frontier be ......" A"'c",d T......... <mpiru.ww" te.. v"""cy at pc<iphcri ...
Mo« ~ncruly. m. romp"""'" of,ribal penpl ..... d . nd.n. , ..... (F.:rgu.on
1m) nu.keo the poi", du. ",Ii< op= b<tw«n" polities i. "'y,hing but . mpty.
It io highly ond ,..ri.bly p.... m.d at 1..01. of infra"rucrur<, "ruo:.u«. :rnd .u·
pcr"",,,u,,,.
looking .. >J>cirn, mrco quickly ,<v<.1. b.. ic .. ri ..ioru in politic>.l 'u.on·
omy and ronoolioLOOn. Th.. old.. dio!in<t;':'n b«w«n "tri,ori.1 conqu." IUld
hcg<moni< domin.rion i•• "«.... ')' ... rtinS poin' , bu. no< n.. rty . uflici.n.
Ii>< undemanding miliurily baKd in'egration. Rd.. ,ion. betw •• n domin:rnt and
IUbordina .. «n'", ,...y >.long scaleo ,h .. r.tnge from .!l i",,«. mrough domi·
nation, to inrocpontion;:ond from =de. mrough <ribu!C. ' 0 " . .,ion. Otten
",.",i,i"", occur ... pu'!' incremrntal proc_ ,..the.than a lud"'n "",n •.
Th .... hi6. m.y be diflictol, to di"inguiu, =h><Ologic.l1y. bu, ,h. po .. ibili,i..
, hould b< kr:p' in mind while fr' ming hypoth ..... Furtli<t, no< only do poIi ri .
c..t cen' .... grow. they a1", d<din, in "''''l!m, ond one of ,h. recu''''''', ,h.m..
.mong "",i<n' " .... i. ,h. gtadually inc .... ing au,onomy of ",fu, w.,..,one<
righ,1y dornin.>«d sub·politico.
c..c. in thio ...tum. show ton>< v.narion. of conoolioLtion (>.I though pigeon.
holing ..... i. ottcn «nUOUl)' from tribal i n tho n""ow "' .... of political unifica·
tion .... i.hou' «n«, Ot pfOI>O<Ul«d h"<>"'hy (ouch .. ,Ii< nonhom rt.in. :ond
Somh ....... lOm.rimc.), 'hroug. >J\ '''''y of .mal l.nd t.rgc <h .. fdo m. (2< in the
So\!,he..,. P.lru. New Ze,Jond .• nd ..,,<m Arrie.). mrough equ.l!in"'pen·
dm' 0< ,1Ul1ted/ron.solid...d "ra,ified peer poli,ies (.. wi,h M.l"). '0 ,.nom
for"" of np=<ion;'" ...... (.. in M.';eo, the And ... -and Chi .....). Thi •• how.
"'" eoruolid,,;':'n must be ... n ... ,h "", ·dim.nsioou1 p""' .... wi,,, m, .xi •
•
<Jf p<rW'OI' ;ellnins~ I.,....,. Again onJ ogaln ... hots in ,hit book Iu...
.... n«l ,Iu, w" ...w,
<O'1O • of <hidly (Of hW-) poIi'ia1 .. nbitions. And ie
i> mo>c 10'11""..... KI .mpltui«. ,Iw oJl thooc dlO<llJlioru <Jf milil2<J IUOCCU
confOmnS ~ onJ of the kgitiautinfj .!feet. of milit>rimc ic","'S'.phy.
in-.o/vt hioran:hiaJ ortanlr""""u ""tin.. ,he .......·makins poIi". ~ is "" in·
utnalJex,.maJ di.l"",ie in hi<r.orch.ical poIirics.
It mOUt.oo be cmpt..>izro chac ~ i. "",.ok. J'<im< ....... ' in political dc..I-
"I'm.n,. ~bny "''''' cul",,,,1 ,pheres arr .ngag«!. &enu .. ,his ""JUtn. i• .bow:
oocin", ,Iu, p""'ticM war. i , may give 11\ unb.Jan.<d pi.,ure Gl ..... impor-
t""'" In ,hat ptoC<II. E•• n in ,n..,.... h.,..,,ho.. au .... ri.,i"". in ,he .igni6.
.ao",o <>f "''', wi.h And,an 'Ute c:xp.mklni... appu. ing,ignific:cndy Ie" .iolm.
than M,~t1c.n . El"wh"" ,h." m.y be '''''''8''n, """ien..... '" wi,h li,tIe
if.n y w.n.....
P'''' ..... ,1y I (1994:101_1O4) ,ugg<><,d ,Iw .... and 1"'0« may ~ odf-
.,,,,ro..i"5 ,.ndencies .mieh ramify throushou' 1Oci<ti<>. 00 c/w. ~couJd be
.1 ....... " ... m.]iwioti< and ~Ie tnjcaorieo .........d complct;". ComiJcf-
.Iion« ancien< and medkval!lUt« (Fcrgwoon 1999:4(0) added the ida chac
....... ia "'"'r.liW.,. in the cncn. to wh;ch the irutiru ....... of poIiticaJ. miliury.
and rd;pow Itad ...... ip .... 1<pHlIM. Of Ilniftcd. T.iling >.II of thio in ar. . . .
t1w, 011< ... if no 01'1'. oinpc poth """,«I ,...., I'ornu<ion. 0.... pi JhouJd be to
.I"""",. <Ompo",i.. poli'iesl oociologJ ofhi .....dtiaJ in«'W"""P reb,;oru.
Th.otc «>rUiderin5 m... i.... co might benefi, from • ,ex, :and .... ,.... i• ...,.of..
'en con.i<kred, Go" .... ld·. (1979) """,iv<....y :cn,h",poIo&ical ..uJy of brad.
1250_ IOSU B.C.
And,n, .nd m,di ...1 " .... ,ugg<" o,her cI.m,nu ,10" could be. P"" of
,hi' poli,iaJ ooclology (obo ... And, ..ki 1%8, On"bein 2004). How much
is i"'<rna! produ<fion ,... ranged '0 IUppor. ,""i,,, ond/o, ... «>"""1"'"""
of military .u~'io"! To wlu, degt~ .... ,nili"'1 organi..,ion, 1'''' '0 Ul<
in ",he, kind, «Iobor' Docs mUiurr .dmiJIi",uion 1f'U' dc: .. lopmcn, Gl.
li,er.« burnl>Ct"aCJ! Ate th"" COIIImon utd eli« f"orca (Of ""'" ti<n than
WI) . ....l how doa that:uticulatc..,th domt.ti< jlr~_rn. cnrnr'<-
"'" ,h.", milil2<J Misto<,OCi<s, and is upw>r<l mobiIi,y imo them posoihIc1 Do
toId,,,,Iu.v. t(jlflUrn 00mc by >=<Jft, or ore dory fnaunding p~!
Arc ...... ie ooIc!i.n- .... iu of ",1Wr>lJY disn..«iv< pcopI<>_in<orpo<a«d ;"'0
Iargc: .,mia1 Na< oJl of thex =r be arbject ,o ... ~ In....n.. tion. but
the <JI'<>'ioru m<u, Ii", be nis«! ro find ..... "" •.
DiJcnt.ngling <hi> snarled ,hicket of ou\>.lI.y II. L>bor foe g........ io ... Gl
"'hoi ..... Ono ".p .... mar pi:" " firmly now i. ,Iu, ..... ... ~L>, prac'ice, .....
. , • ""1.lln"I'"'io,,. h.ul" hrpnning. ifi, hod • beginning, <h.n .... f is not ""
i",.iobl... p.mio .. of . i,h ... hum... " n"", or ,h. . .'u'" <>f.... i...1" ' ".nco.
To recosni...... .....a.n, beginning is '0 e""".pn<aJiu the poo>ibili" of. future
<n<I '0 war. s... "'" canoo< deal ..,do the origin< of ..., if ... «>ntin ... ro praj •
"' obKrvarions ffom rt«IIdy oI>o<r-vro indigenous pc:opIn Nclcw..nb tIuuugr
tim<. Tho.;.. «pow«! """ iI that the <JriWn >nd • ...,. devdopmen. of .......
ihould be .pproach..! in ilS......, time, >nd ilS-.o tnmf- not bliJlkemJ by the
nhnop-aphie p ..... n~
N,,-....... "'8&<,..
ti"", in <hi> roIWD<, .... thor> ...... <1 c/w..he wars dory "".
cov<",d had <h",. kind.of ....... , mugglt """" impotran, prod",,,,, ••nourcn,
'M ,,"bi'io'" Gl pol"klI leaden. and Ioca! ",1",raJ bdief! whieh provide b",h
jultifi..,ion and an imp"l .. ,oward Wat. In d",ing t wi'" ro highligh' <hi. <on -
"n,u" whl<h I belie.. would be I<cond.d by • &" .. nI.1lty o,he •• rclw:ologi,,,
...d cul.um .nthropologi!U.
\"('at i.......lr olw.ie IlU<crW COrKern" fil ..r«! '''rough an internal/en«·
no! poll'",", 'Y""". I"'thcd a!<>ng by...J ..... that......,.,'"'8' ",IIi"";,m. In di.....
con' ..... .., rhooe biolopcal aplanacioru that ... reinforced by • ....--furrvu·
bx~ view. do" .. tnpIe. communlcabI< conduokln ""' impl;"';"'" fo<!.ow
.. ~nd<nund ..... in the ....tId ro<by. from 00..:aJ1td ·,thnlc conJIi<t>," to 'cr·
..,..;,.", >nd ,he wu in l""l ( Fetgmon lOOi). If_ W2n. KI urwI<t>und all <hi>
vioIcn«... ahouJd bcpn by identifrins wJ.o iI all.... chc <hoa, wlw an: their
matcriaJ >nd poIitial inr=sa. and how do they ..lcctiwIy <mpkry oW""'" i<l<nri-
.ieI, JyrnboU, and nlun in Itading people inKl ..... In my tHim>.t<, <h .. ~_
"war i. in "'" blood' -i> <he criticallmplic>tion Gl .......... u<JutoIosyof W2r.
N OTfi l
I. 1.<BIan< ... i.h R'JIi_ (2003,124) md K«lcy (1996017) .. I,- on ... h.. ""I,y ,.lis
',ho ........, ,.1 Upp<.- P.JoollmJc ",",«<ria ofc...:'-looow· .. "'I'!"'" ,ho d.<p"'.
clqul', .f ....... S;"" rbclf por<<>yats of rbc...-...ln, dm... ~-hun,,",,,,,,
H_
qool ....,.,d~">e. i, 1s lmp<'£W>' "" ronJid<r rhooc d.I",. 'f'in>< ....... nc ..idmo:< on<!
inu, .. ,
_icc
fOr rbc 6ndinp from I't<d-'....d rbc , ...... d..umlti, .. ofOolnl
I. n...-.l 1'>"'-
Ktdty (~ _ """ " - .. pl)-. -.; ..... loy "' ...... oroidcn<c <Jf _ _ moro-
ow, ....,.a.JIJ cnonial w..n.c.. on ..J.d, ......, '" by .... Joo~'7 <Jf _
... ~ for ..... buriooIr <Jf men. .."....,., and eh.ilJrcn_tbao ..,..,.. <onIIicn - '
dum. ..." _ . HiU"'; WiJrm.n (2001, md .. ......, in "''''''''' .............
~In ~ ...twt<V""I"<Jf....., _ ond<hill"n-.t.r "'""' ___
i.,. """<Jf...... iol ~]..,.. bc. .. dottJ co 1>«'0'«11 ~.ooo...J U.ooo.,.... aso:
L,&Unc ond Ropoc ... (2001,124) prorid. rbc ""'" .....""'" ~,1I<\OOIiOn of th.x fi..J.
""~ ... r.rrins ..... DoIni V",,,,,ic,'
111< ...,II·k"",," ·,tiilt;<· ,om",<d of. ""y I"", ''''''''U« obrlouoly """p",d
by m",y f.",~1co. ';m~ .. to tho I""lu<>i< lo"ghou_ .."""..!cd by """'" ;nWJ«
--------------------------------------------------------
'morno«>. '!he """" M f l ........ ,_okd bot. wall '" r...:. 01--" bon<>. Tho< """""'" doim r..
oioknc ......... DW.i V""""i<. _ ..",_d
~ br K<dey Of
Topi<olIy "'" _ "'barrier ~ .-I .d."",,,,'.....,. -'" "'" -W for cId<no<. lc8lon<. Kl .... (1IIl7:llS). ia 1m inrti.l «JKN< _ tho ,t ............. ~"Tho< «-
""u ......... oimulDp .. hori.h • • .,oIIp<Opi<J>l-din .......... . - .. th< .....
• _ _ _ bern m....d .. [loW V~ <>p«WIy _ ......... J .....""'-. .
......01. dud!,..... ....Fu.th.......,.
..... 0I1Uo r...ed do><J,."
k deep ...... DV xur. hip "1'''' tho~ "'I'P"'"' .... <Oft<m-
of .... NO<, _ . loci '" rht <01 . . . . . .. d..r
rNln. • .......a... 01 ......... _to... --" to .... had. h io...t.;ldp ... .......
ouIa in "'<It priM<-.Id do< f...... dioeooc ............ _ Th<y«>Ulcl_ bcrn
.... pol<_;.on. pit« of. -.d """""" dw ..... pIxuI """' .... bod ... and burned.
""" «>I1.,...l.uo ..... bodl<J ($Yobod.. .. .d. 19'16:64. ~ ~ 1OO3).
blIocI in • f.Oled """"""'" hun<. hot &.d. _ .>tfut .. «n.w,. _ pIomibk. AI for .... """'" ! .... 01 ~ <iml br lc8t.no: ... <h Jt.a:t- (lOOj). ...... is_
Thi. '\olU",' .... Io<;ahod on • high point of land_ hilll p«I'i<I< • p>d obi .Id.· brJ< ............. nodt. . !ik<.Iong\>oo>< .. DoW V..""""<.onJyomall """ 01 """" ~-s
_"lIy "'"'''
r... .. opeu-th-= .... ..... .....,.,.. 01 ,II< '""", AI_ """"1
Ii"" 01 "iJ<n« f""....n= I would "1'«' to lind fo< .h" 'rr< offor.!!". h.u t...n
m d......", aI~ " DV L "",01 th<.. ..... _",!. F...". for ....... '""", ~" .!o
no< know it'd,... "". C<Io'I""'l'"'ory "" ...,...."w """yp ....... _m. 'yj~' io '!'«Ilia·
i<ko,]1i«I " Do]n; V"''''' k<. 'ion, In ml, <qIo>n .•om<>u"h Urrc' ?,t.cli,hi< ,""", .... .,. o,,,li"tJ (not ....tIed) in
'wn<> 01" bon,:, ••••d, "on< dc",rib.d "DV !. b.licT«l '" h." b..n """,,"«I lOr .boo,
L..BJ.nc ar.d ReJi"'" (2003) do 00< <il< ""y ",1<" ..« In .uppon of <I,... <h .... ,m,,,"
,;."". buI ,...,. ... mto .. ", en KJi".. (1%2). "'~ ."""""nc, do NPf'O<'"""" of thti<
<wO,...... How<Ytt. ,.... of' DV H_ ,", "",,;00 of,... 'riple bu.lai - "I'I"" <Y<n """"
.r<"P"""l" no 0<1<1".... ""'" _ ...........t ...... <11. AJu....p. ......... 1>'1" dcpool..
<41 ..... Mldlr\olUl .........h ...... &Il&/y>i< Jw occwml ..... th<o.. '\lIIuo ... .,.,.. 'u,,.,..
of""""""'" Ioon« ........ ....t ""'" Mo........... """"'h,h.,,.,,., ,k ... ........ no ..... ·
~'np<Ji "'- . ;«<! ........u"."')1 01 '"7 _ .. '"7 01 m. ~ AlrtooosJ> ern< poll <l00InI V<><fIfIitt
Thn< 10 ..... bwW .. Pt.dm.oru.<ttiauttd to clot. _ l7J1O(1 B.P. to H.OOO al'.
.. ,..,. of. ""'1 """...,...... '" """"P'''''''' h _ "",...,..1 in 1194. """' .... cr...k
..on. """"~'" _ ofbnd. iD""""io< .. I... i'" io<" k. 1bo ""'" b "" m. ........
."... <I • ..,.."...... ~ ....... ..tlq-Iiloc .............. I01 ........... pdroIoI,
....r.o.t.of......... lht ~" _ ' - t dt ... <>t«Ibrbrick mdm....t ~""".u~
..... - W .... .........,....durinr; WoM_l~ Whot ... ~ abo.. 1'mI_;, r.-
r o _ ......... ..u., ..... ,......If...-,.-.......I"' ..............tu-ios_.,.;m
midotI.. ofDolni V.-O«..u....,.-W "-Iud '0<10_ ...... ~nI< Urthtruplilll
""'..,.... of the ....... 'P">< n.. _ r.. 104 ~l.S .... iadoodi.c'-"" 0111_20 (Sd.odo"'" ,",,1~147. I SI-I~ ~ . - - i <...... 200).
indioiodNk 12 of ....... <hiloltrn, alI---' br""" Ii..-- .... (AII...,...,-)on<s
1986'ISl- ISJ..onpop...cd>pp<ndio<nUJ 1l:~ .. aL 1,*62.141.Wi). n..,.;,
... ""_ .. _. _ _ tI>n< ,..fkiNJ ... """ ~m.I '" tilt _ _. •
Jiri s.d>od.>. htl;.-.u !Iw <h,.. rcpmom. -, "",I<rn of gt>doul oJdirioM 01 bod;.;.
,,;th,n .Iong-«"" bwi.J .....: H, l»><> th4 «><><"""'" on ,I>< f"" ,.... P",d"""" Iw "Ibn,,- S, E. •• nd E. 8, 1'<<<,,,,". 197';' E..<_ion of. M..oIithi< c.-"<J .. V«l·
•di><m bed "'" ;"" .... .,.." <hltto"., wi ,h 00 I)' pon"" of. te.. bod;o, In """"'" i< order, hock. D<nm>..Jo.. "".. Jlr<h.tokti'" 47, 1_lS.
Thi> I, In "f'OXIg ron" ... ro ,he al""", compl<1< burW. of DcJnl Varon'=<. . , . l"'pl)'· "k •• L. M . 200(1./.... , ~,"" p"", low> CirJ ' UniY<ni<rof l.,...I'Koo.
i"li,hu ,adiu bod ... WHO dJ.""bcd while odd"" "'w ona" (~,o",,"""i""ioII Au.-th""",~ r. In&. n..~..w. -J th. T"'.u .... ~_ Mi'''' .. u,,...
P.I....I;.
10(3), lhi>cao bot ..... brCOftlfWi"l ..... dlav... of,hc I'r<dn>oool ...... v>'" U>d p/>o<o ""-111 c-.mJ £Mnrt. o"foo;l, CIo=o<Io<o ~
of tho OV uiplc bu,;,,) ;" Soobod. <t .d. (I'J%, 168-169). M.oo buO.!. ,..... MHo kJ0"'l- " ...... K. M• ...d H.D.G. Mu<'-'. I~. "'""""'... Hood a, o..ss, n..;._.
hlshl7 "nLWy. 'P_~. Nn..Yod.,ltwtoooandH""""
1IIn< ~ no ...... b.W .. DoW V""""". 0< Po""', 1IIn< ~ _ ...... burioI 01 "'" Ao.dcro<ft. N. 1m c oljdl C-poof' tho Fwo.lllaka Cook .... In ~;.~th.
...... and an indiriduoJ 01 .....hamUo«! or<. bu, _ ~ r.....l< (OV Il. 14. I';. P4.. %!II"""'~;' v...-f. «l,ood..,S. ..... and II.~ 100-103.
........ u.6OO&,. KIiau. 1m). "'""_ indrvId..a .....laono. and _ICtr«r«l ~, 1bo """Sorio:cJ oINoocha" ~
.."....,.. (Sladd « .d. ZOOO). Some skuL, ........ "'"' 01 OV 16 (~ ..... VIal A"""'-. D. G. 19M. n. 5, .010 ~a...p-. I'tJib<MGMttIll'" Uk""""
1991 o.\Uj " - ....II d,.. . .~ """"""",,.,.;<h noto-kdW ~ (*'-I: wUh """'" ..... S-....... T. _ _ ,~of ~
J>O*d<pooI,;oo.,I~) (- ' « . d . 19'16:147: s.obod.a. ~ -...-"",. AftdtNi. S. 1961. ,.,J..., ~ -' s.ot? II<.k.!ty, 1.Inl«ni'1 oICaliii>mia.
..,. 1(0). Erik Trinhu. clw-.a.ru... tho ..... "p«t<"/ ",I.- boom .. on tho hr>J. <hot.
, .• ( .....I..I ,..,.] h.o .. b«n ...,..,«1 for more .run ...«k Of 00. I d.o . - lind ....... ""l'
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• 1.2000,1119). W1w,Y<t ""'. go"II"'" ,h<x It< . " I""opk killtd br!>low, '0 .... hc.d.
A""'bu,,, '- U>d " . lIclftr·CoI>o:>o. 1m. .n.
Ao:I...,.. II. . 1961,.Ifiia" GAn.t. N<w Yorke DdI.
~ 1966. n.. Tnn..n.J 1"'1"""'i"" Nn.. Y",k: "<Iomcum.
U>d N.."dc.w.: Il<thinki"ll , .. I.e-
""';". Moldlt P.lroli,hi< Hominid,. In N"""'....J' • • , 1>101<", H."""" i. Wi"""
A" ... ,.iood 0,. T, Alw.o..... K. AoIti..od O. B...y.,..f)Il-311. N,,.. -':'""k, rk"um .
~
Atmt..uriL J. S. lri&>t.i • .",j f . F.,><b<,n., 1'I'H. New EviJrn.:, ofr..hiowri< Arrow
Wound, in tit. l.. ri .... ""nlruub.l.I<n<.ou.....!""'nwI {o,~ 4,ll~_2ll.
A"" ... .JUD<o<Z' N• ...J H. SKud Cutillo. 1m. Th. 1m.,..,. of eo.......,. "" Con"",·
1"""1' I nd~""", !'<of.... of tit. Gul .... Sh"ld, 1 .. Sy=m of on-., ~
In"<dq><..d.nc<. In ,t... _..,. I.~ f- M",,? .. ,iN l'mA'. edl'..l by A.
Roos<¥<I,. S~-78. T"<>",,, Uniwnjl,of Ali""," ""' ...
B.d",hl. L. P·F, Fabbri...-.d F. M.Jksn. 1~7. An A""",·<;.u,.d L.,;oo ... Lu, lJppn-
P.kaIhi. K Hum"" P<"I~ c... ....,
An'~ lI, lJI- I.j(J.
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,I>< No"h Am<ri<>n G .... I'bi .... M.u. Z~,9S-l1s.
Bul... , G, 1981.1''';"" ...."""""1 .. 1;....,.-. Cambrid!!,,' Cunbrid!!" Vnlm->" l' ~.
!Urn«. G. LIm. 11>< Hi>< 0/0''';;''"",,-;. f .." ,J, .. : 1h< k~ t{a.;~•. KImt.
"""f4.<" New Yod, llwn<s.",j Hoo""",
&t.yood". O. 19S6. Th< Will< of}<rid... , An Al"....m. In"<p<rtatioo. c.."", Anu,...
,.t.v Z7cl~7_ 162.
&,Iwn, A, L 1~S9. 1IH-~"" ,hoi""" 1""""'- N<w Yod, Grov< p..".,
II<tfc,-CoI.< .. A.. L A. Sh<t""L .",j 8. ~ 1991. N<w 8iolop:.1 D... r.,.. II><
r-;""ti .... Popul ...,., in br.d, In 1"" N.'"fi.u< CoI",,,;../h< u-t. edl«d byO. &to
f.oo F. R. \~ I ". ~l1 _ 'H . Anft A<bo!, MI, In",,,,,ional M~, in r..h ...
y.....
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lI<n<dic" R. 1 ~9. Th< N"",.! Hb,,,,,yofW.. , lnM A"~., w... , 1h< I~
{ 1b.1h IJhWi(/. edl"d by M..'V"" M<>d. ~-3B2. ",,",0'" H ough'on ),[;jf]a-..
B..g... T, D.. .",j E. Trinb.... Ins. P"""" ofT"""",,"""'"i tl.. ~J--l
of.I~'ti<" ,y i""" n«I-8SZ • a.,... A. E. I9%. N.., .. a..-"t'" n.. PkUto<....· HoIO< ..... T"",I,ion In Nonl..." AI·
BinfQ,d. '-..-.d C. " . H... 1985. Taphonomy ... ViIUl>«' ZhooI<wdiM. "11>< eo..
Hom< of8<ij"" M,n"! a.m-.1.f.~'D U,'l}-oj'l.
Blick, J. 1983. G."",id.J W.,f.... In TfiW SoIinin .. , R<>ul, o£Ew-opt-....ind..«d Cul·
'''''' ConII;.,~ MJ. 1J,6~--67\l.
I!oa.<. N.. ....! R. L Ci<xlun. 1001. Th< Xn<"Jlnl of-""liOS M..... N-to~ """"Y.
),h",h.oj6-SL
lI<><h m.C- Im.H"""",,iJ< "'" FHru, 1h<E..«._ of~' 1ltI.._ .CunbriJs<,
1U... ni Uni,..,,,'1' "" ...
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Sroo .. "-5" s.,,,I,,,,,,",, In ,I.. lb."," """;n,.Lo, A'5" Cu)"" .. Prr<mi;"l' of Ih<
SI.<tI, t·• ..,.-_ itfrtti"t ofIh< P.lt.p.uhho A-wI_. 6$_72. _Jon.o.
S..dky. R. 1991. Th< I'>tt<m o£aw-.g. '" Bri,on mnu."", In~' P-. F.-..
"",•• '" ,~, .<lit«! by T, £",10, 44_7\l. N... y."l, c.mb.i<!s< U.u...m'1' Pr-. ...
Il.-..i ... C- K. 19'8!. Thdf. ",,,,..- "'" Il."td'.f. ,. . . . . . . .. dfouur CAw 7:; ' ""!'.
Cn"""" I)n;..mty o£o.""", P<=-
H")'. w.. (..l;,,,,). 1986. W"P'''''1'.,.r w.. r. ". II..ut .f~ 18(2).
Il"'n ...... M. U 1991. H,oI!b.nd Di""" In ,he M;d<ik ,nd l/pp« hieoIM;., ofSo<o-h-
wt",m F.-.n«. Vnpubli<h<d Ph.D. du.......,.., D<putm<"' of An~y, N...-
Y",k Unl .....:ty.
8,iJp.,ni. S. D, 1m. Mi"',,,,, ,h.n,),. I'<o! (An EJg<""'i"!.ooIt .. I,i,h S"'D2< As<
s-,-.l,). In MM",.! If..... ,· .]"Iuni.t"'" S'ud;" of If{" ."'/ )1',",,,,,,• .J it«! by j.
eo ........ ~S - U S . G"'s-' Crnl",", p<=-
8olk><k. P. Y. 1m. o.:.n tl.. Rr>Iltyof A"" ... I Viokn« 1'rov< ,II< My'" of A"UI,i C ... •
niWi,,,.. In D«yhm.l A"""", Viol"",. edl,ed by P. Y. 8oUo<l. 31-S!. s"",. F.,
NM, HRM 8ooh.
Cumon. J, (<<Iioor). 1m. M.1<ri.J H. ,..-, A~''''' Snd,,, 0/ 11;', "." V;.ko".·•.
GJ..,_ , Crui,h"" 1'<....
c........ J.. ..-.d A. HMdin&- 1m. EpiIogu< , 11>< FUN" Study of A"""'", W.,f.,,,,. In
A..a- II."...., A~.J fI,,,.,,;.,, . .Jittd by J. c........ . nd A. H,nii"ll.
HS- 11O. I'i>o<n;, Mtll. I) K, 5um>o Publbhl"51.td·
-
Oupon. N. 1%11. );,. _ _ 1h< r"", PtopJ., New 1'»<10;, HoI,. RiM" .... ..-.d Win·
~, K. 1986. n.. A~ t{Ma,.' 0,;,.., N...- Hmo, Y.k Un;.... "lty ""'."
0...,.1<1.1»<, C. 1m. Th< s"!<nwlnoo..oftl.. Ptth~ 1",<1""'>"" A Slow ... R>pid
T"",f"""""",,1<--'ofA.~..Ar<~ 11,!7J_l(l1,
Ch>pmon. J. 1m. 110< Orifin> ofW.uf... in ,h. Ptthu.<XJ' ofc.nmd .,.J r.""n En·
rop<. loA",;"" W""",,: A"~" Pmp«6w>.edittd by 1- eo""",.",j A. HuJ·
i", 101_1-1 1. I'ho<M ),1111, UK Su,,,,,, r.blbhi"l l<J.
Oupp-\<, E.. U>d C- S, Coon, 19U. f'rl~ ofAnl~. N...- yo,k, H.n,y Hoi!,
Ch<rn<b.1- l'l';l')' 1h< 1t'..... J."kt1U of/h< B'Jw"~A""''''''.- As."" 0/5,.". Au"in,
Vniftnlty ofT..... ""'".
Child.. v. G. 1~1 . w.. in Podobtori< SoIini ... ~.. !lnnn.U, 116_1.18.
,Ia. In H _ "',.. buI of tJ.. la oW' 1h< ~ of tJ.. ~H.i«,",
T.."',.... '4i,t</ by L G. 51 ....... 8. v. &;b, n, J M. Ed>""-'. .nd D. R. y""",
4J _60. N...- YO!lt, Pl.n" ...
Cobb. C. R."..[ B. M, 8o,h 2001. Th< V",,"", QIwu' R.-ri<i"J, r.. .. Mi,.iosippl. n
Ab.ndorun<n, of tl.. l<>wt.- 01.;" Villq< ~_ A.,'i"iIf' 7,621--641.
Cobbi",.J 1'188, Th< Mf«:.n< .. Al ibi, 'Ihoush<>"" Dh!u1onl.nd Mbolom"...p""",1
{ Ajrl<." /-6umy 19,48';'_ Sl~.
CooJ< ... H. I~IO. I-)';";",,..;,b ~IJ: A Stouly of I(...J;.II Pott."h,"t .... JJ~>fo>-<
J7"l1-I9JlJ. s..ttk , UniY<nit)' ofW. ,), ingK>ll P.....
Comund..·ll·<>«fTn>p. T. S.. ...J R. R. N<w<U. I~ 1>idoI1,tt;" T""""" V.",_M .
a1 ...d ChronoIopal Tm>dt In W_m Ew-opt-. In i'r«ndl"t of II.. 4th ~
M"",'"lt{tJ.. Pm.,.~~, MIJJUM'TA• .......,... 19~, .Jlt«! byG. T.
Hmtmd ...1 W.RX I'<rizon ..... 70_76. lIn«h •.
Coo-di<,. G. I~ Binourt< Prdtlot<><""'" Anioul .... Hum.i .... __ A...... <H> P!'Oj«-
BuIkri"'" s..;."
,..... c,.... ..... III ~ "-'1• .-,., IO _ 1 2~2_48L
CoupUnd, G. 1~88. 1II>zfu...-.d Soli:.! Cornpk>l,y "" , .. No"h,..., Coo>t. I" OJ"""
i" ~" a.m-., ~ P""",;,,,,, «lim! by D. ct.1« and lI. C. ViYi ...
2~_11 4. C:.!5"'J" \In iY<nlty o£ C>l5"'J' A"'~ ......",jorion.
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C,,""" , W .. ..-.d J. H.. ~ 1m. I.... ,hon 1>1«" "'" Ey<' £>id.n« fo.- """,",Inori<
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""""" bJ E. M. 1I.c<Io>o.J, 4)-61 (;>,......u.. Um....;ty I'rno oIRorida. ond Colorado. ___ """""" )9, 7S-114.
CJbohll.J.5. IY'J1.A G........u.IIori.JG,_..I H _ R.....;.,.,.,/ ~~ ~ ErIJrr- R. B. 1972. V......,. in f. ... Afri<- TriI.rI Sao.6n. Ja CJJ.r_ V..«w. ...

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I!:.h o{c.u"", ~ ~ to ("" . "', oo;,cJ ""
C. S.W"," anJ G. R. Milo>«, 11-H. """ \(,..." Jnhn Wiq anJ s....~
,.. J by j. F. Sh<>n Jr. ....I M. E. 1l'<>IJPtrs, "~- I70. CIr""F" Aldinc.
F. .. boI. C. R.• ....! M Em"",. 1m. lllok"". in ,Ire ~k Ilowrd, R..ul .. of
C,.,...Culm....J Ro .. ",,), on W" >nrI Ati:gr<,,;.,n. In T"",Wr,I To_: VIOI,,,,, • ..J
P.".
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GonIoo....J I>r<ach.
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n....,.,. W. 5. mz. Vill.og< Oripu In c.n.,al Oft." Th< JI. ... 1n and r",pI~of ~ F. L Hm ..... ....J .J. I. Vepo. ~ ",,-W'-'durioa "'-h"''''T1n <he
Rran, MiddltanJ L.ou: Wood4ncIIkoutd..In c.Jb.r.J I~io Coo_, """" lb<rian _u..oLo wit!. Roped to So.. ....... ....., _ Lorifto-. 1+wMIi"l' -I<k
/pJ .~"dx MU.OIw PJ0, ... "••11'1'101. F.Sr.m.n. U _17. MCj.4. Sp«iaI IX" E-.,-. ~"""w<{.. r.u.,,* !'D ~. 141_IU. ""«dona.
P'P<' - . 7. Kmt. OH, llw KNot s.- Un;"""" "-- f>pa. B. M 1m. m.nn.t ~ _ .. 1Jr. ~ -I. C...-. Nnr Yorl.,
1Nl,,,,. J. A. 1m. M ... w-............
me t:x<-. of 'FMC.... IJI .... ,,-.me_ ~~~
50.>, ........ ' ; _ 4 0 ,1. ~ loo,731-1Sl. F.s<.J. 0 ....... R.(I!;..-r,- (...u. ....~ 1975. .",.~H,..,<{Afr.,.. 11010_1;-
Don, It 1957. 7h< o.~ CJ"", ".,,_~ 1'> ..."""," ~I,moinof IN u./;.,. T.- to,. SOl) AC N<... York, ~ UniYmol.,. """'"
,II< T,,,,,,,,:..! Muo<um, No. 10. brri>, W. W. 1999. s-wI r_ ..... 8.ri<rI T........... I""";,, ... ~.J ,j,,~
t>.IIoc" W. 1981. Bull"" l<>n<. in !I,< Cult"r..! u"",,Y of Abor;~;1Ul A"'..."" .... An Lth- <{,I ..._;..""". Hoo<>1ul., Unl.." ltr0f H""';·i 1'.<".
"""i><ori<;>l Appo>o<h. A_"" AIt"""" 0<;,)6-1-)77. ~ 199\1.)"1""'" J}OO.I. U........ S«i"';,, tb.A.anu • ..JM~ U......... A' ...
_ _ 1986.1'd1q< mol Produ<,1oft in "'" Amu.oo>. A V;"'- ""-ch .... Co..;!", of .... ,/xMrJ;,.".__ Eo..,..•• ..,1 M _ _ «Ii.«I by 1(.IlulI.. b>n<!N. R-ruorin,
lJc.raIi &.in. r....... hnL 'u..IJA~ 18,1l1-2"-. 47_70.~, c",.«" FO. Hdlmk Smd;a ..... HMYUd Un .....;.,.".,.,

~ .. ~Iaub_Goe..,.Ardoc .... fronu.~l86olll - I)I .

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Jlwh_ T""I"'"_
';",nI;,rd..,.S.G ...... uodS.~_
F.<poon. R. B. 1983. ~_ ..... 1laLrrui_ EIdwio&< OIl "" Nor di ..... c-... In

~
n..~<{Po/;&J~;,,~~_ ,I'I7'I "' ...
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c./r...,""", Eo .. _ . «Ii«d
I .. , .

Did,'" I). N.• C. G. Mr.. 9..1(. Ba.-on....d G. H. D<>ran. 1981. ""Orbi ..1 Root...d UJ ... by 11.. B. F.~,...".. 1_81. 0rUnd0, A..d.mi< P.....
fh<tu", from <he £"/1 A.. ~.i< of HorMl •. j'u","" <IPm.,..,J..J.o 2, 16'_170. ~ InOb. A Ilo-......... ion of II>< c...r.. of North ...... eo....
W.. £. ... In U""P""
D" hM........ P. M. 1m.. F""I""...d F......... in W,,,·c. .. r>l Ad... I" 1/• • "";,, T....".. Col""".""/ &_""".,.• dl .. J by R. B. ~""'" 267-llll. O.w.do, A<><km;';
J~. "'i«<l by M. Zv<kM 121_ m .. c.mbnde<' c-.hridF \.I"_r "'-. "-
~ 1!n6b. The u.. M<ooIirIIi< 0IId "'" T" " _ <0 Food 1'100""",,, In E..um E.o. ~ 19'Kl Blood of"'" \.c.iodo.vr, _ ..... COlI ... , >n<! ",uf_1n An,..""ia.A-n,
top<. In 1I"~rI'" T....-.edloodby ~1. Z........ J09-120. c.ml>ncIp,~ 00>< E' 'l"" 17{Z), m _U7.
UooJ...,.;ty p"",. ~ 1912. Tribol ~s-.+ "-'-"
266(1), lOll_II}.
~ 1"'- W... ...d I'no:... M _ E.orop<.In._U:..Jo..'~ ~ 191'\' _ WodoioCo1lid<,11><CoI-bion ~ ill Global "" ..... 0"'-
~n.o, _ by.J. c..m....on.J A. ~ 73 ..... Phoorni. 101 .... UI(, Sunon _f'<>rq IO(I),I- Il.
Publi<ll"" Ltd. - - - . 19'H.11>< G.....,. c-..um<..
"(W, r. An AtnHonI..,Pmpo<,;... ill s...J,-
D....... 11.. 191.J. Th.1AJ -I"-lI> ••u.4s<: ~;. Ilftr-p..~"" tb. ~~,., IV II;'" .f.....,.••• ,;.,.lP"',..,;_
ed,"" by S. P.Il<p •• ...1 11.. L Down.. IS-ilL
1m lI.e J>rin«"'." J>ri.",on UnN""i.,. 1'=0. ~"'" rA , G9rJon ....J B.. ock.
Oro. O. W02. W.uf.« in <he P""o/,I"""" Sooth.. ". lWO_1700 In S",...o c...tArIT ~ 1m.. YA""....,.,' 1141<": A I'r>IJlit.1 11""'7. 5""" fe. NM, Sch<><>1 of A."tlnn
..
• ..J C«",i<s: A~.J Pm~,_ <IN PnHohUt4ri< S-rhuJl. t<!"t<! by C. /I. ~.-
W.-...J M. A. It«.. 116_141. T""'....... , Un~;,( AJ.ho..,. Pm.. ---. ~!nfn.tn><fWal o.«"";nkm. In Stin.«.loWtrlAii' ... . ..J... St-9<{GJ.
Oyoon.JL H. 1981.1'>tod.p a......, in doc Snody of do< Indo. Cml~. in 1M,.. ......
" ..,«lim! by M. F. Morphy ..... M. MugnlH. .!.l-J&. c.w..w., ~ ""'"' of
,... c-& "a..1 C-,.,.,..,..,"'s-
Ddh;, o.Ioed ..... IRH I I'IoW ....
1'mf«-. <dim! byG. L .......... IS_~lt. N.w
~ I'l'n Vdmoe...d Il'JooIn ........,.,.In TnrJJ.JT_: V.w-uJWMjm",
 tIN Hut. ,dil<d b:o O. L. M.rcin ...d l), W. Fa ,..,. 311- 3SS, l=ghom'. PA, G<>«Ion
...d8",.. h,
~ 19'98. Wh,,,,,,. H'l'P'n<d '0 ,h< S""", I\g<! $,«l Tool ..... YUIOn',rn, Hi"oo '
<Ill Erok>gy, In A""""",
in H~",;,'" £ubg. <di,<d by w. IW". 287-312. New Yo,k,
CoIwnoo Un ; '~"i'y Prt ...
~ 1m. A P=<ligm fo< tho S,ody ofW",...d S<><"'1' In lV., ~!i«in] in A.dnr,
.m.J .If";;,"", 1I'Mk . AsiA, tIN MtJ;",."",,~1t, E""'!<, ..JM_ _ _. , N ;t<d J:., K.
R,.lhub .... N. Ros<ru«in, 389_£7. W""inf!""" D.C. """ Cambtidg.-' C.n", fu,
H,Ii<nk Srudi«. di"ribut<d by HuvuJ Un;.""i'y l'r=
~ woo. A s....g.- I'.ocount"" W,",m Con ... , .",j ,h< Y,no""m i w.,. C<:><npk<. In
lV., ;" tIN Tn"'l L.m,-, £'f,mJi"t $t4t",mJ '.dip",,,, 1I~,fon, (S<r:ood rr""il'lf,),
<dit«! J:., R.. S, p,rgtl""" . nd N.1. Whi'<h<>d. 19'9_127. s.."" 1'<. NM, School of
Am<,k,n !I.e,u uh Pt< ...
~ 1001. 10.000 YUH of T"hlll W.,fu,. 11M p .....1 _ I ,,,. In"'~ ,.,,;'""
8 (Jp. 4-S.
- - . 2003. 1""<"h,,,ion, Violtnt Coo~j" ,nd Control of ,f!< S" ... In 1IN SI"".Id",.
"'" .m.J Violma, PoI;ri<ol o;,;"'P"'u . ;" tIN Po.t·C.u II;'" UIJ./J. <dit<d by R., B,
mgu"'". I_I%. Nt ... YotI' R,oo,kd&<.
~ 2001, TtiboL ·Ethnk; and GIobIll Wm. ln 1IN~-I&..I,,"t GJ.l../C..•
}lim. , dit<J b:o M, fi t2dulf litd C. $'OUL w"tport. CT, Pr"'S"
l'<'I\u""" R. II" ..;,h I. E- Forngt.". 1981l- 1h<A""'~'IW"': A ~, N<..-
Yo<" 1", H",y FWik G"8I!,ni><int fuunJ..,;" n.
I'<'guoon. R.. B.. >oJ N. l. Whl«h<>od («l iro<<J. 2000. w.o, i. lh< TM..l Z'n', &p.md.
i"l S",m .n.i fnJilP"" w.,,ju-t (St<ond prin'ing "ith ..... ""faa). Sur .. F,. NM ,
Schoc.l of Am<,k .. Ro"",h Pt< ...
",,,,• .,.1• • C .... ro, M. C. 19'9S. I..... in f',rl,w,ry. o.fon/, abck..d L
Fornando.-J. h Y, 1- C. Ok •• I. ~...,;lJ. ~U. 1999. H"""'n o."" ihill ;rm in d' e
ofH"""", E""._
Early Pki"""''' of Europe (G 'an Dolin•. Si<m. doe A"PU<"'L ~ Sp>in).J>.",'"
37 ,191_622.
F,mn. A. 198~. tht O>-;fi., oflt;.,., Fr.",,.. S,-, Ag< ,."I=mJ" tb. G"",. N.... Yorl,
Th>"", .nd Hod,.,n.
Fiu.. P. R., ,"d S. K. Fioh . 1989. Hohobm W.rf." from • R,gion>! P<r<p«ti'<, In CJ·
to",;" C""j/i(t .. C."..~, A"h~i<.1 /'mpH';"'" , dttod b:o D. C. lb<.uk and B. C.
\'jvj .... 112_129. c..Jp'Y' Th< Univ<ni!)' ofc..Jgary A~ A..",UOOn.
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